Unit 1

MatterAnything that has mass and volume

Classified into 2 categoriesPure Substance Sometimes just referred to as substancesMixturesHeatEnergy transferred from one object to another, usually because of a temperature difference

Measured in Joules (J)

Heat flows from hot to cold

Atomic TheoriesDaltons Atomic ModelAlso called Hard Sphere ModelFirst model

Plum Pudding ModelUniform positive sphere with negatively charged electrons embedded within.Came as a result of discovery of electron

Matter

Pure SubstancesElementsimplest form of matter that has a unique set of properties.Cant be broken down by chemical means

Compoundssubstance of two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportionCan be broken down by chemical means

MixturesPhysical blend of two or more substances

Two Types:HomogeneousComposition is uniform throughout

HeterogeneousComposition is not uniform throughout

Separating MixturesMixtures can be separated based on their physical propertiesBoiling Pt, Freezing Pt, Density, Molecular Polarity, Particle Size

Process ExamplesFiltering, Distillation, Evaporation, Crystallization, Chromatography, Desalination, ExtractionBackProperties (Table S)Atomic RadiusSize of the atom

Ionic RadiusSize of an ionPositive ions are smaller than neutral atomLost electron(s)Negative ions are larger than neutral atomGained electron(s)

BondingOctet RuleAtoms tend to lose or gain electrons to achieve a full valence shell (8)Exceptions H (0,2) and He (2)

Two Main Types of CompoundsIonicMolecular (Covalent)

Determining FormulasMust be electrically neutralTotal positive charge must equal total negative chargeUse oxidation numbers from Periodic Table and Table E (Polyatomic ions)Group 1 +1Group 2 +2Group 13 +3Group 15 -3Group 16 -2Group 17 -1Molecular PolarityPolar Moleculeone end of a molecule is slightly negative(-) and the other end is slightly positive(+).Asymmetrical charge distribution

Nonpolar MoleculeCan not be separated into different endsSymmetrical charge distributionIntermolecular ForcesIntermolecular Forces of Attractionattraction between two molecules or ions that hold them together (not a bond)

Determines melting and boiling points of compoundsStronger intermolecular forces, higher melting and boiling pointsNaming IonsPositive Ions, cations, simply retain their name.Na+ Sodium IonMg2+ Magnesium Ion

Negative Ions, anions, change ending of element to ideCl- Chloride IonBr- Bromide Ion

Organic ChemistryStudy of carbon-based compounds

Carbon has 4 valence electronsCarbon always forms 4 covalent bonds

Carbon compounds form chains and/or ringsFunctional GroupsSpecific arrangement of atoms that give compounds a unique propertyTable R

ExamplesHydroxyl Group, -OHCarbonyl Group, O C Organic ReactionsSaponificationFermentationCombustionAdditionSubstitutionPolymerization (2 types)EsterificationBackStoichiometryBalance reactionCopy coefficients from reaction into ratio rowPlace numbers from question in row above ratio row (Setting up proportion)Solve for X using a proportionMorePhasesHeat EquationsHeating CurvesGas LawsSolutions/SolubilityMolarity/ConcentrationAcids & BasesNeutralization/Titration

Reaction RatesEquilibriumLeChateliers PrinciplePotential Energy DiagramsReduction OxidationElectrochemical CellsHydrocarbonsFunctional GroupsOrganic Reactions

BACKAtomic TheoriesRutherford ModelDense positive core (nucleus)Electrons moving randomly around nucleus

Bohr ModelDense positive core (nucleus)Electrons in specified circular paths, called energy levels

Atomic TheoriesWave Mechanical ModelDense positive core (nucleus)Electrons in orbitalsRegions of space where there is a high probability of finding an electronModern (current) ModelAKA Quantum Mechanical Model, Electron Cloud ModelBackEnergy Level TransitionsEnergy released forms emission spectra

BackRadiationThree Types

RadiationWhat it resemblesMassChargeStrengthAlphaHelium Nucleus4+2WeakestBetaElectron0-1MiddleGammaLight wave00StrongestSymbols

AlphaGammaBeta

TransmutationsAny reaction where one element is transformed into a different elementNuclear Reactions

NaturalHas one reactantAlpha and Beta Decay

ArtificialHas more than one reactantParticle Accelerators

Radioactive DecayRadioisotopes will undergo decay reactions to become more stable

Alpha Decay

Beta Decay

RadioisotopesYou must know these radioisotopes and usesI-131 - Diagnosing and treating thyroid disordersCo-60 - Treating cancerC-14 - Dating once-living organismsCompared to C-12U-238 - Dating geologic formationsCompared to Pb-206

BackHalf Life Equations

t = total amount of time elapsedT = half-life

Mass LeftOriginal Mass=

FractionRemainingExampleHow many half lives does it take for a sample of C-14 to be 11430 yrs old?

ExampleWhat fraction of P-32 is left after 42.84days?

ExampleHow long will a sample of Rn-222 take to decay down to 1/4 of the original sample?

7.646dPracticeHow much Carbon-14 was originally in a sample that contains 4g of C-14 and is 17145 years old?

32gMore PracticeHow much 226Ra will be left in a sample that is 4797 years old, if it initially contained 408g?

51gAnd One More.What is the half life of a sample that started with 144g and has only 9g left after 28days?

7dBackFusionJoining of two or more smaller pieces to make a larger pieceSun, StarsExamples

Energy ProductionEnergy is produced by a small amount of mass being converted to energyThis happens in both fission and fusionMore energy is produced by fusion than any other source

E=mc2

Fission vs. FusionAdvantages of FissionProduces a lot of energy

Disadvantages of FissionExposure to radiationProduces material with long half life

Fission vs. FusionAdvantages of FusionProduces more energy than fission

Disadvantages of FusionHave not been able to sustain stable reaction for energy production

BackGroup NamesGroup 1 - Alkali MetalsGroup 2 - Alkaline earth metalsGroup 17 HalogensGroup 18 - Inert or Noble gasesGroups 3-11 Transition MetalsBottom 2 rows Inner Transition

Phases at STPMost elements are solids at STP

Hg and Br are liquids at STP

H, N, O, F, Cl and Noble Gases are all gases at STPClassifying ElementsMetals Left and MiddleNonmetals RightMetalloids - Staircase

MetalloidsB, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te

Have properties of both metals and nonmetals, based on conditions

Exceptions:Al and Po are metalsAt is a nonmetal

Diatomic ElementsEight elements are diatomic molecules when alone in nature (exist as two atoms bonded together)H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, At2Hydrogen and the Magic 7

BackProperties (Table S)First Ionization EnergyAmount of energy required to remove the outermost electron

ElectronegativityAbility of an atom to attract an electron from another atom when in a compound. Noble gases are omitted, dont form compounds

Periodic Table TrendsAtomic Number increases across a period.increases down a group

Atomic Mass generally increases across a period.increases down a group.

Periodic Table TrendsAtomic RadiusDecreases across a periodIncreases down a group

Ionic RadiusDecreases for positive/negative ions across a periodIncreases down a group

Periodic Table TrendsFirst Ionization EnergyTends to increase across a periodTends to decrease down a group

Electronegativity Tends to increase across a periodTends to decrease down a group

Metallic/Nonmetallic CharacterMetallic Character increases as you move towards the lower leftMost Metallic Element is Francium, Fr

Non-Metallic Character increases as you move towards upper rightMost nonmetallic element is Fluorine, F

61Trends SummaryPropertyPeriod (LR)Group (TB)Atomic NumberAtomic MassAtomic RadiusIonic RadiusIonization EnergyElectronegativityBackBondsShared or exchanged electrons that hold two atoms together

CovalentElectrons are shared

Ionic BondElectrons are transferred

Metallichighly mobile valence electrons65Determining Bond TypeBond type is based on electronegativity difference (EN) between two bonding atoms

Nonpolar Covalent Bond2 of the same nonmetals

Polar Covalent Bond2 different nonmetals

Ionic BondMetal and a nonmetalMore than 2 elements (polyatomic ion)

Determining Bond PolarityThe larger the difference in electronegativity, the more polar the bond.Which is more polar?

HIHBrHClHF1.81.00.80.5ENBiggestMost PolarPolyatomicsCompounds with polyatomic ions contain BOTH ionic and covalent bondsExample: NaNO3Na+-NOOOMetallic BondingBonding within metallic samples is due to highly mobile valence electronsFree flowing valence electronsSea of ElectronsOne Metal

Electron Dot StructuresDiagrams that show valence electrons, usually as dotsIons must have a chargeONa+F-Covalent MoleculesH2

O2

N2

HHOONNNCovalent MoleculesH2O

HCl

NH3

OHHHClNHNHHHCovalent MoleculesCH4

CO2

CHHHHO=C=OBackDetermining FormulasDetermine number of each ion to balance out chargeUse as subscript for element symbolEx: CaCl2, Na3PO4, Mg(NO3)2Write Positive Ion First

Formula must be smallest whole-number ratio

ExampleCalcium and Fluorine

CaF2Ca+2F-F-Ca1F2Criss-Cross MethodMagnesium and Phosphate

Mg+2PO4-3Mg3(PO4)2Criss-Cross MethodMagnesium and Carbonate

Mg2(CO3)2Mg+2CO3-2MgCO3Must SimplifyBackPolar MoleculesH2O

HCl

NH3

OHH-++HCl+-NH-+++NHHHNonpolar ExamplesCH4

CO2

CHHHH+-+++O=C=O+--PolarityIonic Compounds are Ionic

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds always indicate Nonpolar Molecules

Polar Covalent BondsDetermine SymmetryPolarityNonpolar MoleculesCH4, CO2, H2, N2, O2,

Polar MoleculesH2O, HCl, HBr, NH3, BackIntermolecular ForcesVan der WaalsDispersionDipole-DipoleMolecule-IonHydrogen BondingWeakestStrongestHydrogen BondingHydrogen bonded to N, O, or F, is attracted to the N, O, or F of another molecule.Not actual bond, just attractionHFHFHydrogen BondBackPolyatomic IonsSelected polyatomic ions are on Table E in the Reference Tables.

Polyatomic ions keep their names in most chemical namesException: AcidsNaming SystemsIonic SystemMetals and Nonmetal, more than 2 elements

Stock System (Roman Numerals)Use when the metal element has more than one positive oxidation numberRoman Numeral is the charge of the metal ion

Binary Covalent System (Prefixes)2 nonmetals (including metalloids)Second element ends in ide

Naming Ionic CompoundsName positive ion first, then negative ion.NaCl Sodium chlorideMg(OH)2 Magnesium hydroxideStock System ExampleSnCl4

Tin(IV) ChlorideSnClClClCl-1-1-1-1+4+4-4Roman NumeralsCation ChargeRoman Numeral+1I+2II+3III+4IV+5V+6VI+7VII+8VIIIBinary Covalent ExampleN2Cl3Dinitrogen Trichloride

CO2Carbon Dioxide

PCl5Phosphorus PentachloridePrefixesNumber of atomsPrefix1mono-2di-3tri-4tetra-5penta-6hexa-7hepta-8octa-BackGram Formula MassMass of the formula in g/molSimply add the atomic masses of each element in the formula together

H2O = 1 + 1 + 16 = 18 g/molAlso known as gram atomic mass, gram molecular mass, molar massMole - Mass ConversionExample: 96 g of Oxygen gas = ? mol

PracticeHow many moles are there in 506g of ethanol, C2H6O?

What is the mass of 8 moles of CCl4?

1232g CCl411 mol C2H6OMolar VolumeAt STP, 1 mol of any gas occupies 22.4L of spaceMole Road Map

BackPercent CompositionWhat is the percent composition of oxygen in H2SO3?

58.5%

HydratesCompounds that have a specific number of water molecules attached

Dot means plus (+)CuSO45H2OEmpirical FormulaSimplest Whole-Number ratio of atoms in a compoundExamplesC6H12O6CH2O

Molecular Formula is a multiple of the Empirical Formula

Empirical FormulaA molecular formula has an empirical formula of CH2 and a molecular mass of 28 g/mol.

A molecular formula has an empirical formula of CH2 and a molecular mass of 42 g/mol.

C2H4C3H6BackBalancing ReactionsReactions must maintain conservation of mass, charge, and energy

Reactants and Products must have the same number of atoms of each element2H2 + O2 2H2O

Reactants must have the same total charge as ProductsCu+1 + Fe+3 Cu+2 + Fe+2

Balancing ReactionsTo balance a reaction:Do NOT change chemistry (compounds, subscripts)Only change coefficients (big numbers in front of chemicals)Coefficients can only be whole numbers2H2 + O2 2H2O

Balancing Reactions4Na + O2 2Na2O

2Al + 3Br2 2AlBr3

4Ni + 3O2 2Ni2O3

2HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2OBackReaction TypesSingle ReplacementReactants - Element and Compound Metal replaces metal, nonmetal replace nonmetalZn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2

Double ReplacementReactants 2 compoundsFront pieces trade placesAgNO3 + NaCl NaNO3 + AgCl

Spontaneous ReactionsA single replacement reaction will only occur if:The single element in the reactants is more active than the element it replaces in the compoundUse Reference Table JThe more active element:Does not want to be aloneWants to be combined with someone else

Spontaneous ReactionsA double replacement reaction will only occur if:A precipitate (solid) is producedUse Reference Table FA liquid is producedH2O(l)BackChemical ExampleHow many moles of NH3 can be made with 6 moles H2 and excess N2?

ratio1326XamountX = 4 mol NH3=Conservation of EnergyReactions must maintain conservation of energyEnergy term written in reaction

Endo/ExothermicEndothermic Energy is absorbedEnergy term is on the left side

Exothermic Energy is releasedEnergy term is on the right side

Treat just like a coefficientExample

How much energy is produced when 6 moles H2 reacts with excess N2?ratio1326Xamount91.8X =183.6 kJBackLiquids (l)form of matter that has a definite volume, indefinite shape, and flows.Takes shape of container

In liquids the atoms or molecules are able to slide past each other.

In liquids there are intermolecular attractions between the atoms or molecules, which determine the liquids physical properties.Gases (g)form of matter that does not have a definite shape or volume

takes both the shape and volume of its container

Phase ChangesSix ChangesSolid LiquidMeltingLiquid SolidFreezingLiquid GasVaporizationGas LiquidCondensationSolid GasSublimationGas SolidDeposition

Temperature remains CONSTANT during a phase changeEnergyTemperature DefinitionAverage Kinetic Energy

As temperature increases, particle motion speeds up (increasing Kinetic Energy)

During a phase change Potential Energy changesPressureNumber of collisions between particles and container walls

Vapor PressurePressure exerted by vapor that has evaporated and remains above a liquidAs temperature increases, vapor pressure increasesTable H

BackHeat EquationsUse when temperature changes

Use during Phase changes

Use for Solid Liquid orLiquid SolidUse for Liquid Gas orGas LiquidHeat Equation Constants (Table B)Specific Heat Capacity, C4.18 J/(gK) for liquid waterUnique for each phase of each substance

Heat of Fusion334 J/K (melting and freezing)

Heat of Vaporization2260 J/K (vaporizing or condensing)ExampleHow much energy is required to raise the temperature of 50g of water from 5C to 50C?

q = mCTq= (50g) (4.18J/gK) (45C)q= 9405 J

ExampleHow much energy is needed to vaporize 10g of water at 100C?q = mHvq = (10g) (2260J/g)q = 22600 J

BackHeating CurvesDiagonal lines are phasesHorizontal lines are phase changesTime (s)Temp (C)GasLiquidSolidHeating CurvesDiagonal lines are phasesHorizontal lines are phase changesTime (s)Temp (C)VaporizationCondensationMeltingFreezingBackKinetic Molecular TheoryThe particles in a gas are constantly moving in rapid, random, straight-line motion.Gas particles have no volume compared to the volume of the gas.No attraction between particlesAll collisions are completely elasticGas Laws

*Temperature must be in KelvinRelationshipsVPnVTVTPExampleThe pressure of a 25 L sample is changed from 2 atm to 0.4 atm. What is the new volume of the gas?

P1V1 = P2V2(2atm)(25L) = (0.4atm)V2V2 = 125 L

ExampleA gas at 5atm is heated and compressed from 10L at 100K to 5L at 200K. What is the new pressure?

Avogadros LawEqual volumes of gas at the same Temperature and Pressure have the same number of particles

At the same temperature and pressure, which sample contains the same number of moles of particles as 1 liter of O2(g)?(1) 1 L Ne(g) (3) 0.5 L SO2(g)(2) 2 L N2(g) (4) 4 L H2O(g)

Ideal GasesIdeal Gases follow assumptions of the Kinetic Molecular Theory

When do real gases act most like an ideal gas?High TemperatureLow Pressure

When do real gases act least like an ideal gas?Low TemperatureHigh PressureBackSolubilityHow much can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent

SolubleSolute will dissolve in solvent

InsolubleSolute will not dissolve in solvent

Temperatureincreasing temperature increases solubility of solids and liquids in other solids and liquids

decreasing temperature increases solubility of gases in liquids Ex: Cold soda is fizzyPressureIncreasing partial pressure of gas above liquid increases solubility of the gas in the liquid

ExampleSoda BottlesChemical NatureLike dissolves Like

Polar and ionic substances will dissolve in polar solvents

Nonpolar substances will dissolve in nonpolar solventsTypes of SolutionSaturatedmaximum amount of solute for a given quantity of solventAt EquilibriumUnsaturatedcontains less than the maximum amount of soluteSupersaturatedContains more solute than it can theoretically holdSolution TypesSaturatedOn the line

UnsaturatedUnder the line

SupersaturatedAbove the line

ElectrolytesCompounds that conduct an electrical current when dissolved or in a molten state (melted)

Ionic compoundsNaCl, KNO3, HClColligative Properties of SolutionsAdding more solute particles to pure solvent decreases vapor pressure

Adding more solute particles to pure solvent increases boiling point

Adding more solute particles to pure solvent decreases freezing point

Number of ParticlesWhen a covalent compound dissolves the compound stays intact.

When an ionic compound dissociates the compound splits into its ions.

More particles, larger change in property

BackMolarity ExampleWhat is the molarity of 2 moles of glucose dissolved in 5 Liters of solution?Molarity = Moles of Solute Liters of Solution

ExampleHow many moles of HCl are dissolved in 4L of a 3M solution of HCl?Molarity = Moles of Solute Liters of Solution

Percent CompositionPercent Comp = Part x 100% Whole

By mass %(m/m)Usually used for solid - solid solutions

By Volume %(v/v)Usually used for liquid - liquid solutions(m/m) ExampleA solution contains 80g of NH4Cl in a 1000g solution, what is the percent by mass composition of this solution?

(v/v) ExampleA solution contains 60 mL of NH3 in a 1 Liter solution, what is the percent by volume composition of this solution?

ExampleHow much of a 5%(v/v) solution of HCl will contain 200mL of HCl?Percent Comp = Part x 100% Whole

Parts Per Million (ppm)Used for very small concentrations

ppm = grams of solute x 1,000,000 grams of solution

Units = ppmppm exampleA 2 kg bar of silver contains 0.05 g of gold, what is the parts per million concentration of gold in the silver bar?

25 ppm AuBackAcid-Base TheoriesBronsted-LowryAcidHydrogen ion donor

BaseHydrogen ion acceptor

Acid-Base TheoryArrheniusBronsted-LowryLewispHAcidic SolutionspH < 7.0[H+] > 1.0 x 10-7

Neutral solutionpH = 7[H+] = 1.0 x 10-7

Basic SolutionspH > 7.0[H+] < 1.0 x 10-7

Changes in pHpH increases by 1 for every decrease in [H+] by a magnitude of 10

BackTitrationProcess in which a volume of solution known concentration is used to determine the concentration of another solution

Usually shown by a color change of an indicator (end point)

Titration Example2 Liters of an unknown conc. of NaOH is titrated with 1 Liter of 6M HCl, what is the concentration of the base?

MAVA = MBVB (6M) * (1L) = (X) * (2L) X =3M NaOHPolyprotic AcidsAcids that have more than one HExamples:H2SO4, H3PO4

[H2SO4] = 1M[H+] = 2M

MAVA (#of Hs)= MBVB (# of OHs)Another Titration Example500 milliliters of an unknown conc. of Ca(OH)2 is titrated with 1 Liter of 1M H3PO4, what is the concentration of the base?

MAVA = MBVB (1M) (1L) (3) = (X) (0.5L) (2) X = 3M Ca(OH)2BackFactors Affecting Reaction RatesTemperatureIncreasing temperature, particles move faster, more collisions

Concentrationincreasing concentration, more particles, more collisions

Surface Areaincreasing surface area, more effective collisions

Catalystthe presence of a catalyst will often increase reaction rateCatalysts are not used up during a reaction

Affect of a CatalystProvides an alternate pathway for the reaction to proceedDecreases activation energyIncreases reaction rateEnergyReaction ProcessWithout CatalystWith CatalystEntropyMeasure of randomness or disorder

Systems in nature tend to undergo changes towards lower energy and higher entropyThe universe is lazy and disorganized

Increasing EntropySolid Liquid GasSolid Dissolved

BackEquilibriumSaturated SolutionSolid in equilibrium with dissolved particles

BackStresses against Dynamic EquilibriumAdding or removing a reactant/productAdding will shift equilibrium away from that sideRemoving will shift equilibrium towards that side

Change in temperatureSame as adding removing a reactant/productUse energy term (energy, heat, or # kJ)

Change in pressureIncreasing pressure shifts equilibrium towards the side with least number of moles of gasBackExothermic ReactionReaction ProcessEnergyEAHPEProductsPEReactantsEndothermic ReactionEnergyReaction ProcessEAHPEProductsPEReactantsBackRedox ReactionZn + CuSO4 Cu + ZnSO4

One element loses electrons (oxidation)One element gains electrons (reduction)All other ions are spectatorsNet Ionic EquationShows only the ions involved in the redox reaction, not spectator ionsStill shows conservation of mass and charge

Zn + CuSO4 Cu + ZnSO4

Zn + Cu+2 Cu + Zn+2

Half ReactionsOnly shows one element and how many electrons are gained or lostZn + CuSO4 Cu + ZnSO4

Zn Zn+2 + 2e-Oxidation

Cu2+ + 2e- CuReductionBalancing ReactionsThe number of electrons lost must equal the number of electrons gained

Example:Zn + Na2SO4 2Na + ZnSO4Zn Zn+2 + 2e-2(Na+ + e- Na)

Spontaneous ReactionsMore active element does not want to be aloneTable J

Metal being oxidized must be ABOVE metal being reduced for spontaneous reactions to occur

Nonmetal being reduced must be ABOVE nonmetal being oxidized for spontaneous reactions to occur

BackElectrochemical CellsElectrode solid metal conductor in an electrical circuit that carries electrons to or from another substance.

Cathode electrode where reduction takes place (RED CAT)Anode electrode where oxidation takes place (AN OX)Electrochemical Cell ComponentsSalt BridgeAllows for the passage of ions, not electrons

SwitchDevice that opens(turns off) and closes(turns on) circuitVoltaic CellFlow of electrons is spontaneous

Chemical energy is converted to electrical energy

Examples: BatteriesElectrolysisProcess in which electrical energy is converted to chemical energy

Example:2H2O 2H2 + O2Electrolytic CellsElectrons are pushed by an outside power source

Electrical energy is converted to chemical energy (electricity causes chemical change)

Examples: Electroplating, ElectropolishingVoltaic Cell

Electrolytic Cell

Voltaic or Electrolytic?

Voltaic or Electrolytic?

BackHydrocarbonsMolecule or compound composed of carbon and hydrogen only

Three Main TypesAlkanes, Alkenes, AlkynesAlkanesAll single CC bonds H H H H H H C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H C C C C H H H H H H H H H C C C H H H HC5H12C4H10C3H8General FormulaCnH2n+2AlkenesAt least one double C=C bond H H H H H H C C C C= C H H H H H H H H H C C C= C H H H H H H H C C= C H H C5H10C4H8C3H6General FormulaCnH2nAlkynesAt least one triple CC bonds H H H H C C C C C H H H H H H H C C C C H H H H H C C C H H C5H8C4H6C3H4General FormulaCnH2n-2Homologous SeriesGroup of compounds with similar structure and functionTable Q

Alkane Homologous Series H H H H H H C C C C C H H H H H H C5H12 H H H H H C C C C H H H H HC4H10 H H H H C C C H H H HC3H8 H H H C C H H H C2H6 H H C H H CH4 H H H H H H H C C C C C C H H H H H H HC6H14Alkene Homologous Series H H H H H H C C C C= C H H H H C5H10 H H H H H C C C= C H H H C4H8 H H H H C C= C H H C3H6 H H H C= C HC2H4 H H H H H H H C C C C C= C H H H H H C6H12Alkyne Homologous Series H H H H C C C C C H H H H C5H8 H H H C C C C H H H C4H6 H H C C C H H C3H4 H C C HC2H2 H H H H H C C C C C C H H H H H C6H10Saturated vs. UnsaturatedSaturated HydrocarbonsContain only single Carbon to Carbon bonds (Alkanes)

Unsaturated HydrocarbonsContains at least one multiple (double, triple) Carbon to Carbon bondAlkenes and Alkynes

Naming Simple HydrocarbonsName is based on two partsNumber of carbons in longest continuous chain (Table P)Type of bonds between carbonsSingle aneDouble eneTriple yne

ExamplesButane

Pentane H H H H H C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H C C C C C H H H H H H Alkenes and AlkynesName includes location of multiple bondCarbons numbered to give multiple bond the lowest possible number

1-butyne2-butyne H H H C C C C H H H H H H C C C C H H H Condensed Structural FormulaShows who is bonded to who, without the actual bonds

H H H H C C= C H H H H H H C C C H H H H

Branched HydrocarbonsAlkyl GroupHydrocarbon branchBranch name ends with -ylLocation of branch is indicated by numberNumber carbons to give lowest possible numberMultiple bond still takes priority in numbering

Examples3-Methyl Pentane

2-Methyl 1-Butene H H CH3 H H H C C C C C H H H H H H H H C H H CH2 H H C C= C H H IsomersTwo or more compounds with the same chemical formulas, but different structural formulas and propertiesDifferent Names H H H H H H C C C C C H H H H H H H H CH3 H H C C C C H H H H HPentaneMethyl ButaneC5H12 H CH3 H H C C C H H CH3 H 2,2-Dimethyl PropaneBackHalidesHalogen attached to a carbonPrefix indicates which halogenTable R# for which carbon halogen is attachedMultiple bonds still take priority in numbering H H Cl H H C C C C H H H H H2-Chlorobutane Br H H H C C= C H H 3-BromopropeneCH3CH2CHClCH3CH2BrCHCH2AlcoholHydroxyl group (-OH) attached to a carbon# for which alcohol group is attachedName ends in olMultiple bonds still take priority in numbering

H H H H HO C C C C H H H H H1-Butanol3-Hexanol H H H H H H H C C C C C C H H H H OH H HCH3CH2CH2CH2OHCH3CH2CH2CHOHCH2CH3AldehydeCarbonyl group at end of chainName ends with alCondensed structural formula ends with -CHO O C H H H O H C C C H H H PropanalCH3CH2CHO H H H H O H C C C C C H H H H HPentanalCH3CH2CH2CH2CHOKetonesCarbonyl group not on end of chainNumber indicates which carbon the oxygen is attached toName ends with oneCondensed structural formula has -CO- in it

O C H O H H C C C H H H PropanoneCH3COCH3 H O H H H H C C C C C H H H H H2-PentanoneCH3COCH2CH2CH3AmineNitrogen attached to a carbonNumber indicates which carbon the nitrogen is attached toName ends in amineMultiple bonds still take priority in numbering H H H H H2N C C C C H H H H H1-Butanamine3-Hexanamine H H H H H H H C C C C C C H H H H NH2 H HCH3CH2CH2CH2NH2CH3CH2CH2CHNH2CH2CH3AmideCarbonyl group with an amine group attached to itMust be on an endName ends in -amide O H C N H H H O H C C C NH2 H H PropanamideCH3CH2CONH2 H H H H O H C C C C C NH2 H H H HPentanamideCH3CH2CH2CH2CONH2Organic AcidCarbonyl group with a hydroxyl group attached to itMust be on an endName ends in oic acidCondensed structural formula ends with -COOHHydroxyl H is the acidic H O C O H H O H C C OH H Ethanoic AcidCH3COOH H H H O H C C C C OH H H H Butanoic AcidCH3CH2CH2COOHEtherSingle oxygen between 2 carbon chainsName each carbon chainButyl Ethyl Ether H H H H H H H C C C C O C C H H H H H H H H H H H H C CO C C H H H H HDiethyl EtherCH3CH2OCH2CH3CH3CH2CH2CH2OCH2CH3EsterCarbonyl group with single oxygen between carbon chainsName in two parts1st Branch off oxygen first as alkyl group2nd Chain containing Carbonyl groupEnding in oate

O C O H O H H C O C C H H H Methyl EthanoateCH3COOCH3 Ethyl Butanoate H H H O H H H C C C C O C C H H H H H HCH3CH2CH2COOCH2CH3BackOrganic ReactionsSaponificationProduction of Soap

FermentationProduction of ethanol and CO2 from sugarC6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2CombustionComplete Combustion of a HydrocarbonCxHy + O2 CO2 + H2O

Example:C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2OAdditionAddition of a halogen onto an alkene or alkyne

Br Br Br Br H C= C H + ClCl H C C H Cl Cl Br Br H C C H + BrBr H C= C H SubstitutionSubstitution of one halogen in place of a hydrogen on an alkane H H H H H C C H + ClCl H C C H + H Cl H H H Cl H H Br H H C C H + BrBr H C C H + H Br H Cl H ClPolymerizationConnecting of smaller pieces into a long repeating chainPlastics, starches, nylon

Two types:AdditionCondensation

-(C2H4)n-Addition PolymerizationDouble or triple bonds break to connect pieces together H H H H H H H H CC + CC CCC C H H H H H H H H nCondensation PolymerizationRemoval of water is used to link pieces together H H H H H H H H HO CCOH + H O CCOH HOCCOCCOH + H2O H H H H H H H HEsterificationProduction of an Ester from an alcohol and acidAlcohol + Acid Ester + Water H O H O H C O H + H O C H H C O C H + H2O H H