Reference Notes

CHAPTER 1

I. Stephen F. Mason, A History ofthe Seiences. New York: Macmillan, 1962, p. 53. 2. Bertrand RusselI, A History ofWestern Philosophy. New York: Simon & Schuster,

1972, p. 146. 3. Mason, op. eit., p. 53. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid., p. 52. 6. Arthur Berry, A Short History of Astronomy. New York: Dover, 1961, pp. 40-4l. 7. Morris Kline, Mathematics and the Physical World. New York: Dover, 1959, p. 92. 8. W. W. Rouse Ball, A Short Account of the History of Mathematics. New York:

Dover, 1960, pp. 87-88. 9. Morris Kline, Mathematics in Western Culture. London: Oxford University Press,

1953, pp. 72-73. 10. Berry, op. eit., p. 61.

CHAPTER 3

I. J. L. E. Dreyer, A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler. New York: Dover, 1953, p. 308.

2. J. D. Bemal, Seien ce in History. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985, pp. 407-408. 3. Quoted in James R. Newman, The World of Mathematics. New York: Simon &

Schuster, 1956, p. 221. 4. Dreyer, op. eit., p. 373. 5. Ibid., p. 375. 6. Newman, op. eit., p. 225. 7. Ibid., pp. 229-230. 8. Ibid., p. 231.

377

378 REFERENCE NOTES

9. Ibid., p. 232. 10. Ibid., p. 233.

CHAPTER 10

I. Many of the details in this biography are drawn from: James R. Newman, "James Clerk Maxwell," Seientifie American (June 1955). See also L. Campbell and W. Garnett, The Life of James Clerk Maxwell. London, 1882, 2nd ed.; J. J. Thomson, James Clerk Maxwell 1831-1931. Cambridge, 1931; J. G. Crowther, British Seientists of the Nineteenth Century, London, 1932; R. V. Jones, "James Clerk Maxwell at Aberdeen 1856-1860," in Notes and Reeords. Royal Soeiety of London, 28 (1973), 57-81.

2. Max Planck, Seientifie Autobiography. New York: Philosophical Library, p. 14. 3. Planck, op. eit., p. 19. 4. See Max Born, Obituary Notiees of Fellows ofthe Royal Soeiety, 6, 1948, pp. 161-

180. 5. Planck, op. eit., p. 45.

CHAPTER 11

I. This biography is drawn from several sources including: K. A. Strand, "Ejnar Hertz­sprung," Dietionary of Seientifie Biography. New York: Scribner's, Vol. 6, 1972, pp. 350-353; Axel V. Nielsen, "Ejnar Hertzsprung-Measurer of Stars," Sky and Teleseope, 35 (January 1968),4-6; A. J. Wesselink, "Ejnar Hertzsprung, " Quarterly Journal ofthe Royal Astronomical Soeiety, 9 (1968),337-341.

2. Much of this biographical material is drawn from: Bruce C. Cogan, "Henry Norris RusselI," Dietionary of Seientifie Biography. New York: Scribner's, Vol. 12, 1975, pp. 17-23; F. M. J. Stratton, Biographical Memoirs ofthe Royal Soeiety, 3 (1957), 173-191; Harlow Shapley, Biographical Memoirs. National Aeademy of Seiences, 32 (1958), 354-378.

CHAPTER 14

I. A. Vibert Douglas, "Arthur Stanley Eddington," Dietionary ofSeientifie Biography. New York: Scribner's, Vol. 4,1971, p. 278.

CHAPTER 17

I. Several books provided useful information for this biography including: Angus Ar­mitage, William Hersehel. London, 1962; J. B. Sidgwick, William Hersehel. London, 1953; M. A. Hoskin, William Hersehel, Pioneer of Sidereal Astronomy. London, 1953.

REFERENCE NOTES 379

2. Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Biographical Dictionary of Science and Technology. New York: Doubleday, 2nd ed., 1982, p. 808.

3. Ibid. 4. Some valuable materials about Harlow Shapley's life include: Bart J. Bok, "Harlow

Shapley, Cosmographer," American Scholar, 40 (1971), 470-474; H udson Hoagland, "Harlow Shapley-Some Recollections," Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 77 (1965), 422-430; Kirtley Mather, "Harlow Shapley, Man of the World," American Scholar, 40 (1971), 475-481.

CHAPTER 18

I. This biography is based on: G. J. Whitrow, "Edwin Powell Hubble," Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York: Scribner's, Vol. 6,1972, pp. 528-533; N. U. MayalI, "Edwin Hubble-Observational Cosmologist," Sky and Telescope, 13 (1954), 78-85; H. P. Robertson, "Edwin Powell Hubble: 1889-1953," Publications ofthe As­tronomical Society ofthe Pacific, 66 (1954), 120-125.

CHAPTER 19

I. This biography is based on A. Deprit's "Monsignor Georges Lemaitre," which ap­peared in A. Berger's The Big Bang and Georges Lemaftre. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel, 1984, pp. 363-392.

Index

Absolute temperature scaIe, 156 Absorption lines

described, 177 spectral c1asses of stars, 175 sunlight spectrum, 131

Absorption spectrum described, 176-177 stars and, 178 star surface temperature and, 179-181

Acceleration general theory of relativity, 87 mass and, 85 planetary motion and, 47-51

Adams, John, 118 Adams, W. S., 106, 192 Addison, Joseph, 175 Alchemy, 45-46 Anderson, Carl, 215, 360 Andrade, E. N. da C., 45 Angular momentum, 34-35, 39 Anne (q. of England), 46 Antimatter, 216 Apparent variable stars, 274 Archimedes, 9 Aristarchus of Samos, 9-10, 12, 26, 27 Aristotle, 31, 32, 44 Armstrong, Neil, 20 Asteroid belt, 112-113 Astrology, 31, 32 Atmosphere

Earth' s, 4-6 Jupiter, 114, 115, 119 Mars, 110-111, 112 Mercury, 101-103

Atmosphere (Cant.) meteors and, 127-128 moon, 18-19 Saturn, 121 stars, 175-176, 191-192, 194,216-222 sun, 131-133 Venus, 105, 106-107

Atomic bomb, 79-80, 200 Atomic structure, 193-222

Bohr and, 200-205 electrical charges and, 194 electromagnetic theory and, 195-196 electrons, 194-195 electron spin and, 207-208 hydrogen atom, 197 neutron, 206-207 periodic chart of elements, 205-206 photons and, 214-215 planetary model of, 195 positron, 215-216 protons, 195

381

stellar spectra and, 216-222 wave theory and, 208-209, 212-214

Atomic weapons, 79-80, 200 Atomic weight, 206-207 Atoms, 177-178

Baade, Walter, 277-278, 329-330, 336, 337

Background radiation, 364-365 Balfour, A. J., 129 Barrow, Isaac, 42, 43 Bayer, J., 274 Bell, S. J., 285

382

Bessel, F. W., 140 Beta rays, 207 Biela's Comet, 124-125 Big bang theory

described, 364-365 star formation, 255

Binomial theorem, 43 Blackbody radiation

cosmology, 364 Planck and, 168 stars and, 172-173 wave theory of light, 163-165

Black hole cosmology, 368 general theory of relativity, 269-271 X-ray astronomy, 290

Bohr, Niels, 77, 169, 196-205 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 159, 168, 211 Bondi, H., 363 Born, Max, 77,170,212 Bottomley, Gordon, 25 Brahe, Tycho, 30-31, 35, 39, 40, 108,

283 Bright li ne spectrum: see Emission

(bright line) spectrum Bronte, Emily, 351 Byron, Lord, 273

Caesar, Julius, 13 Calculus, 43 Calendar, 13 Carbon cycle

luminosity, 252 stellar interiors, 250

Cassini, G. D., 117 Cavendish, Henry, 159-160 Centrifugal force, 8 Chadwick, James, 197, 206 Charlier, H. L. V., 335 Christoffei, E. B., 91 Chromosphere (sun), 132 Clausius, Rudolf, 152, 167 Clocks, 95-96 Cluster-type variable stars, 278 Collins, T. A., 285 Color (stars), 144-146 Columbus, Christopher, 1,3 Comets, 123-126 Compton, Arthur, 360 Conservation of energy principle

heat, 148 planetary motions and, 33-34

Continents, 6-7

INDEX

Contraction stars, 253-254 Convective zone, 250 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 10, 12, 26-29, 33,

39, 351 Corona (solar), 132 Corpuscle theory, 156 Cosmology, 351-376

big bang theory, 367-368 curvature of the universe, 366-367 dark matter, 374, 375-376 density of matter, 365-366, 373-374 Einstein and, 373 evolution of universe, 368-376 expanding universe and, 354, 362-363 general theory of relativity and, 353-

354 initial singularity problem, 373 life forms and, 352 recession of galaxies and, 355-358 steady-state theory, 363-364 sun and, 351-352

Coulomb's law, 195 Curie, Irene, 206 Curie, Marie, 74 Curtis, Herbert, 322 Curvature, 89-90

Dark holes, 349 Dark matter, 374, 375-376 Davisson, C. J., 209 De Broglie, Louis, 77, 208-209 Delambre, J. B. J., 12 Descartes, Rene, 42 De Sitter, Wilhelm, 240, 354, 359 Deuteron, 243 Dicke, R. H., 364 Dirac, P. A. M., 77, 215-216 Doppler effect

novas, 282 recession of galaxies and, 355 variable stars, 275

Duhalde, Oscar, 291 Dunharn, T., 106 Dust: see Interplanetary dust, Interstellar

dust Dynamical parallaxes, 232

Earth, 1-13 ancient measurements of, 1-3 atmosphere of, 4-6 axis of, 12 continental formations, 6-7 distance from sun, 33

Earth (Cont.) formation of, 6 life on, 1, 352 orbit of, 9-10 rotation of, 7-9, 22-23 shape of, 3-4, 8 space views of, 3-4 sun's energy and, 130-131

Eclipse lunar, 16 solar, 93-94, 238-239

Eddington, Arthur, 76, 193,238-241, 321,357,359-360

Einstein, Albert, 43, 70-80, 85, 86, 87, 135, 166, 168, 169, 171, 172, 184, 196, 199,201,208,210,211,240, 353, 354

Electromagnetic theory atomic structure, 195-1% proof, 171

INDEX 383

Faraday, Michael, 69, 158, 159, 194, 210 Fireballs, 127 First law of thermodynamics, 149-150;

see also Second law of thermodynamics

Force, 47-51 Fraunhofer, J., 131 Fraunhofer Iines: see Absorption lines Fresnel, Augustin, 156 Friedmann, Alaksandr, 357

Galaxies, 327-349 clusters, 343-344 collisions between, 346-347 distances of, 329, 334-335, 355-357 distribution of, 327-328, 344-345 evolution of, 338-339 expanding uni verse theory and, 348 Hubble and, 332-336 quasars, 341-343

special theory of relativity and, 69-70 radio astronomy, 345-346 radio galaxy, 339-341 recession of, 355-358 shapes of, 330-332 structure of, 336-338

Electron absorption spectrum, 177-178 atomic structure and, 200-205 Dirac theory, 215-216 discovery of, 194-195 light theory and, 171-172 positron and, 215-216 wave theory, 209

Electron spin, 207-208 Elements

atomic structure and, 205-206 earth's formation, 6 planetary properties, 100-101

Elliot, James, 118 Elliptical orbit

electrons, 201-202 planetary motion, 35-38

Emission (bright line) spectrum, 176 Encke's Comet, 124 Energy

organization, 150-151 planetary motion and, 33-34, 39 stellar interiors, 241-242 sun, 130-131, 134-137

Entropy: see Second law of thermodynamics

Eratosthenes, 1-3 Euclidean geometry, 90 Expanding universe theory, 348, 354,

362-365

Fabricius, David, 274 Falling stars: see Interplanetary dust

Galen, 44 Galileo, 42, 140, 210, 297 Galle, J. G., 118 Gamma radiation, 194 Gamow, G., 363, 364 Gases

atomic structure, 205-206 emission spectrum, 176 Maxwell and, 158

Gauss, Karl, 89,91, 158 General theory of relativity, 85-97, 240

acceleration and, 87 black holes, 269-271 celestial mechanics and, %-97 cosmology and, 353-354 curvature, 89-90 gravity and, 85-86 mathematics and, 90-92 principles of equivalence and, 87-88 publication of, 75 results of, 92-97 theoretical confirmation of, 76 See also Relativity theory, Special

theory of relativity Geography

earth,6-7 moon, 19-21

Geometry, 94-95

384 INDEX

George III (k. of England), 296 Germer, L. H., 209 Gibbs, Josiah Willard, 167 Globular clusters, 319-320, 323-325 Gold, T., 363 Goodrieke, John, 275 Goudsmit, 207, 215 Gravity

eosmology and, 354 eurvature and, 89-90 dark matter, 374 Earth's atmosphere and, 5-6 general theory of relativity and, 93 inertial mass and, 87 interplanetary, 58-60 moon's, 17, 18,21-23 Newton's law of, 47-58 planetary motion and, 40-41 principle of equivalenee and, 87-88 relativity and, 85-86 star formation, 253 stellar masses, 229-230, 234 sun's orbit, 130 time and, 96 See also Law of gravity

Gray, Thomas, 233 Gregory XIII (pope), 13

Haber, Fritz, 170 Haie, George, 321, 332 Halley, Edmond, 43, 44-45 Halley's Comet, 124, 125-126 Hartmann, J. F., 309 Hasenöhrl, Fritz, 211 Heat

Earth's formation, 6 first law of thermodynamics, 149-150 seeond law of thermodynamics,

150-153 stars, 147 temperature and, 148-149

Heisenberg, Wemer, 77, 214-215 Heisenberg uneertainty principle, 368 Helium

atmosphere and, 5 star content, 249

Helium flash, 258-259 Heimholtz, H. L. F., 167, 168 Hersehel, Sir John, 329 Hersehel, William, 118, 295-298, 329 Hertz, Heinrich, 160, 171 Hertzsprung, E., 182, 183-185,231

Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram, 182-192, 230, 256, 257, 262, 264-265

Hewish, A., 285 Hipparehus, 10-11, 12,26 Hitler, Adolf, 78, 79, 170, 199, 213 Hooke, Robert, 41, 44 Hopkins, William, 157 Hoyle, F., 363 H-R diagram: see Hertzsprung-Russell

(H-R) diagram Hubble, Edwin, 322-323, 332-336, 338,

354-355, 365 Hubble's law, 342, 349, 356 Humason, 355, 356 Huygens, Christian, 44, 156 Hydrogen

atmosphere and, 5 atomic strueture, 203 star content, 249 sun, 251

Inertial mass, 87; see also Mass, Stellar mass

Initial singularity problem, 373 Interplanetary dust, 126-127 Interstellar dust, 304-307, 312-314 Intrinsic variable stars, 274 Ionization

stellar interiors, 236 stellar mass, 223-224 variable stars, 279-280

James 11 (k. of England), 46 Jansky, Karl, 311 Jeans, James, 370-371 Joliot, Fr~d~rie, 206 Jordan, 215 Jupiter

aneient observations, 25, 26 atmosphere, 5 distanee from sun, 33 Kepler and, 30 planetary properties of, 113-117 satellites of, 119-120 sun's orbit and, 130

Kant, Immanuel, 327, 328, 372 Kapteyn, J. C., 301, 318 Keats, John, 147 Kelvin, Lord, 152 Kepler, Johannes, 28, 29-32, 35-41, 54,

62, 92, 108, 229 Kinetie energy, 34

Kirsehhoff, 167 Kohlsehütter, Amold, 192 Kraft, R., 282 Kramers, Henriek, 214 Kramers opacity formula, 238 Kundt, August, 168

Lamb, Charles, 65 Laplaee, Pierre Simon, 372 Law of gravity

general theory of relativity, 91-93 relativity theory, 85 See also Gravity

Laws of motion atomie strueture, 195 Newton's, 41-58 planets and, 32-38

Leavitt, Henrietta S., 184, 276 Leibnitz, Gottfried, 41 Lemaitre, Georges, 357, 358-362 Leverrier, Urbain, 118 Life

eosmology, 352 Earth, 1

Light eleetromagnetic theory of, 171 general theory of relativity and 94 theories of, 156 ' wave theory of, 160-165

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 249 Longomontanus, 108 Long-period variable stars, 274-275 Lorentz, H. A., 71, 74 Luminosity

earbon eycle, 252 stars, 142-144 star temperature, 172-173 stellar masses, 231-232 sun, 265-266 variable stars, 274-275

Magellan, F., 1,276 Magellanie star c1ouds, 276 Magnetie fields, 133-134 Magnetosphere, 121 Marlowe, Christopher, 99 Mars

a~eient observations of, 25, 26 dlstanee from sun, 33 Kepler and, 31-32 orbit of, 39 planetary properties of, 108-112

INDEX

Mass aeeeleration and, 85 asteroids and, 113

385

gen~ral theory of relativity and, 75, 86 Juplter, 114 planetary motion and, 47-51 planetary properties and, 100 star formation, 253 stars, 144 stellar energy produetion, 241-247 sun and, 129-130 See also Stellar mass

Matter, 369-376 Maxwell, James Clerk, 69, 70, 156-165,

171, 195-196,209,210 MeCarthy, Joseph, 323 Mendeleev, D. 1., 205-206 Mereury

aneient observations of, 25, 26 distanee from sun, 33 general theory of relativity and 96-97 orbit of, 60 ' properties of, 101-104

Mesons, 243 Messier, Charles, 297, 328 Meteor, 19-20 Meteorite, 127-128 Miehelson, Albert A., 70, 228 Miehelson-Morleyexperiment 71 Milky Way, 140, 190,281,295':'325

distribution of stars in, 295 Earth's position in, 300-302 globular clusters, 319-321, 323-325 Hersehel and, 297-298 interstellar dust, 304-305, 306-307

312-314 ' interstellar gas c1ouds, 309-310 luminosity of stars in, 306 nebulas, 308-309 open clusters, 307-308 organie moleeules, 314 radio astronomy, 310-312 rotational movement of, 317-319 stellar motions, 298-300 strueture of, 302-304, 305, 315-317 sun and, 307 supemovas, 283

MiIIikan, R. A., 195 Millis, Robert, 118 Milton, John, 15 Moleeular weights, 236-237, 251 Moon, 15-23

atmosphere and, 18-19

386 INDEX

Moon (Cont.) density of, 19 distance from earth, 15 geography of, 19-21 mass of, 17-18 orbit of, 16 phases of, 15-16 rotation of, 16-17 size of, 17 temperature on, 17

Morley, E. W., 70 Müller, Herman, 166

Navara, Domenico, 27 Nebu1as, 308-309 Neptune

distance from sun, 33 planetary properties of, 117-118

Nemst, Walther, 74 Neutrino, 244, 246, 292 Neutron, 206-207 Neutron star, 287-288 Newton, Sir Isaac, 21, 29, 39, 41-58, 76,

85,92, 131, 139, 156, 195,210,214 Novas, 280-285

Oort, J. H., 317, 318-319, 338 Oort Cloud, 125 Opacity, 237-238 Optics

Maxwell, 158 Newton, 43-44 telescope, 296

Organic molecules, 314 Organization

energy, 150-151 time and, 153

Ostwald, Wilhelm, 168

Parallax determination of, 190-191 dynamical parallaxes, 232

Pauli, W., 208 Pendulum, 8-9, 148, 149 Penzias, Amo, 360, 363 Perfect gases, 154-156: see also Gases Periodic chart of elements, 205-206 Period-luminosity curve, 277-278 Perturbations, 59-60 Photoelectric effect, 77, 168, 171 Photon

atomic structure and, 214-215 nature of, 172 wave theory of light, 166

Piazzi, G., 112 Pilkington, J. 0., 285 Planck, Max, 74, 76, 159, 165-171, 172,

197,201,207,208,209,210,211, 342,364

Planetary motion, 65 Planetary nebulas, 267-268 Planetary properties, 99-121

asteroid belt, 112-113 diameter of planets, 100 inner/outer planets, 99-100 J upiter, 113-117 Mars, 108-112 mass, 100 mean densities of, 100-101 Mercury, 101-104 Neptune, 117-118 Pluto, 118-119 rotational speed, 101 satellites, 101 Satum, 117, 120-121 space probes and, 99-100, 119-121 Uranus, 117-118, 121 Venus, 104-107

Planets, 25-63 ancient observations of, 25-29 angular momentum and, 34-35 cosmology, 371-372 elliptical orbits, 35-38 energy and, 33-34 interplanetary gravity, 58-60 Kepler and, 29-32, 35-41, 54 laws of motion of, 32-38 Newton's law of gravity and, 51-58 Newton's laws of motion and, 41-58 perturbations, 59-60 physics and, 60-63 sun's orbit and, 130

Plato, 2 Plutarch, 9 Pluto

distance from sun, 33 planetary properties of, 118-119

Pope, Alexander, 1 Positron, 215-216 Potential energy, 34 Pressure, 155-156 Principle of complementarity, 199 Principle of equivalence

general theory of relativity and, 87-88 results of, 92

Proton-proton chain, 244, 245, 246, 254-256

INDEX 387

Protons, 195 Protostars, 254-255 Ptolemy, 10-11, 12,26,28, 142 Ptolemy III (p. of Egypt), 3 Pulsars, 285-288

Quantum mechanics, 77-78 Quantum number, 202-203 Quantum theory

blackbody radiation, 169 Einstein and, 171 Planck and, 165-166 principle of complementarity and, 199 relativity theory and, 240

Quantum theory of radiation, 159 Quarks, 369 Quasars, 341-343

Radiation absorption spectrum and, 180-181 big bang theory, 369 conceptions of, 156 expanding universe theory, 363-364 stellar interiors, 234-235 stellar spectra, 194 sun's 134-137 wave theory of light, 160-165

Radioactivity, 6, 7 Radio astronomy

cosmology, 363 Milky Way, 304, 310-312

Radio galaxy, 339-341 Radio waves, 177 Relativity theory

gravity and, 85-86 quantum theory and, 240 See also General theory of relativity,

Special theory of relativity Riemann, Georg, 90, 91 Riemannian geometry, 78 Robertson, 357 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 79 Rotation

Earth's, 7-9 Mercury, 103 moon, 16-17 Venus, 104-105

Rotational motion: see Angular momentum

Rotational speed, 101 RusselI, Henry Norris, 182, 185-186,

321, 359 Rutherford, Ernest, 74, 195, 196, 197

Satellites (artificial): see Space probes Satellites (natural)

Jupiter, 116-117, 119-120 Mars, 112 planetary properties, 101 Saturn, 121 See also Moon

Saturn ancient observations of, 25, 26 atmosphere of, 5 distance from sun, 33 Kepler and, 30 planetary properties of, 117, 120-121

Schrödinger, Erwin, 77, 169, 170,209-214, 215

Schwarzschild, Kar!, 91, 184,270-271, 359

Schwarzschild, Martin, 252 Scott, P. F., 285 Season, 12-13 Second law of thermodynamics

heat and, 150-153 time and, 152-153

Seyfert, earl, 340-341 Shakespeare, William, 123 Shapley, Har!ow, 276-277, 320-323, 359 Shelley, P. B., 327 Shooting stars: see Interplanetary dust Short-period variable stars, 275-276 Sitter, Wilhelm de: see De Sitter Slipher, V. M., 354 Smith,296 Solar eclipse, 93-94, 238-239 Solar flares, 133 Solar system: see Earth, Moon, entries

under Planet, names of planets Solar wind, 124, 128 Space and time

absolute view of, 80 Gaussian method and, 90-91 relativity view of, 80-83 special theory of relativity and, 67-68 See also Time

Space probes comets, 125-126 inner planets, 101-102 planetary properties, 99-100, 119-121

Special theory of relativity, 65-83 different observers and, 65-66 electromagnetic theory of light, 69-70 planetary motion and, 65 space and time, 67-68 transformation equations, 66-70

388 INDEX

Special theory of relativity (Cont.) See also General theory of relativity,

Relativity theory Spectral analysis, 278-279 Spectral classification

described, 178 guiding principle in, 178-181

Spectrum absorption spectrum, 176-177 emission (bright line) spectrum, 176 sunlight, 131

Speed of light constancy of, 71 electromagnetic theory of light and, 70

Spenser, Edmund, 139 Spin quantum number, 207-208 Spiral nebulas, 327, 328; see also

Galaxies Stars

absorption spectrum, 176-177, 178 atmospheres of, 175-176, 191-192,

194, 216-222 blackbody radiation, 165 colors of, 144-146 deep interiors of, 233-247; see also

Stellar interiors distances of, 139-142, 190 engineering metaphor, 249 evolution of, 253, 255-271 groupings of, 295 heat of, 147 Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram,

182-192 hydrogen/helium content, 249 luminosities of, 142-144 motions of, 298-300 physics and, 61-62 spectral classes of, 175-192 structure of, 249-255 sun and, 139 temperature scales for, 153-154 temperatures of, 147-148, 172-174 variable stars, 273-293 wave theory of light and, 163 See also Sun, entries under Stellar

Steady-state theory, 363-364 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 164, 173 Stellar interiors, 233-247

carbon cycle and, 250 convective zones, 250 dynamical equilibrium, 233, 234 Eddington and, 239-241 molecular weights, 236-237, 251

Stellar interiors (Cont.) opacity formula, 237-238 radiation flow, 234-235 rate of energy generation, 241-247 steady thermal state, 233, 234 temperatures, 250 total flow of energy, 235

Stellar mass, 223-232 engineering analogy, 224-225 gravitational interactions, 229-230 ionization and, 223-224 luminosity and, 231-232 radii determination, 226-229 variation in, 223, 230-231

Stellar spectra atomic structure and, 193-222 radiation and, 194

Sun, 129-137 age of, 265 atmosphere of, 131-133 comets and, 124 cosmology and, 351-352, 371-372 distance from Earth, 129 energy of, 130-131, 134-137 gravity of, 22 hydrogen abundance in, 251 luminosity of, 265-266 magnetic fields of, 133-134 Milky Way and, 307 orbit of, 130 physical description of, 129-130 planetary orbits and, 32-33 radii determination, 226 size of, 10 stars and, 139

Sunspots, 133, 134 Supernovas, 283-285, 287, 290-293 Synodic period, 33 Szilard, Leo, 70

Taylor's Comet, 125 Telescope, 296-297; see also Radio

astronomy Temperature

concept of, 148 heat and, 148-149 stars, 172-174,250

Temperature scales absolute, 156 perfect gases, 154-156 stars and, 153-154

Tensor calculus, 90-91

INDEX

Theory of relativity: see General theory of relativity, Relativity theory, Special theory of relativity

Thermal radiation: see Blackbody radiation

Thermodynamics, 167; see also First law of thermodynamies, Second law of thermodynamies

Thomson, J. J., 197 Thomson, Sir Joseph, 194 Thomson, William, 159 Tides, 21-23 Time

organization and, 153 second law of thermodynamies and,

152-153 transformation equation, 71 See also Space and time

Time flow, 216 Tolman, R. C., 357 Tombaugh, C., 119 Transformation equations

Einstein and, 70-71 electromagnetic theory of light, 69 special theory of relativity and, 66-70

Transverse velocity , 299-300 Trigonometry

development of, 2, 11 star parallax determination by, 190

Ultraviolet catastrophe, 165 Uncertainty principle, 215 Uranus

discovery of, 296 distance from sun, 33 planetary properties of, 117-118, 121

Uhlenbeck, G. E., 207, 215

Variable stars, 273-293 cluster-type variables, 278 defined, 273 intrinsie variable stars, 274 ionization zones, 279-280 long-period variables, 274-275 magnitudes, 276-277 Mira, 274-275

Variable stars (Cont.) neutron star, 287-288 novas, 280-285 period-Iuminosity curve, 277-278 pulsars, 285-288 pulsations, 279, 280 short-period variables, 275-276 spectral analysis, 278-279 supernova SN1987A, 290-293 X-ray sourees, 288-290

Vaughan, Henry, 295 Velocity

planetary motion and, 47-51 stellar motion, 299-300

Venus ancient observations of, 25, 26 distance from sun, 33 planetary properties of, 104-107

Volcanic activity atmosphere and, 5 Mars, 109, 110 Mercury, 104 moon, 19, 20, 21

Von Bezold, Wilhelm, 168 Von Laue, Max, 211

Wave theory atomic structure, 208-209 described, 160-165 photoelectric efTect, 171 radiation, 156 Schrödinger, 212-214

Weizmann, Chaim, 80 White dwarf star, 267-268, 282 Wien, Wilhelm, 211 Wien's displacement law, 165, 173 Wilson, Robert W., 360, 363 Wright, Thomas, 327, 328

X-ray astronomy, 288-290

Yeats, W. B., 223 Young, Thomas, 156

Zeeman lines, 202 Zodiacallight, 128

389