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Words
themselves do
not refer to
anything,
people refer.
PRAGMATICS: REFERENCE AND INFERENCEREFERENCE AND INFERENCE
By:
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar
http://www.kau.edu.sa/SBANJER
http://wwwdrshadiabanjar.blogspot.com
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 1
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The words we use to identify things
are in some direct relationship to
those things. In discussing deixis, we
assumed that the use of words to assumed that the use of words to
refer to people and things was a
simple matter. However, words
themselves don’t refer to anything.
People refer.Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 2
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Reference is an act in
which a speaker, or
writer, uses linguistic
forms to enable a forms to enable a
listener, or reader, to
identify something.Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 3
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Linguistic forms
referring expressions
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referring
expressions
(1)
proper
nouns
(2)
definite (4)
pronouns
The
categories
of referring
expressions
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 5
expressions definite
nouns
(3)
indefinite
nouns
pronouns
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These linguistic forms are called :
referring expressions.
They can be:
(a)proper nouns:
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 6
‘HillaryClinton’‘Cairo’
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(b) noun phrases (definite):
referring expressions can be:
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 7
‘The city’ ‘the Secretary of State’
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referring expressions can be:
(c) noun phrases (indefinite):
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 8
‘A woman’‘A place’
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referring expressions can be:
(d) pronouns:
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 9
‘She, her’‘It’
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• The choice of one type of
referring expression rather
than another seems to be
based, to a large extent, on based, to a large extent, on
what the speaker assumes
the listener already knows.
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•Reference is clearly
tied to the speaker’s
goals and beliefs in goals and beliefs in
the use of language.
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It is important to recognize that not all
referring expressions have identifiable
physical referents. Indefinite noun phrases
can be used to identify a physically present
entity, but they can also be used to describe
entities that are assumed to exist, but are
unknown, or entities that, as far as we know,
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 12
Yule
unknown, or entities that, as far as we know,
do not exist.
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Examples:
a) There's a man waiting for you.
b) He wants to marry a woman with lots b) He wants to marry a woman with lots
of money.
c) We'd love to find a nine-foot-tall
basketball player
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Attributive use / referential use
• a man waiting for you
• a woman with lots of money
• a nine-foot-tall basketball player
• This is sometimes called an attributive
use, meaning 'whoever/whatever fits use, meaning 'whoever/whatever fits
the description'.
• It would be distinct from a referential use: a
specific person is referred to, although his/her
name or some other description is not used.
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For successful referencereference to
occur, we must also
recognize the role of
inferenceinference..
What are What are inferencesinferences??
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Inferring is connecting
prior knowledge to text
based information to
create meaning beyond create meaning beyond
what is directly stated.
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The role of inference in
communication is to allow the
listener to identify correctly which
particular entity the speaker is
referring to. We can even use vague referring to. We can even use vague
expressions relying on the listener’s
ability to infer what is the referent
that we have in mind.
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• Listeners make inferencesinferences
about what is said in order
to arrive at an interpretation
of the speaker’s intended
meaning. The choice of one meaning. The choice of one
type of referring expression
rather than another seems
to be based on what the
speaker assumes the listener
already knows.Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 18
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• Words themselves don’t refer to
anything. PeoplePeople refer.
• Because there is no direct
relationship between entities and
words, the listener’s task is to inferwords, the listener’s task is to infer
which entity the speaker intends to
identify by using a particular
expression:
Mister Aftershave is late today.Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 19
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• “Mr. Kawasaki.”Used to refer to a
man who alwaysrode loud and
• “Can I look at your Chomsky?”
“I enjoy listening to Mozart.”
This process, where
Reference & Inference
rode loud andfast in hismotorcycle. Abrand name isused torefer to aperson here.
This process, whereadditional information is needed to connect what is said to what is meant, is inference.
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• "In reference there is a
basic collaboration at work:
• ‘intention-to-identify’ and • ‘intention-to-identify’ and
• 'recognition-of-intention’.
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Collaboration
• This process needs not only work
between one speaker and one
listener; it appears to work, in
terms of convention, between all terms of convention, between all
members of a community
who share a common language
and culture.
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“Our ability to identify
intended referents has
actually depended on
The Role of Co-text
actually depended on
more than our
understanding of the
referring expression". Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 23
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Identifying intended referents
has been aided by the
linguistic material, or co-text,
accompanying the referring
expression. The referring expression. The referring
expression actually provides a
range of reference, that is, a
number of possible referents. Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 24
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• In the examples below, the referring
expression 'cheese sandwich‘
provides a number of possible
referents. However, the different co-
texts lead to a different type of
interpretation in each case. interpretation in each case.
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 25
a)Cheese sandwich is made with
white bread.
b)The cheese sandwich left without
paying.
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The co-text is just a linguistic part
of the environment in which a
referring expression is used. The
physical environment, or context,
is perhaps more easily recognized is perhaps more easily recognized
as having a powerful impact on
how referring expressions are to
be interpreted.
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Reference, then, is not simply a
relationship between the meaning
of a word or phrase and an object
or a person in the world. It is a
social act, in which the speaker social act, in which the speaker
assumes that the word or phrase
chosen to identify an object or
a person will be interpreted as the
speaker intended.
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In English, initial reference is
often indefinite. The definite
noun phrases and the pronouns
are examples of subsequent
reference to already introduced reference to already introduced
referents, generally known as
anaphoric reference, or
anaphora. Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 28
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• The initial referring expression 'six
potatoes' identifies something different
Example:
Peel and slice six potatoes.
Put them in cold salted water.
potatoes' identifies something different
from the anaphoric pronoun 'them', which
must be interpreted as 'the six peeled and
sliced potatoes”.
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Anaphoric reference
After the initial introduction of some
entity, speakers will use various
expressions to maintain reference:
“In the film, a man and a woman were “In the film, a man and a woman were
trying to wash a cat. The man was
holding the cat while the woman
poured water on it. He said something
to her and they started laughing”.
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Anaphor and antecedent
• In English, initial reference,, orintroductory mention, is often indefinite(a man, a woman, a cat). In the examplethe definite noun phrases (the man, thecat, the woman) and the pronouns (it,cat, the woman) and the pronouns (it,he, her, they) are examples ofsubsequent reference to alreadyintroduced referents, generally knownas anaphoric reference, or anaphora.
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In technical terms, the second
or subsequent expression is the
anaphor anaphor and the initial is the
antecedentantecedent:
•• a a man man →→→→→→→→ the man the man →→→→→→→→ hehe
•• a woman a woman →→→→→→→→ the woman the woman →→→→→→→→sheshe
•• he + she he + she →→→→→→→→ theythey
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When the interpretation requires us
to identify an entity, and no
linguistic expression is presented, it
is called zero anaphora, or ellipsis.
“Peel an onion and slice it. Drop the
slices into hot oil. Cook for three
minutes.”
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Zero anaphora, or ellipsis
Cook for three minutes.
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Zero anaphora or ellipsis
• The use of zero anaphora clearly creates
an expectation that the listener will be
able to infer who or what the speaker
intends to identify:intends to identify:
• 1. Peel an onion and slice it.
• 2. Drop the slices into hot oil.
• 3. Cook ∅∅∅∅ for three minutes.
• ∅∅∅∅ = ‘slices’, ‘them’.
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"the key to making sense of reference
is that pragmatic process whereby
speakers select linguistic expressions
with the intention of identifying
certain entities and with the
assumption that listeners will assumption that listeners will
collaborate and interpret those
expressions as the speaker
intended".
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“Successful reference means that
an intention was recognized, via
inference, indicating a kind of inference, indicating a kind of
shared knowledge and hence
social connection”
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Successful reference is necessarily
collaborative (‘shared knowledge’).
It allows us to make sense of the
following sentences:following sentences:
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 38
Picasso’s on the far wall.
My Rolling Stones is missing.
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Any observation of normal conversational
behavior makes it immediately clear that
people never say exactly what they mean,
and people always infer more than what
was said. The question becomes, how are
we able to accomplish this? How do we we able to accomplish this? How do we
manage to say so little yet communicate
so much? How do we communicate in
spite of a language’s limitations?
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Example:
A: Have you seen my Yule?
B: Yeah, it is on the desk.
Inference – any additional Inference – any additional
information use by the listener
to connect what is said to
what must be meant .
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Inference
• The key process here is called Inference, it is an additional information used by the listeners to connect what is said to what must be meant . In the previous example, the listener has to infer that name of the writer of a book has to infer that name of the writer of a book can be used to identify a book by that writer. Similar type of inferences are necessary t to understand some who says that Picasso is in the museum or I saw Shakespeare in Londonor I enjoy listening to Mozart.
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The examples of inference
• (1) a. Where is the fresh salad sitting?
• b. He’s sitting by the door.
• (2) a. Can I look at your Shakespeare?
• b. Sure, it’s on the shelf over there.• b. Sure, it’s on the shelf over there.
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Three-dimensional diagram
• Speakers------ reference------ intention
• Listeners------ inference------ interpretation
• Sense---reference---referent
• Word---meaning---entity• Word---meaning---entity
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Logical understanding between reference
and inference
• These examples make it clear that we can use names associated with things (salad) to refer to people and names of people (Shakespeare) to refer to things. The key process here is called inference. An inference is any additional information used by the hearer to is any additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what must be meant. In example (2), the hearer has to infer that the name of the writer of a book can be used to identify a book by that writer. In pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.
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Examples of referential and attributive
uses
a. There’s a man waiting for you.
b. He wants to marry a woman
with lots of money.with lots of money.
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Anaphora
• Anaphora is a subsequent reference to an already introduced entity. Mostly we use anaphora in a text to maintain reference. When we establish a referent( e.g. can I borrow your book?) and subsequently referee to the same object( yeah, it’s on the referee to the same object( yeah, it’s on the table) , we have particular kind of referential relationship between book and it. The Second ( and any subsequent ) referring expression is an example of anaphora and the first mentioned is called the “ antecedent”
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• As with other types of reference, the connection
between referent and anaphora may not always be
direct. For example, In a complaint” I was waiting
for the bus, but he just drove by without stopping”
Notice that antecedent is bus and he anaphoric
expression is “ he” we would normally expect it to
be used for a bus. Obviously there is an inference be used for a bus. Obviously there is an inference
involved here: if someone is taking about a bus in
motion , assume that there is a drive. That assumed
driver is inferred referent for “ he” .The term “
inference ‘ has been used here to describe what the
listener or reader) does.
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Anaphora (Anaphoric reference)
• In most of our talk and writing, we have to
keep track of who or what we are talking
about for more than one sentence at a time,
we use .we use .
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A: Can I borrow your dictionary?
B: Yean, it’s on the table.
• Here, word refers back to the
word dictionary. The previous
word is called the word is called the
antecedent ,and the second
word is called the anaphor or
anaphoric expression.
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Antecedent & Anaphora
A:“Can I borrow your book?”B:“Yes, it’s on the
and have a referential relationship. The first mention is called the
table.”mention is called the antecedent.The second and any subsequent reference is called the anaphora.
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I turned the corner and almost stepped on it.
There was a large snake in the middle of the
path.
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Indirect anaphora or bridging reference
I walked into the room. The windows looked out to the bay.
︱ ︱Antecedent anaphor
︱︱Indirect anaphora or bridging reference
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Successful reference means that an
intention was recognized, via
inference, indicating a kind of shared
knowledge and hence social
connection.connection.
Remember that:
• Pragmatics is the study of how moremore
gets communicated than is said.
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HAVE A NICE DAY!
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar 54