NaNcy O’BrieN WagNer

in france during World War I

Red Cross Women

awfully Busy These Days

Spring 2012 25

In early November 1918, Marion BackuswasstationedasanurseinVillers-Daucourt,France,nearthefrontlines.Tocelebratetheru-morsofanarmistice,theFrenchandAmericansoldiers“gotdrunkand...wild,”shewrote.Mar-ionchoseinsteadtotakealongwalkwithafriend,

andasshereturned,justbeforemidnight,shewasstruckbythesightofherhospitalandthenearbycemeterynestledinthevalley.“Aswestoodthereonthisnight,lookingdownonthehospitallightedforthefirsttimeinfouryearsandknewthatnowweweresometimegoinghome...thethoughtoftheotherboysandfromthem,totheirfolksandwhattheywouldhavetosuffer,madeamixtureoffeelingsthatIwillnotforgetforsometime.Andanycelebrationafterwardneverdidmeanwhatthosefifteenminutesoutthereinthequietthatnight,didtome.”1

ForMarionanddozensofotherMinnesotanwomen,theexperienceofworkingwiththeRedCrossinFranceduringWorldWarIwasasignificantpersonalmilestone.Fromthefrontdesktothefrontline,thesevolunteersofferedaninvaluableservicetotheircountrythathis-toryhasoftenoverlooked.WarriorsonthefrontlinesofFrance,theywerealsopioneersongenderfrontiers,andmanyreturnedtobeleadersintheirhomestate.

InMinnesota,asacrossthenation,theAmericanRedCrossquicklyemergedasthelargestsocial-welfareagencysupportingthewar.ChaptersinbothSt.PaulandMinneapolishadformedbyApril1917,whentheU.S.en-teredthewar,andtheRedCrossbegantofocusitseffortsbothinMinnesotaandabroad.Bythefallof1918,theTwinCities’RedCrosschaptershadenrolledmorethan150,000membersandraisednearlytwomilliondollarsforforeignandlocalwarrelief.Bytheendofthewar,20percentofallMinnesotanshadjoinedtheorganization.Locally,thesevolunteersoperatedcanteensatrailroaddepotstoassistsoldiersintransit,offeredmonetaryandtransportationsupporttosoldiers’families,andorganizedrecreationforthemenatFortSnelling.TheyraisedmoneybyrunningasalvageshopinMinneapolisandofferedclassesinfirstaid,elementaryhygiene,and

homedietetics.Overseas,theMinneapolis,St.Paul,andRochestermembersandmedicalleaderssponsoredBaseHospital#26inAllerey,France,raisingnearly$50,000tosupplyitwithequipmentandbandages.Membersdonatedandthenpaidtoshipnewandusedtrucks,am-bulances,andcarstoEurope.Inaddition,Minnesotansproduced5,842,078surgicaldressings,knitted94,439sweatersandotheritems,produced14,522garmentsforrefugees,andpacked38,551comfortkitswithshavingsupplies,cigarettes,chewinggum,andotheressentials.2

Themostcompellingactofvoluntarygenerosity,however,wasundoubtedlysigninguptoserveinEurope.ThoughtheworkofRedCrossnurseshasbeenstudied,theeffortsofotherwomenhavereceivedlessscholarlyat-tention.Morethan120Minnesotawomenenrolledtobeclerks,searchers,canteeners,socialworkers,supply-truckdrivers,nurses’aides,recreationalvolunteers,stenogra-phers,secretaries,andchemists.3

Theworkofthesevolunteerswasstaggering.InFrancealone,fromJuly1,1917toFebruary28,1919,theAmericanRedCrossestablished551stationsfromwhichitofferedservice.Twenty-fourofthesewerehospitalsrunjointlywiththeU.S.Army.Thesehospitalshad14,890beds,served91,356patients,andsawjust1,457deaths.TheRedCrossalsoran12convalescenthomesforsol-diersandorganizedreconstructionandre-educationeffortsforcrippledanddisabledmen.ItmaintainedemergencydepotsofmedicalsuppliesfortheAmericanarmyandmedical-supplydepotsforFrenchhospitalsandproducedallsplints,nitrous-oxideanesthetic,andoxygenforthearmy.4

TheRedCrossalsooperated130canteens—servingmorethan6millionmealsand12milliondrinks—onthefrontlines,alonglinesofcommunication,ataviationcamps,evacuationhospitals,andmetropolitancenters.Beyondthat,itprovidedrecreationandwelfareservice;hospitalfarmsandgardens;movingpicturesforhospitals;gravephotography;reliefforcivilians,Frenchsoldiers’families,andchildren(includinghospitals,clinics,canteens,expositions,andadoptionassistance);andanti-tuberculosisefforts.

Nancy O’Brien Wagner is a local historian and proud St. Paulite.

facing: St. Paulites who served in France: ( front, from left)

sisters Lucile Davis and Marguerite Davis, Alice O’Brien, Mary

Morissey; (back) Anna Corcoran, Jessie Moberg, Anne Williams.

26 Minnesota History

warandFIGHTfortheUnitedStates.I’mcominghome,I’mcomingrighthomeandapplytotheRedCross...togooverseas.”7Margaretdroppedherstudiesandbeganthecumbersomeapplicationprocess,coordinatingherapplicationwiththatofafriendfromChicago.Apply-ingingroupsoftwoorevenfourwascommon,andthelettersthewomenexchangedtellusmuchabouttheirfriendships.

Forsome,suchasvocational-guidanceassistantHelenScriverofMinneapolis,thefirsttaskwastocon-vincetheirbrotherstodelayenlisting.AftersecuringherpositionandarrivinginParis,HelenwrotetoherbrotherEugene,bythenatmachinegunofficerstrainingcampinGeorgia:“IcannottellyouhowmuchIappreciateyourwaitingformetogetoffandwhatagoodsportyouare.Isendyouheapsofloveandwishyouthebestofsuccessingettingyourcommission.”8

Thelargerfamilyhadtobeconsidered,too.Eachofthesewomenwaswellawareoftheattitudesoffamily

Thisworkwasallcompletedby5,860maleandfemalevolunteersandpaidstaff.Practicallyspeaking,commandinggeneralsofvariousarmyareasapprovedorcontrolledtheeffortsofRedCrossfielddirec-tors.5RedCrossworkerswereassubjecttomilitaryordersasanysoldier.

Unlikethesoldiers,however,RedCrossvolunteerswerenotalwayspaid,andmanyofthosewhowerepaidreceivedonlylivingexpenses.Inrecruitingfemalevolunteers,theRedCrosslookedfora“certaintypeofgirl.”WhiletheStateDepartmentdecreedthatwomenvolunteerscouldnothaveafather,son,husband,orbrotherinthearmedservices,RedCrossheadquartersclarifiedthatgoodtemper,discretion,andself-reliancewereessential,andthatwomenhadtobewillingtoworkfora“nominalsalary.”Officeworkershadtobe28through35yearsold,andsimilaragerulesappliedtootherpo-sitions.Preferably,volunteersshouldalsohavesomeknowledgeofFrenchorItalian.6

Theserestrictionslargelylimitedthevolunteerpooltounmarried,educated,upper-classwomen—thosewithoutspousalobligationsorsignificantfinancialneeds.Whiletheirwealthmightsuggestthatthesewomencamewithromanticizedassumptions,theireducation,age,andsinglestatussuggestedindependentminds.Indeed,therecordsshowthateachwomanheldherown—sometimesunconventional—attitudesandbeliefs,thoughcertaincommoncharacteristicsappear.Thesewomenweretough,creative,patriotic,anddetermined.

The women who volunteered for Franceconsciouslysetasidetraditionalclassandgenderrolestoclaimnewones.St.PauliteMargaretMacLarenwasstudyingorganinNewYorkwhenthewarbegantogobadlyfortheUnitedStates.Inthespringof1918,shede-cided,“Idon’twanttobeanorganist,Iwanttogotothe

Recruitment posters encouraged women

to volunteer locally and overseas.

Spring 2012 27

wrestlingwithBoardofEducationproblems,thatweshouldbetalkingatthistimeaboutourworkinParis,&actuallybeinParis.”11

Tolivefrugally,mostwomensharedroomsinmod-estboardinghouses.St.PauliteandformerteacherGraceMaryBellwroteaboutadjustingtohernewroommateinBrest:“WeareputondifferentworknowsoIdon’tsup-poseI’llseeherexceptwhileshe’stakingabath.Wegetalongfinebecauseweneveragreeaboutanythingandthesametypeofmanneverlikesbothofus.”12Evenpreviouslygoodfriendshipsfacedthechallengesofclosequarters.DeeSmithrelated

Ruby[Applebee]andI

satupuntil1:30Satnight

aweekagoarguingabout

whetherornottherewas

suchathingasHeaven&

finallyItoldherifwewere

tobefriendsanylongerit

wasuptoustogotobed.

SheisarankSocialist&

doesn’tbelieveinHeaven

orapersonalGod&you

canimaginewhatlivelyar-

gumentswehave.Wenever

getmad,luckily,butshe

thinksmyideasarequeer

&Ithinkhersareawful.13

Onraredaysoff,manyvolunteershurriedtofindtheirfriendsandpackin

members—whethersupportiveorskeptical.DeeSmith,previouslyaclerkattheMinneapolisBoardofEduca-tion,wrotehome:“HadaverynicelongletterfromAuntLou—shesaidshewasveryproudthata‘female’ofthefamilyhadhadthegreatopportunity.”ThoughAliceM.O’BrienleftSt.PaulforParisdespiteherfather’sdisap-proval,shestillhopedtoconvincehimofthevalueofherefforts:“MaxwrotethathecalledandfoundyouallathomeandthatDadwasstillsayingthatIhadnobusinessinFrance.Iwishhecouldseemeforabouttwelvehoursoutofthetwenty-fourandhemightchangehismind.”9

ApprovalfromtheRedCrossandtheWarDepart-mentcouldbeequallydifficulttoget.Theapplicationrequirementsweredemanding:recommendations,four“loyaltyletters”fromprominentpeoplewhowouldvouchforthevolunteer,interviews,vaccinations,inocula-tions,proofofbirthintheUnitedStates(noGermanorAustrianancestryallowed),thenpassports.Oncetheap-provalandapreliminaryjobassignmentcame,thefinaltaskwastogetauniform.“Nobodylikesouruniforms—theyarenotbecomingtoanyoneandthehatsaremostunbecoming,”DeeSmithcomplained.Othersenjoyedtheformality;“OuruniformscamelastnightandwefeellikethreestiffsoldiersbutitisverynicetohavethembecauseeveryoneinParisisinuniform,”AliceO’Brienwrote.Herfriend,NewYorkerDorisKellogg,describedthefirstdayinuniformandherexperiencebeingsaluted:“Icouldhardlybelievemyeyes,andreallydidn’t.Thentoday...aYMCAmanpresentedmewiththenoblestsaluteintheworld.Iwaspanic-strickenandjustfeeblysmiled....WhenafewminuteslateranothersalutecamealongIwasweakasarag—reallystillam.”10

In Paris, the process of acclimatization trulybegan.SomeofthevolunteershadtraveledtoParisbe-fore,butforothers,beinginaforeignlandwasanentirelynewexperience.Whilewaiting—sometimesweeks—fortheirfinaljobandlocationassignments,theyhadtofindtemporaryhousing,adjusttoanewlanguage,andlearnanewcity.“It’sagreatlife,”wroteDeeSmith.“ButIcouldn’thelpthinkingtonightasHelen&Isat&talked,howlittlewedreamedsixmonthsagowhenwewere

 I want to go to the war and        FIGHT for the United States.''

Dee Smith, who served as a

secretary, described her

uniform as “very business

like and unbecoming . . .

tho now that I am getting

used to it, it isn’t so bad &

I guess I can stand it.”

28 Minnesota History

Late train arrivals were just one of manywartimeannoyances.Flies,lice,fleas,hives,chilblains—nearlyeverywomancomplainedofthese.Foodshortages,foodandcoalrationing,andhighpriceswerepopulartopics,too.MarionBackuswrote:“Betweencuties[sic],flees[sic],andhivesIamhavinganinterestingtime.Thelasttwobothermemost....theonlythingsImissarepieandcake.WhenIgethomeamgoingtoeatadozenpiesrightstraightatonelick,andthenastrawberryshortcake.”19

AliceO’Briendismissedthesediscomfortswithsuspi-ciouslyadamantprotests.

AllyourletterscarrymessagesofSympathysuchas—

Imustbeworkingsohard—notenoughfood—not

enoughsleep—feetmustbesore,etc.etc.Iamsorry

ifmylettershavegivenyouthatimpressionbecauseit

isnotatrueone.Ofcoursewedoworkhardbutwelove

itandnothingisashealthyashardwork.Wehavefine

beds,andIassureyouweusethemalot.Ihavenever

beenbetterinmylife—never—andIhaveeverything

Ineed.20

Everythingbutintactsocks,itappears.InJuly,Alicewrote,“Mugs[MargueriteDavis]cameintotheroomlastnightandsawmedarningsocksbythefeeble[can-dle]lightandsaidthatsherealized,forthefirsttime,howfarwewerefromhome.Youbetwe’realongwayoff

asmuchsightseeingastheycould.Thoughthecathedrals’stained-glasswindowswereboardedoverandmanystoreswereclosedandstreetsquiet,itwasstillFrance.14TheywrotehomeaboutvisitingNotreDame,Napoleon’stomb,theTuileries,anddaytripstoFontaine-bleauandVersailles.Theymetforluncheons,walksthroughtheparks,andwindowshopping.

Alongwiththetraveloguesthatpepperedthewomen’sletters,theytriedtoassuagefamilyconcernsabouttheirsafetyandsocialimpropriety.AssoonasMarionBackusarrivedinParis,shewrotehomeabouthertransatlan-ticcrossing:“Oneofthe[fellowpassengers]wasamanaboutmiddleageandatruegentlemanandisgoingtogetmyaddresshereandhasgivenmehissothatifatanytimehecanbeofanyassistancetomeIcancallonhimsonowIfeelasifIhadonefriendhere.Ifanyonegetsworriedaboutthisjusttellthemheismarried.”15

Marion’sfathermusthavegivenheradditionalsecu-rityintheformofarevolver.Intwodifferentlettersshecrypticallydescribeshergunasababy.“TheothernightIwasoutforawalkwithoneoftheboysandItookmybabyandexercisedhim.Afterwardstheyounggentlemantookhim(thebaby)andcleaneditupallnice.Thoughtthiswouldinterestfather.”16

Mostwomenapparentlytrustedthechivalryofthemenaroundthemandwrotehomefrequentlyoftheirconsideratetreatment.DeeSmithmentionedtwiceinoneletterhowsafethestreetswere.“Youcan’tgoany-wherewithoutseeingakhakiuniform,&wehaven’thadtheleastthingunpleasanthappen.TheFrenchlikeus.”17

Likeallcorrespondents,however,thewriterssome-timesomittedinformation.HelenScriveradmittedtoherfriendDeeSmith,“Ican’ttellmymotherIgottoMarseilleat3a.m.Shehasn’tgottenovermyarrivinginN.Y.at11p.m.yet,(Iwasn’tmet).”18

Alice O’Brien wrote home from Orry-

la-Ville, “Enclosed find a photo of Dode

[Doris Kellogg] and me taken in the

woods just outside the Canteen, with a

group of men who are guards . . . . My

hands are behind me because they are

covered in doughnut dough.”

Spring 2012 29

Aloneinaforeignland,fightingawarwithanun-certainoutcome,thesewomenweredeterminednottolettheircomradesortheircountrydown.HelenScriversummeduptheseattitudes:“Myconclusionsarealwaysthesame,namelyifotherscanspeakthislanguage,Ican,iftherestcanliveinthesehouses,socanIandiftherestcanholdtheirjobs,Imustbeabletoholdmine.Itisagoodphilosophy.”23

Helen’ssteadfastdeterminationwascommon,andthevolunteers’unflinchingeffortsmadetheworkoftheAmericanRedCrosspossible.Forexample,nurseMarionBackuswastransferredtoEvacuationHospital#110inVillers-DaucourtinSeptember1918.Afteralongdayoftravel,shewentondutythatnightandstayedonfortwoweeks.“IfanybodyhadtoldmethatIcouldtakecareofmorethantwoetherpatientsbeforeIcameoverhereIwouldhavelaughedandthoughtthemjoking.ButnowIcanwatch45inoneward,36inthenext(eachseparatebuildings)and30inthenextandneverwinkaneye.”24

Inthefallof1918,MargueriteDavisandAliceO’Brienwatchedastrainaftertrainofmenunloadedat

theircampnearChantilly.“Weareawfullybusythesedays,”Alicewrotehome.OnSeptember7,theirfriendDorisKelloggreportedthat,withjustthreeotherwomen,theyserved1,157mealsintheircanteeninthree-and-a-halfhours;onSeptember18,theydishedup1,300meals,andonOctober20,morethan1,600.25

whenIstartdarning.”ShewentontorequestthatsocksbesentfromSt.Paul.Theyarrivedfourmonthslater,inthehandsofGraceMaryBell,anacquaintancewhohadsignedonasacanteener.ShedescribedthemeetingforAlice’sparents:“Ideliveredsafelyintoherhandssundryarticlesatwhichpointshedevoutlyremarked‘ThanktheLord,Icanstopdarning!’”21

Casesofhomesicknessdeveloped,too,thoughfewwouldadmitit.DeeSmithwrotefromPariswithinsight-fulcandor:

Thewholeideahereisanythingtokeepthemoraleof

themenashighaspossible,&everyoneissoproudof

themthatnoonebegrudgesthemagoodtime.Itis

fineforthegirls,too,thonooneeverseemstothink

theymaygetlonelyanddiscouraged.Ihavemetanoc-

casionalonewhowasfranklyhomesick,&don’tdoubt

thereareotherswhoare,butkeepittothemselves.

IthinkImightbeifIdidn’thavelotsofwork,butI

haven’ttimetothinkofbeinghomesick.Isometimes

evenforgetthereisawar.22

 If others can speak this language, I can,  

        if the rest can live in these houses,  

so can I and if the rest can hold their jobs,  

    I must be able to hold mine.''

Hospital ward, Tours, where Verna

Halsted distributed “every known variety

of tobacco and the pipes to smoke with,”

as well as cigarettes, gum, stationery,

pencils, handkerchiefs, chocolate,

newspapers, magazines, shaving kits,

eggs, fruit, and fresh flowers

suchasallotmentsnotbeingpaid,providingthemwith

legaladviceifsuchwereneededconcerningtheirprop-

ertyets.[sic]“backhome.”Ifboyswereworriedthru

lackofmailabouthomefolkswewouldcabletoascer-

tainifallwerewell....Wehadlistsofmissingmensent

tousfromHeadquartersevery15days&wewouldtry

togetinformationconcerningthesemenfrompatients

thatwereinsamecompanies,ets.&wereoftensuccess-

fulintrackingmenthathadbeenreportedmissing.26

Atbasehospitalsandalongtransportationlines,RedCrossvolunteersworkedhardtoentertainthesoldiers.MaryWhiteJones,ateacherfromMinneapolis,servedasarecreationalhutdirectoratAllereyandBeauDes-ertfromAugust1918toApril1919.Keepinghundredsofmenentertainedwasnosmallfeat.Herhuthadalargereadingroom,theaterdressingroom,kitchen,andcanteen.Achaplain,barber,andtailorwereavailable;churchserviceswereheldonSundays.Therewereusu-ally400soldiersinthehutatatime,withmorecomingandgoing.Sheorganizedtheatricaleventsusingthesol-diers’talentsandalsoexchangedorchestras,minstrels,vaudevilleshows,andconcertswithotherunits.Maryandherstaffofthreeoffereddoughnuts,hotchocolate,cigarettes,andtobaccotofillouttheday.Eachevening,sheorganizedsing-alongs,andWednesdayswerere-servedforadanceorshow.27

Attheotherendofthespectrumwerethenecessaryofficejobs.HelenScriveracknowledgedthedullnessofherposition.

EventhoughmyjobbordersdirectlyontheclericalI

thinkIhavebeenbetterplacedthanthemajority.Over

hereyougetwhatyougetandmakethebestofit.Ifeel

thatIhavebeenexceptionallywellassignedconsider-

ingwhatIhopethatIcandoandforthatreasoneven

thoughitseemslessromantictoyouinthestatesthan

bringingintherefugeesIamsatisfied.28

“The Red Cross is truly marvelous,”GushedAliceO’Brien.“EverythingthearmycannotdotheyturnovertotheRedCrossandithasneverfailedyet.”Evenasshewasworkingbehindthelinesandherbrotherwasenlisting,shestillwonderedifherfamily’scontributionswereadequate.“Doyouthinkthat,asafamily,wehavegivenenough?...Sellmycar&givetheproceedstotheR.C....IworkashardasIcan,liveeconomically,andtrytohelpfinanciallywhenIcanbut

Thehospitalswerecrowdedwithmenneedingmorethanmedicalcare.Previouslyadoctor’sassistant,VernaHalstedwasfamiliarwithsickpatients.InFrance,shewasresponsiblefor“writingmortalityletterstothenear-estofkinofboysthatdied.”Inaddition

Asweusuallysawtheboyseachdaytherewereusually

messagesgiventousfortheir“homefolks.”Wealsotook

careofanylegalmattersthatmightcomeupfortheboys

15 wHo ServedThe experiences of these women, a sampling of the female

Red Cross volunteers who returned the four-page ques-

tionnaire about their service to Minnesota’s War Records

Commission, provided the basis for this look at the spec-

trum of women’s war work.

Ruby Marie Applebee, 29, Minneapolis: Stenographer,

Paris and Bucharest

Marion Backus, 27, Minneapolis: Nurse in Paris,

Beauvais, Chantilly, and Villers-Daucourt

Grace Mary Bell, 31, St. Paul: Canteener, Brest

Marguerite Davis, 27, St. Paul: Chauffeur with American

FundforFrenchWounded(aFFW),Paris;canteener,

Toul, Chantilly, and Germany with Red Cross

Julia Gray,40,Minneapolis:Canteener,Vierzon;

shipping clerk, Paris

Aileen Hagerty,33,Minneapolis:Secretary,Paris;

canteener, Tours

Verna Halsted, 28, Duluth: Searcher, Tours

Leila Heath, 32, White Bear Lake: Hospital hut director,

Angers and Bordeaux

Mary White Jones, 29, Minneapolis: Recreation

hut director, Allerey and Beau Desert

Margaret MacLaren, 27, St. Paul: Canteener, Brest

Alice O’Brien, 27, St. Paul: Mechanic with AFFW,

Paris;nurses’aidinParis,canteenerinToul,

and truck driver in Chantilly with Red Cross

Helen Scriver, 29, Minneapolis: Office clerk,

Paris and Marseille

Dee Smith, 36, Minneapolis: Secretary, Paris

Winifred Swift, 26, Minneapolis: Chemist, Paris

Rose Walsh, 29, St. Paul: Canteener, Tours and Brest

Spring 2012 31

AnoldFrenchmanwaspassing,manyinfact,butthis

oneinparticularthrewbackhisheadandroared.Ithink

itwasthefirstgoodlaughhehadsincethewarstarted

andhewentdownthestreetdoubledoverinmirth.33

Good humor, resourcefulness, and flexibilitywereinvaluabletraitsforRedCrossvolunteers.Whenasked,thesewomendroppedtheirworkandjumpedtodowhateverwasneeded.MargaretMacLarenenlistedasahospitalworker,thenbeganrunningacanteen.Soon,shewasdrivingasupplytruck.MinneapolitanWinifredSwiftvolunteeredasaphysiologicalchemistatRedCrossHospital#2inParis,helpingtoresearchthenatureandtreatmentofgasgangrene.“Duringtheheavyworkfol-lowingtheoffensiveofspring1918andsummer,researchworkwasabandonedtogivemorehandsforthetaskofcaringforthewounded....allsparemomentsweregiventorelievethenursesofsuchworkasmightbedonebythoselesstrained.”34

AliceO’Brienwasanothervolunteerwhorolleduphersleevesandworkedwhereverneeded.InitiallyhiredasamechanicfortheAmericanFundforFrenchWounded,shetransferredtotheRedCrosswhenworkwasslow.WhilewaitingforherassignmentinParis,shebecameanauxiliarynurse.Monthslater,stationedasacanteenernearChantilly,sheshowedevenmoreversatil-ity:“OurChauffer[sic]isgoodbecause,atpresent,Iamoneofthem.ThedriveroftheFordatCanteen#2wentonaspreeandwasperemptorilydismissedsoIamfill-inghisshoes.Donotknowyetwhethertheyaregoingtosendusanothermanorsendmealicenseanddon’tmuchcare.”35

LeilaA.Heathshowedsimilarimpatiencewithredtapeandacan-dospirit.AsthedirectorofahospitalhutinAngers,shewasresponsibleforseeingthatthemenwereentertainedastheyrecovered.Aftersendingintendifferentrequisitionsforcandyandgumandhavingnoanswerforthreeweeks,Leilatookmattersintoherownhands.ShewasdeterminedtogetcandyforherboysforChristmas,particularlythegaspatientswhocravedgum.SheandadriversetoffforthewarehouseinNantesonDecember22,andafterfivehoursofdrivingtoNantesandanotherfive-and-a-halfofbeinglostinthecity,theyarrivedatthewarehouseafterithadclosed.Theywaited

nothavingaprivatefortuneofmyownorthecapacityforearningone,allIcandoistoremindyouofit,incaseyoushouldforget,andbegyoutoshell overforthenextdrive.”29

Overall,thevolunteers’enormousprideintheRedCrosswasentirelywarranted.AsDeeSmithwrote,“Youcan’tbegintotellthegoodtheRedCrossaredoing.Thereisabsolutelynothinginthewayofhelpforthesepoorpeoplethattheydonotthinkof&do.Itisthemostwonderfulorganizationeverimagined.”Smith’spridewastintedwithadifferentemotion,too.“Iamhappytobehereandneverhasanythingbeensosatisfying,tho’ofcourselikealltheRedCrosspersonnel,I’dlovetogetclosetotheguns.”30

Whileworkatthefronthadadditionalexcitement,italsohadadditionaldanger.InuredtothefrequentairraidsoverChantilly,AliceO’BrienandMargueriteDavisbegantoremainintheirroomsduringthebomb-ingratherthanseekshelterinanunderground“cave.”Eventually,Alicewasstickingherheadoutofthewin-dowtowatchthebattles.“Heavens,whatasport,”wrotetheirfriendDorisKellogg,“tothinkthosegunsareaftermen.Isn’tithorrible?Ican’twaittilltomorrowtohearthenews,alsotopickuptheshrapnelthat’sbeenhailingdownonourroofandcourt.”31

Awayfromthefrontandtheshrapnel,therewerestillplentyofdangers.Lifewasstrenuousanddifficult,andmanyofthewomensufferedseriousillnesses.AliceO’Briendevelopedtonsillitis.MarionBackuscamedownwithbronchialpneumoniaandspentnearlytwomonthsinahospital.Theinfluenzapandemicsweptthroughthebases,hospitals,andcanteens.St.PauliteRuthCutlerwasinFranceforapproximatelyfourweeksbeforebe-comingillwithinfluenzaanddying.32

Withtypicalwartimebravado,thewomenoftendownplayeddangerswithhumor.AliceO’BrienwroteanupbeataccountofabombingduringherearlydaysinParis.

Dode[Kellogg],Mugs[Davis]andIwerewalkingalong

thePlacede[la]Concordeyesterdaymorningonour

waytotheRedCross,talkingexcitedlyabouttheoffen-

sive,whentheBigGunlandedashellafewblocksaway

withabangthatmusthavebeenheardinNewYork.

Mugsgaveonewhoopandwentthreefeetintotheair.

 I'd love to get close to the guns.''

32 Minnesota History

twohours,untilaworkerhappenedtocomebytogivethemtheircasesofgumandcandy.Ontheirwayback,theytookawrongturninthedark,thenranoutofgas.Theyspentthenightinthecar,itsroofleakingrain.At4:30thenextmorning,Leilabeganaseven-milewalkinthemudtogetgas.Fueltankfull,theyheadedhome,onlytobestymiedagainbyfourpuncturedtiresandonlythreetubes.Leilaabandonedthedriveroncemoreandhitchedaridebacktoherhospital.Uponarrival,shesentanothercarbackforherdriverandthecandy.“Icanassureyou,”sheconfided,“despiteallthetrouble,ifyoucouldhaveseentheboys’faceswhenIsaid‘Ihavecandy.’Itwasworthit.”36

Keepingupthesoldiers’moralewasanimportanttask.Forsome,likerecreationhutdirectorMaryWhiteJones,itwasaformaljob;forothers,itwasinformal.Manyexpressedmixedemotionsaboutthisexpectation:theyenjoyedtheattentionbutacknowledgedtheunder-lyingfrustrationofbeingvaluedchieflyfortheirfemininecharms.AliceO’Brienpredictedthattheattentionshe

Canteens such as this one in Vierzon served hundreds of men quickly, cafeteria style. Besides meals,

many also offered hot chocolate and light refreshments out a side window.

receivedwouldincreasewhenshewentfromservingataFrenchbasetoanAmericanbase.“ItwillbefuntobewithourownboysandmostofthemaresodelightedtoseeanAmericangirlthatyoufeelasthoyouwerehelp-ingyourCountryjusttotalktothem.Mostofthemaresolonesomethattheytrytoputonaskitwitheveryoneinskirtssoitisnotarealcomplimenttohavethemfallatyourfeet.”37

GraceMaryBellhadasimilarreaction.

Idancemyfoolheadoffandgrowtolikedancingmore

andmore—whateverwillIdoshouldIreturntodear

oldJohnson[highschool]wherenoonethinksofme

asan“AmericanGirl?”Really,mostofusgotoabout

fourdancesaweek!There’saneworderaboutsending

officerstobedatteno’clocksomaybewe’llkeepbetter

hours.38

AtthebaseinBrest,MargaretMacLarenfacedhaz-ardsbesideslatehours.

Spring 2012 33

Ofcourse,youhadtodanceeverynight...andthere

wereaboutfivegirlsandaboutfivehundredboys,and

youjustthinknothingof,changepartners,changepart-

ners,andIdancedin...whatyou’dcallnow,ahunting

boot.Iwrotemyfamilytosendmesomeheavy,heavy

shoes,becausetheywerewalkingalloverourfeet.39

MargaretandtheotherRedCrosswomenwerebothchallengingexpectationsandfulfillingthem.Theyweresingle,welleducated,risktaking,and“modern”enoughtosignonforforeignwarservice,buttheyalsogamelymetthegenderexpectationsofthetimes.Ifthevolun-teerssawacontradictionbetweendrivingsupplytrucksbydayanddancingallnight,theydidnotexpressit.

OnthefrontlinesofFrance,thesewomenprovedtheirmettletimeandagain.Whenfacedwithsexism,theyrespondedpragmatically.AliceO’Brientookontheroleoftruckdriverforhercanteenbutforweekswasnotofficiallyassignedthatposition,asitwasaman’sjob.Whenshefinallywasassigned,shewrote

[Maj.Osborn]hasalwaysbeenprejudicedagainst

womendriversandeveryonesaidthathewouldnever

havetheminhisdepartmentbutevidentlyhehad

changedhismind.Perhapshasbeenforcedintodoingit.

However,IamaChauffer[sic]—havebeenforthepast

twoweeks...IfeelexactlylikeanArmysupplywagon

driver,which,ofcourse,indirectly,Iam.40

ThevolunteerswerewellawareoftheiruncommonstatusasindependentAmericanwomen.Some,suchasDorisKellogg,hopedtoinspirechange.“YouknowIcan’tstandtheattitudebetween[French]menandwomenhereatall,”shewrote.“Thementreatthewomenjustasthoughtheywereonlymadetobeaplaythingandthesillywomenloveit.IthinkweEnglishandAmericanwomenmaydosomethingmoreforFrancethanwarworkifwecansowsomeseedsofsocialconscienceintheFrenchwomen’sbrains.”MarionBackus,forherpart,ap-

preciatedtheeffortsofherEuropeansisters.“TheFrenchandEnglishgirlshavemadewonderfuldriversontheambulance.Theyhavemorepatiencethanthemenandsodrivesteadier.”41

AliceO’Brienclearlyunderstoodthatidentityandbe-haviorwerebeingshapedbygender,culture,andclass.

TheFrenchwomendowhattheycanbutmostofthem

havenotbeentrainedtobeindependent,astheAmeri-

canshave,soarehamperedintheirwarwork.Theclass

thatishelpingmostarethewomenofthepoorwhoyou

seedoingalmostalltheworkthatwasdonebymen,

runningshops,streetcars,subways,portersinthesta-

tions,drivingwagonsanddoingallsortsofoddjobs.42

ThefreedomandresponsibilitythatRedCrossvol-unteersenjoyedabroadcontrastedsharplywithlifebackintheUnitedStates,wherethenationwiderighttovotewouldeludewomenforanothertwoyearsand

 of course, you had to dance every night.  

          I wrote my family to send me  

some heavy, heavy shoes, because they  

    were walking all over our feet.''

Margaret MacLaren continued to volunteer for

the Red Cross throughout her life. Proud of her

World War I service, she donned her canteener

uniform to talk about her experiences.

34 Minnesota History

Russia.She,too,wasinvolvedinmanycivicandculturalorganizations,includingtheWomen’sOverseasServiceLeague,theBusinessandProfessionalWomen’sClub,andtheMinneapolissymphony.Shecontinuedtotravelandsocializeuntilherdeathin1963.46

AliceO’BrienreturnedtoSt.Paulandturnedherat-tentionstoactivism,travel,artcollecting,philanthropy,andherbelovedWomen’sCityClub.Intheearly1920s,AlicetraveledtoChina,whereshecollectedfineart.In1927shejourneyedwiththreefriendsandaprofessionalphotographertoAfrica,trekkinguptheCongoRiverandacrosslandtothecontinent’seasterncoast.BackinSt.Paulin1928,shetookupthecauseoftheWomen’sCityClub.Aschairmanofthebuildingcommitteefrom1929to1936,Aliceledtheeffortstochooseasite,selectanarchitect,drawuptheplans,andraisemoneyforaclubhouse.ShecompletedallofhertasksinthefirsttwoyearsoftheGreatDepressionandoversawtheopeningofafashionableandpopularclubin1931.Throughoutherlife,AlicecontinuedtoadvocateforcausessuchastheChildren’sHospitalofSt.Paul,CampCourage,andsurgicalresearchattheUniversityofMinnesota.Herloveforconservationledhertodonate180acresoflandtothestateinhonorofherfather,WilliamO’Brien,andshecontinuedtoworkwiththeJayN.(Ding)DarlingFoun-dationinFloridauntilherdeathin1962.47

As these examples show, many of the women

whoservedintheRedCrossinFrancecontinuedtotacklesocialandcivicchallengesintheirhomestate.Afterentertainingmorethan400men,serving1,600meals,nursing111etherpatients,dealingwithkilometersofredtape,walkingthroughmilesofmud,orpickingshrapneloutoftheirgardens,theywerenotgoingtobeheldbackbyconventionalattitudesaboutwhatwomencouldachieve.MostwomenreturnedwiththeircourageandresolvestrengthenedbytheirserviceinFrance.Theirexperiencesmadethemstrong,andtheyleftalegacythatcontinuestoinspireusnearly100yearslater. a

anti-suffragistswerestillarguingthatwomenlackedthementalfacultiestobeabletofollowcomplexpoliticaldebates.Thechairofthewoman’sauxiliaryoftheMin-nesotaCommissionofPublicSafetywasassertingthat“thehighestpatrioticservice[women]canrendertheircountryistokeepitswomanhoodcleaninthoughtanddeed.”43ThewomenvolunteersoftheRedCrossignoredthelimitingrolesandlimitedexpectationsfortheirsex.Theyknewtheyhadahigherpatrioticservice:work-ingbehindthebattlefields.Theywerecrossinggenderboundaries,notjustinternationalones.

Their experiences in World War I becamecentraltouchstonesinthelivesofmanyofthesewomen.Immediatelyafterthearmistice,somereturnedhomeandtookuptheirformerlives.44Otherscompletedalon-gerservice,stayingabroaduntillate1919.ManybecameactiveintheWomen’sOverseasServiceLeague.

InspiredbyherexperienceinFrance,hospitalworkerandcanteenerMargaretMacLarenreturnedtotheTwinCitiesdeterminedtocontinuetovolunteerandservehercommunity.ThoughshelatertraveledinEuropeforpleasure,inMinnesotashewasactiveinmanycivic,cultural,andcharitableorganizations,includingtheMinnesotaMuseumofArtandSchubertClub.Hertruepassion,however,wastheRedCross.HerparentshadbeenfoundersoftheSt.Paulchapterin1917,andMar-garetcontinuedactiveserviceinitwellintohereighties.Shevolunteeredinthehomeservicesdepartmentandservedassecretaryontheboardofdirectors.MargaretwasafounderoftheSt.PaulRegionalBloodCenterin1948andprovidedfinancialsupportforthesuccessivelylargerchapterhouses.Whenshediedin1981attheageof90,shewasdescribedinthesamewordsthattypifiedherlifeasavolunteerinFrance:“afighterwhoworkedtogetthingsdone”andan“enthusiastic”and“energetic”“broadthinker.”45

MargueriteDavis,whohadworkedasacanteenerinChantilly,Toul,andthenGermany,returnedtoSt.Paulandtookupwhereshehadleftoff:asatennisstar.Beforethewar,shehadwontheSt.Paul,Minnesota,Northwestern,andWesternchampionships.Afterwards,shewonnumerousstatechampionshipsandheldtheNorthwesterntitleuntil1929.Shewasoncerankedtwelfthnationallyforwomen’ssinglesplayersandwasstillastarinhersixties,winningtheNorthwesterndou-blestitlesin1956and1958.Inaddition,shestartedherowntravelagencyandtraveledtoFinland,Africa,and

Research for this article was financed, in part, by the Minnesota Arts and Cultural Heritage Fund(aCHF),andpublicationwassupported,inpart,bytheEugenieM.andersonWomeninPublic Affairs Fund.

Spring 2012 35

Notes1.MarionBackustoDearFamily,Nov.26,

1918,MarionBackusPapers,MinnesotaHistoricalSociety(MHS);allBackusletterscitedareinthiscollection.Villers-DaucourtEvacuationHospital#110wasnearthetownnowknownasVillers-en-Argonne.

2.H.G.Clemens,“St.Paul’sMostRe-markableAchievement,”St. Paul Daily News,Aug.25,1918;MinneapolisChapterRedCross,“AnnualStatement...October1918”;andMinneapolisChapterChairmantoJ.T.Pearson,May21,1917,BaseHospital#26Papers—allinAmericanRedCrossCol-lection,SocialWelfareHistoryArchives,UniversityofMinnesota,Minneapolis.The Work of the American Red Cross During the War(Washington,D.C.:AmericanRedCross,Oct.1919),11;RedCrossawardcertif-icateforMacLarendonation,AliceandToddJohnsonprivatecollection;AliceO’BrientoWilliamandJuliaO’Brien,May28,1918,AlvinaO’Brienprivatecollection.AllO’Brienletterscitedareinthiscollection.

3.TheWarRecordsCommission’sWorldWarIMilitaryServiceRecords,StateAr-chives,MHS,hasfilesfor120RedCrosswomenwhoservedinpositionsotherthannurse.Certainly,thereweremorevolun-teerswhoneverreturnedaquestionnairetothecommission.Forcomparison,76filesdocumentwomenwhoworkedforotherso-cialagencies(SalvationArmy,YWCA)and256documentmeninsimilarpositions.

4.Hereandbelow,American Red Cross During the War,51–64.

5.American Red Cross During the War,46–47;FosterRheaDulles,The American Red Cross: A History(NewYork:Harper,1950),143–45.

6.RedCrossForeignService,“Qualifica-tionsnecessaryforwomenstenographers,bookkeepersandclericalhelp,”DeeSmithPapers,MHS.AsofAugust1918,thesistersofsoldierswereallowedtoenrolliftheypromisednottovisittheirbrothers;North-ern Division Bulletin(Minneapolis),Aug.15,1918,p.1.Ofthe5,860whoworkedinFrance,802receivednopay;American Red Cross During the War,45–47.

7.MargaretMacLaren,interviewbyRandiSulkin,1980,transcript,AmericanRedCrossTwinCities’Chapterarchives,Minneapolis.Margaret’slastnamewassometimesrecordedasMcLaren.

8.HelenScrivertoDearEugene,Sept.15,1918,HelenScriverPapers,MHS;allScriverletterscitedareinthiscollection.Whenwomencouldnotvolunteeriftheirbrotherswereenlisted,theoppositewasnottrue.

9.DeeSmithtoDearFolks,Aug.30,1918,Smithpapers;allSmithletterscitedareinthiscollection.AliceO’BrientoJuliaO’Brien,July[~19],1918.

10.BureauofPersonneltoGraceMaryBell,Sept.9,1918,GraceMaryBellfile,RedCrossNorthernDivisionRecords,MHS;

RedCrossForeignService,“Qualificationsnecessary,”Smithpapers;BureauofPerson-nel,“InstructionsregardingFourLoyaltyLetters,”RedCrossLiterature,Women’sDivision,MinnesotaCommissionofPublicSafetyRecords,StateArchives,MHS;SmithtoDearFolks,Sept.28,1918;O’BrientoRobertO’Brien,Apr.23,1918;DorisKellogg,Canteening Under Two Flags: Letters of Doris Kellogg(EastAurora,NY:Roycrofters,1920),35.

11.SmithtoDearFolks,Sept.8,1918.12.GraceMaryBelltoDearEdna,Dec.

27,1918,EdnaMoorePapers,MHS.13.SmithtoDearMotherandCora,

Nov.19,1918.14.O’Brientoherfamily,Apr.211918,

toRobertO’Brien,Apr.23,1918.15.BackustoDearFolks,May19,1918.16.BackustoDearFolks,Aug.27,1918.17.SmithtoDearFolks,Sept.8,1918.18.ScrivertoDearDee,Oct.12,1918.19.BackustoDearFolks,July2,1918.20.O’BrientoWilliamandJulia

O’Brien,Aug.28,1918.21.O’BrientoWilliamandJulia

O’Brien,July16,1918;GraceMaryBelltoMrs.O’Brien,Nov.8,1918,O’Briencollec-tion.

22.SmithtoDearFolks,Oct.9,1918.23.ScrivertoDearEugene,Sept.28,

1918.24.BackustoDearFamily,Nov.26,1918.25.O’BrientoWilliamandJuliaO’Brien,

Aug.18,1918;Kellogg,Canteening,152,156,180.

26.VernaHalstedTurnerfile,WorldWarIMilitaryServiceRecords,MHS.

27.MaryWhiteJonesfile,WorldWarIMilitaryServiceRecords.

28.ScrivertoDearEveryone,Oct.20,1918.

29.O’BrientoWilliamandJuliaO’Brien,Oct.22,1918.

30.SmithtoDearFolks,Sept.8,1918.31.Kellogg,Canteening,141.32.ForCutler,seeDrug & Chemical

Markets (NewYork),Jan.15,1919,p.13,andPassportApplications,Jan.2,1906–Mar.31,1925,NationalArchivesandRe-cordsAdministration,Washington,D.C.,www.ancestry.com(accessedJan.26,2012);forO’Brien,seeKellogg,Canteening,131;forBackus,seeBackustoDearFamily,Nov.26,1918.

33.O’BrientoWilliamandJuliaO’Brien,May28,1918.

34.MacLareninterview;WinifredSwiftTaylorfile,WorldWarIMilitaryServiceRecords.

35.O’BrientoWilliamJohnO’Brien,July31,1918.

36.LeilaA.Heathfile,WorldWarIMilitaryServiceRecords.

37.O’BrientoRobertO’Brienetal.,Oct.17,1918.

38.BelltoMoore,Dec.27,1918,Moorepapers.

39.MacLareninterview.40.O’BrientoWilliamandJuliaO’Brien,

Aug.4,1918.41.Kellogg,Canteening,42–43;Backus

toDearestFolks,July28,1918(letterbeginsJuly26).

42.O’Brientoherfamily,Apr.21,1918.43.“SillyGirlswillbeSentHome,and

DisorderlyOnesArrested,”Minneapolis Evening Tribune,June15,1918,scrapbook,Women’sDivision,MinnesotaCommissionofPublicSafetyRecords,MHS.

44.Proportionatelyfewofthesewomenevermarried;ofthe15inthisarticle,threedidso,sevenremainedsingle,andthemari-talstatusoffivecouldnotbefound.

45.“MacLarenofRedCrossDies,”St. Paul Pioneer Press,Dec.11,1981,clipping,Johnsonfamilycollection;AmericanRedCross,St.PaulAreaChapter,1981–82 Annual Report: Faces Behind the Institu-tion,10.PostcardsintheJohnsoncollectiondescribeMacLaren’sambitioustripsacrossEuropeinthe1920s.

46.St. Paul Dispatch,Mar.24,1961,p.25,Mar.16,1963,p.2.

47.EileenManningMichels,“AliceO’Brien:VolunteerandPhilanthropist,”inWomen of Minnesota: Selected Biographical Essays,ed.BarbaraStuhlerandGretchenKreuter(St.Paul:MinnesotaHistoricalSocietyPress,1977),146–50;St. Paul Pio-neer Press,Nov.11,1962,secondsec.,p.17.

The photo on p. 28 is courtesy the Alvina O’Brien private collection; p. 33, courtesy the Alice and Todd Johnson private collec-

tion. All other illustrations are in MHS collections, including the canteen interior

(Julia Gray file) and hospital interior (Verna Halsted Turner file), War Records

Commission WWI Military Service Records.

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