Why did European exploration begin toflourish in the 1400s? Two main reasons

stand out. First, Europeans of this time had sever-al motives for exploring the world. Second,advances in knowledge and technology helpedmake voyages of discovery possible.

Motives for Exploration For early explorers, oneof the main motives for exploration was thedesire to find new trade routes to Asia. By the1400s, merchants and crusaders had broughtmany goods to Europe from Africa, the MiddleEast, and Asia. Demand for these goodsincreased the desire for trade.

Europeans were especially interested in spicesfrom Asia. They had learned to use spices to helppreserve food during winter and to cover up thetaste of food that was no longer fresh.

Trade with the East, however, was expensiveand difficult. Muslims and Italians controlled theflow of trade. Muslim traders carried goods tothe east coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Italianmerchants then brought the goods to Europe.Problems arose when Muslim rulers sometimesclosed the trade routes from Asia to Europe.Also, the goods went through many hands, andeach trading party raised their price.

European monarchs and merchants wanted tobreak the hold that Muslims and Italians had ontrade. One way to do so was to find a sea route toAsia. Portuguese sailors looked for a route thatwent around Africa. Christopher Columbus triedto reach Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic.

Other motives also came into play. Many people were excited by the opportunity for newknowledge. Explorers saw the chance to earnfame and glory as well as wealth. Some cravedadventure. And as new lands were discovered,nations wanted to claim the lands’ riches forthemselves.

A final motive for exploration was the desire

to spread Christianity. Both Protestant andCatholic nations were eager to make new con-verts. Missionaries followed the path blazed byexplorers, sometimes using force to bring nativepeoples into their faiths.

Advances in Knowledge and Technology TheAge of Exploration began in the midst of theRenaissance, a time of new learning. A numberof advances made it easier for explorers to ven-ture into the unknown.

One key advance was in cartography, the artand science of mapmaking. In the early 1400s, anItalian scholar translated an ancient book calledGuide to Geography from Greek into Latin. Thebook had been written by Ptolemy in the secondcentury C.E. Printed copies of the book inspirednew interest in cartography. European mapmak-ers used Ptolemy’s work to draw more accuratemaps.

Discoveries by explorers gave mapmakersnew information to work with. The result was adramatic change in Europeans’ view of the world.By the 1500s, globes showed Earth as a sphere,or ball. In 1507, a German cartographer made thefirst map that clearly showed North and SouthAmerica separated from Asia.

In turn, better maps helped explorers by making navigation easier. The most importantRenaissance geographer, Gerardus Mercator, cre-ated maps using improved lines of longitude andlatitude. Mercator’s mapmaking technique was agreat help to navigators.

An improved ship design also helped explor-ers. By the 1400s, Portuguese and Spanish ship-builders were making caravels. These ships weresmall, fast, and easy to maneuver. Their shallowbottoms made it easier for explorers to travelalong coastlines where the water was not deep.Caravels also used lateen (triangular) sails, anidea borrowed from Muslim ships. These sails

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Reasons for the Age of Exploration

could be positioned to take advantage of the windno matter which way it blew.

Along with better ships, new navigational toolshelped sailors to travel more safely on the openseas. By the end of the 15th century, the compasswas much improved. Sailors used compasses tofind their bearing, or direction of travel. The astro-labe helped sailors figure out their distance northor south from the equator.

Finally, improved weapons gave Europeans ahuge advantage over the people they met in theirexplorations. Sailors could fire their cannons attargets near the shore without leaving their ships.On land, the weapons of native peoples often wereno match for European guns, armor, and horses.

Questions1. What were some key motives for Europeans

during the Age of Exploration?2. Which motive do you think was the strongest

for encouraging European exploration? Why?3. What key advances in knowledge and technol-

ogy allowed Europeans to explore these newareas?

4. Which advance do you think was the mostimportant? Why?

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Reasons for the Age of Exploration

Questions1. Which explorer was the first to establish a sea

route to Asia? For which European country didhe sail?

2. Which explorer was the first to sail to the eastcoast of South America? For which Europeancountry did he sail?

3. By 1600, on which continents did Portugalclaim or control territory or cities?

4. Which explorer was the first to sail to what aretoday the Caribbean Islands, between Northand South America? For which Europeancountry did he sail?

5. Which explorer was the first to lead a voyagethat eventually went around the world? Forwhich European country did he sail?

6. Which country had explorers who led expedi-tions into the lands of the Aztecs and Incas inNorth and South America? Who were theseexplorers?

7. By 1600, on which continents did Spain claimterritory?

8. Which European countries during this periodsent explorers to North America’s east coast?Name three of these explorers.

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European Exploration and Land Claims, 1488–1610

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European Exploration and Land Claims, 1488–1610

T he Age of Exploration began in Portugal. Thissmall country is located on the southwestern

tip of Europe. Its rulers sent explorers first tonearby Africa and then around the world.

Key Explorers The key figure in early Portugueseexploration was Prince Henry, the son of KingJohn I. Nicknamed “the Navigator,” Henry wasnot an explorer himself. Instead, he encouragedexploration and directed many important expeditions.

Beginning in about 1418, Henry sent explorersto sea almost every year. He also started a schoolof navigation where sailors and mapmakers couldlearn their trades. His cartographers made new mapsbased on the information captains brought back.

Henry’s early expeditions focused on the westcoast of Africa. He wanted to continue the cru-sades against the Muslims, find gold, and take part in trade.

Gradually, Portuguese explorers made their wayfarther and farther south. In 1488, BartolomeuDias became the first European to go around thesouthern tip of Africa. Later, Dias died in a stormat sea.

In July 1497, Vasco da Gama set sail with fourships to chart a sea route to India. Da Gama’sships rounded Africa’s southern tip and then sailedup the east coast of the continent. With the help ofa sailor who knew the route to India, they crossedthe Indian Ocean.

Da Gama arrived in the port of Calicut, India,in May 1498. There he obtained a load of cinna-mon and pepper. On the return trip to Portugal, da Gama lost half of his ships. Many of his crew-members died of hunger or disease. Still, the valu-able cargo he brought back paid for the voyagemany times over. His trip made the Portugueseeven more eager to trade directly with Indian merchants.

In 1500, Pedro Cabral set sail for India with afleet of 13 ships. Cabral first sailed southwest toavoid calms (areas where there are no winds to fillsails). But he sailed so far west that he reached theeast coast of present-day Brazil. After claimingthis land for Portugal, he sailed east and roundedAfrica. Arriving in Calicut, he established a trad-ing post and signed trading treaties. He returned to Portugal in June 1501 after battling severalMuslim ships.

The Impact of Portuguese Exploration Portugal’sexplorers changed Europeans’ understanding ofthe world in several ways. They explored thecoasts of Africa and brought back gold and slaves.They also found a sea route to India. From India,explorers brought back spices like cinnamon andpepper and goods such as porcelain, incense, jewels, and silk.

After Cabral’s voyage, the Portuguese tookcontrol of the eastern sea routes to Asia. Theyseized the seaport of Goa in India and built fortsthere. They attacked towns on the east coast ofAfrica. They also set their sights on the Moluccas,or Spice Islands, in what is now Indonesia. In1511, they attacked the main port of the islandsand killed the Muslim defenders. The captain ofthis expedition explained what was at stake. IfPortugal could take the spice trade away fromMuslim traders, he wrote, then Cairo and Makkah“will be ruined.” As for Italian merchants, “Venicewill receive no spices unless her merchants go tobuy them in Portugal.”

Portugal’s control of the Indian Ocean brokethe hold of Muslims and Italians on Asian trade.The prices of Asian goods like spices and fabricsdropped, and more people in Europe could affordto buy them.

During the 1500s, Portugal also began toestablish colonies in Brazil. The native people of

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Portugal Begins the Age of Exploration

Brazil suffered greatly as a result. The Portuguesetried to get the native people to give up their reli-gion and convert to Christianity. They also forcedthem to work on sugar plantations. Missionariessometimes tried to protect them from abuse, butcountless numbers died from overwork andEuropean diseases. Others fled into the interior of Brazil.

The colonization of Brazil also had an impacton Africa. As the native population of Brazildecreased, the Portuguese needed more laborers.Starting in the mid 1500s, they turned to Africa.Over the next 300 years, ships brought millions ofenslaved West Africans to Brazil.

Questions1. What contributions did each of these individu-

als make to Portuguese exploration?• Prince Henry “the Navigator”• Bartolomeu Dias• Vasco da Gama• Pedro Cabral

2. What impact did Portuguese exploration haveon the people of these continents?• Africa• Asia• the Americas

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Portugal Begins the Age of Exploration

In the late 1400s, King Ferdinand and QueenIsabella of Spain were determined to make their

country a powerful force in Europe. One way todo this was to sponsor explorations and claim newlands for Spain.

Key Explorers It was Ferdinand and Isabella whosponsored the voyages of Christopher Columbus.The Italian-born Columbus thought that the Indies,or eastern Asia, lay on the other side of theAtlantic Ocean. He believed sailing west would be the easiest route to the Indies.

When Columbus failed to win Portuguese sup-port for his idea, he turned to Spain. Ferdinandand Isabella agreed to pay for the risky voyage.They wanted to beat Portugal in the race to controlthe wealth of Asia. They also wanted to spreadChristianity.

In August 1492, three ships left Spain underColumbus’s command. For the crew, venturinginto the open ocean was frightening. As the weekswent by, some of the men began to fear theywould never see Spain again.

Then, on October 12, a lookout cried “Land!”Columbus went ashore on an island in theCaribbean Sea. Thinking he had reached theIndies, Columbus claimed the island for Spain.

For three months, Columbus and his menexplored nearby islands with the help of nativeislanders, whom the Spanish called Taino.Thinking they were in the Indies, the Spanish soon called all the local people “Indians.”

In March 1493, Columbus arrived back inSpain. He proudly reported that he had reachedAsia. Over the next 10 years, he made three morevoyages to what he called the West Indies. Hedied in Spain in 1506, still insisting that he hadsailed to Asia.

Many Europeans, however, believed thatColumbus had actually found a land mass that lay

between Europe and Asia. One of these peoplewas Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer.

Magellan believed he could sail west to theIndies if he found a strait, or channel, throughSouth America. The strait would connect theAtlantic and Pacific Oceans, allowing ships tocontinue on to Asia.

Magellan won Spain’s backing for a voyage tofind the strait. In August 1519, he set sail with fiveships and about 250 men.

Magellan looked for the strait all along SouthAmerica’s east coast. He finally found it at thesouthern tip of the continent. Today it is called theStrait of Magellan.

After passing through the strait, Magellanreached the Pacific Ocean in November 1520. Ittook another three months to cross the Pacific.During the crossing, Magellan’s men ran out offood and were plagued by disease and thirst. Theyreached an island in the western Pacific just intime.

Continuing west, Magellan visited thePhilippines. There he became involved in a battlebetween two local chiefs. In April 1521, Magellanwas killed in the fighting.

Magellan’s crew sailed on to the Spice Islands.Three years after the expedition began, the onlyship to survive the expedition returned to Spain,loaded with cloves. The 18 sailors on board werethe first people to circumnavigate the globe.

The Impact of Early Spanish Exploration EarlySpanish exploration changed Europeans’ view ofthe world. The voyages of Columbus revealed theexistence of the Americas. Magellan’s expeditionopened up a westward route to the Indies. Itshowed that it was possible to sail completelyaround the world. And it proved that Columbushad indeed found a “New World”—one they hadn’t realized was there.

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Spain’s Early Explorations

Columbus’s voyages were the beginning ofSpanish settlement in the West Indies. Spainearned great wealth from its settlements. Settlersmined for precious minerals and started sugarplantations. The Spanish also sent Europe newcrops, such as sweet potatoes and pineapples.

For the native people of the West Indies,Spanish settlement was devastating. Priests forcedmany of them to become Christians. Native peoplewere forced to work as slaves in the mines and onthe plantations. When the Spanish arrived, perhaps1 or 2 million Taino lived on the islands. Within50 years, fewer than 500 were left. The rest haddied of starvation, overwork, or European diseases.

Like Portugal, Spain looked to West Africa fornew sources of laborers. From 1518 through themid 1800s, the Spanish brought millions ofenslaved Africans to work in their Americancolonies.

Questions1. What contributions did each of these individu-

als make to early Spanish exploration?• Christopher Columbus• Ferdinand Magellan

2. What impact did early Spanish explorationhave on the people of these continents?• Europe• the Americas

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Spain’s Early Explorations

A fter Columbus’s voyages, Spain was eager toclaim lands in the New World. To explore and

conquer “New Spain,” the Spanish turned toadventurers called conquistadors (conquerors).The conquistadors were allowed to establish set-tlements and seize the wealth of natives. In return,the Spanish government claimed one fifth of thetreasures they found.

Key Explorers In 1519, Spanish explorer HernanCortes and a band of conquistadors set out toexplore present-day Mexico. From native people,Cortes learned about the Aztecs. The Aztecs hadbuilt a large and wealthy empire in Mexico.

With the help of a native woman namedMalinche, Cortes and his men reached the Azteccapital, Tenochtitlan. The Aztec ruler, Montezuma,welcomed the Spanish with great honors. Deter-mined to break the power of the Aztecs, Cortestook Montezuma hostage.

Cortes now controlled the Aztec capital. In1520, he left Tenochtitlan to battle a rival Spanishforce. While he was gone, a group of conquista-dors attacked the Aztecs in the midst of a religiouscelebration. In response, the Aztecs rose upagainst the Spanish. The soldiers had to fight theirway out of the city. Many of them were killed dur-ing the escape.

The following year, Cortes mounted a siege ofthe city, aided by thousands of native allies whoresented Aztec rule. The Aztecs ran out of foodand water, yet they fought desperately. After sev-eral months, the Spanish captured their leader, andAztec resistance collapsed. The city was in ruins.The mighty Aztec Empire was no more.

Four factors contributed to the defeat of theAztec Empire. First, Aztec legend had told of thecoming of a white-skinned god. When Cortesappeared, the Aztecs welcomed him because theythought he might be their god Quetzalcoatl.Second, Cortes was able to make allies of the

Aztecs’ native enemies. Third, their horses, armor,and superior weapons gave the Spanish an advan-tage in battle. The Aztecs had never seen any ofthese things before. Fourth, the Spanish carrieddiseases that caused deadly epidemics among theAztecs.

Aztec riches inspired Spanish conquistadors tocontinue their search for gold. In the 1520s,Francisco Pizarro received permission from Spainto conquer the Inca Empire in South America. TheIncas ruled an empire that ran along most of theAndes Mountains. By the time Pizarro arrived,however, a civil war had weakened the empire.

In April 1532, the Inca emperor, Atahualpa,greeted the Spanish as guests. Following Cortes’sexample, Pizarro launched a surprise attack andkidnapped the emperor. Although the Incas paid aroomful of gold and silver for Atahualpa’s ransom,the Spanish killed him the following year. Withouttheir leader, the Incas’ empire quickly fell apart.

The Impact of Later Spanish Exploration andConquest The explorations and conquests of theconquistadors transformed Spain. The Spanishrapidly expanded foreign trade and overseas colo-nization. For a time, wealth from the Americasmade Spain one of the world’s richest and mostpowerful countries.

Besides gold and silver, ships brought corn andpotatoes from the New World to Spain. Thesecrops grew well in Europe. By increasing the foodsupply, they helped spur a population boom.Conquistadors also introduced Europeans to newluxury items, such as chocolate and tobacco.

In the long run, gold and silver from theAmericas hurt Spain’s economy. Inflation, or anincrease in the supply of money compared togoods, led to higher prices. Monarchs and thewealthy spent their riches wastefully instead ofbuilding up Spain’s industries.

The Spanish conquests had a major impact on

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Later Spanish Exploration and Conquest

the New World. The Spanish introduced new ani-mals to the Americas, such as horses, cattle, sheep,and pigs. But they also destroyed two advancedcivilizations. The Aztecs and Incas lost much oftheir culture along with their wealth. Manybecame laborers for the Spanish. Millions diedfrom disease. In Mexico, for example, there wereabout 25 million native people in 1519. By 1605,this number had dwindled to 1 million.

Questions1. What contributions did each of these individu-

als make to later Spanish exploration and conquest?• Hernan Cortes• Francisco Pizarro

2. What impact did later Spanish exploration and conquest have on the people of these continents?• Europe• the Americas

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Later Spanish Exploration and Conquest

Spain and Portugal dominated the early years ofexploration. Rulers in rival nations wanted

their own share of trade and new lands in theAmericas. Soon England, France, and theNetherlands all sent expeditions to North America.

Key Explorers Explorers often sailed for anycountry that would pay for their voyages. TheItalian sailor John Cabot made England’s firstvoyage of discovery. Cabot believed he couldreach the Indies by sailing northwest across theAtlantic. In 1497, he landed in what is nowCanada. Believing he had reached the northeastcoast of Asia, he claimed the region for England.

The next year, Cabot set out on another voyagewith five ships. The fate of this expedition isuncertain. Cabot may have returned to England, or he may have been lost at sea.

Another Italian, Giovanni da Verrazano, sailedunder the French flag. In 1524, da Verrazanoexplored the Atlantic coast from present-day NorthCarolina to Canada. His voyage gave France itsfirst claims in the Americas. Like many explorers,however, he met an unhappy end. On a later tripto the West Indies, he was killed and eaten bynative people.

Sailing for the Netherlands, English explorerHenry Hudson journeyed to North America in1609. Hudson wanted to find a northwest passagethrough North America to the Pacific Ocean. Sucha water route would allow ships to sail fromEurope to Asia without entering waters controlledby Spain.

Hudson did not find a northwest passage, buthe did explore what is now called the HudsonRiver. Twenty years later, Dutch settlers (peoplefrom the Netherlands) began arriving in theHudson River valley.

The next year Hudson tried again, this timeunder the flag of his native England. Searchingfarther north, he sailed into a large bay in Canada

that is now called Hudson Bay. He spent threemonths looking for an outlet to the Pacific, butthere was none.

After a hard winter in the icy bay, some ofHudson’s crew rebelled. They set him, his son,and seven loyal followers adrift in a small boat.Hudson and the other castaways were never seenagain. Hudson’s voyage, however, laid the basisfor later English claims in Canada.

The Impact of European Exploration of NorthAmerica Unlike the conquistadors in the south,northern explorers did not find gold and othertreasure. As a result, there was less interest at firstin starting colonies.

Canada’s shores did offer rich resources of codand other fish. Within a few years of Cabot’s trip,fishing boats regularly visited the region.Europeans were also interested in trading withNative Americans for otter skins, whale oil, andbeaver and fox furs. By the 1600s, Europeans had set up a number of trading posts in NorthAmerica.

English exploration also contributed to a warbetween England and Spain. As English shipsroamed the seas, some captains, nicknamed “seadogs,” began raiding Spanish ports and ships totake their gold. Between 1577 and 1580, FrancisDrake sailed around the world. He also claimedpart of what is now California for England, ignor-ing Spain’s claims to the area.

The English raids added to other tensionsbetween England and Spain. In 1588, King PhilipII of Spain sent an armada, or fleet, to invadeEngland. With 130 heavily armed vessels andabout 31,000 men, the Spanish Armada seemed anunbeatable force. But the smaller English fleetwas fast and well armed. Their guns had a longerrange, so they could attack from a safe distance.After several battles, a number of the armada’sships had been sunk or driven ashore. The rest

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European Exploration of North America

turned around but faced terrible storms on the wayhome. Fewer than half of the ships made it back toSpain.

The defeat of the Spanish Armada marked thestart of a shift in power in Europe. By 1630, Spainno longer dominated the continent. With Spain’sdecline, other countries—particularly England andthe Netherlands—took an active role in trade andcolonization around the world.

Questions1. What contributions did each of these individu-

als make to the European exploration of NorthAmerica?• John Cabot• Giovanni de Verrazano• Henry Hudson

2. What impact did the European exploration ofNorth America have on the people of Europe?

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European Exploration of North America

T he voyages of explorers had a dramatic impacton European commerce and economies. As a

result of exploration, more goods, raw materials,and precious metals entered Europe. Mapmakerscarefully charted trade routes and the locations ofnewly discovered lands. By the 1700s, Europeanships traveled trade routes that spanned the globe.New centers of commerce developed in the portcities of the Netherlands and England, which hadcolonies and trading posts in faraway lands.

Exploration and trade contributed to thegrowth of capitalism. This economic system isbased on investing money for profit. Merchantsgained great wealth by trading and selling goodsfrom around the world. Many of them used theirprofits to finance still more voyages and to starttrading companies. Other people began investingmoney in these companies and shared in the profits. Soon this type of shared ownership wasapplied to other kinds of business.

Another aspect of the capitalist economy con-cerned the way people exchanged goods and serv-ices. Money became more important as preciousmetals flowed into Europe. Instead of having afixed price, items were sold for prices that wereset by the open market. This meant that the priceof an item depended on how much of the item wasavailable and how many people wanted to buy it.Sellers could charge high prices for scarce itemsthat many people wanted. If the supply of an itemwas large and few people wanted it, sellers low-ered the price. This kind of system is called a market economy.

Labor, too, was given a money value. Increas-ingly, people began working for hire instead ofdirectly providing for their own needs. Merchantshired people to work in their own cottages, turningraw materials from overseas into finished prod-ucts. This growing cottage industry was especiallyimportant in the making of textiles. Often entire

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The Impact of Exploration onEuropean Commerce and Economies

SpainPortugalEnglandFranceNetherlandsTrade routesNS EW3,000 miles3,000 kilometers1,50000

ATLANTICOCEAN

INDIANOCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

EUROPEASIA

ENGLAND

SPAIN

FRANCE

NETHERLANDS

PORTUGAL

Major European Trade Routes, About 1750

families worked at home, spinning wool intothread or weaving thread into cloth. Cottageindustry was a step toward the system of factoriesoperated by capitalists in later centuries.

A final result of exploration was a new eco-nomic policy called mercantilism. European rulersbelieved that piling up wealth was the best way tobuild their countries’ power. For this reason, theytried to reduce the things they bought from othercountries and increase the items they sold.

Having colonies was a key part of this policy.Nations looked to their colonies to supply rawmaterials for their industries. They profited byturning the materials into finished goods that theycould sell to other countries and to their owncolonies. To protect the valuable trade with theircolonies, rulers often forbade colonists from trad-ing with other nations.

Questions1. Define the following terms associated with the

commercial revolution in Europe:• capitalism• market economy• cottage industry• mercantilism

2. In what ways did the Age of Exploration helpspur the commercial revolution in Europe?

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The Impact of Exploration onEuropean Commerce and Economies