Reading (Field)

8/12/2019 Reading (Field)

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1. Listening then and now1

In order that all men may be taught to speak the truth, it is necessary

that all likewise should learn to hear it.

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), British lexicographer

1.1 Early days

In the earl !as o" #nglish $anguage %eaching (#$%), listening chie"l ser&e! as a means o" intro!ucing

ne' grammar through mo!el !ialogues ommentators ha&e sometimes implie! that it 'as not until the

late 1970s an! the a!&ent o" communicati&e approaches that the s*ill 'as "irst taught in its o'n right %his

&ersion o" e&ents is not strictl true In language schools in Britain, listening practice "eature! +uite

regularl in course programmes "rom the late sixties on'ar!s, though the materials a&ailale 'ere

relati&el "e' an! on tape rather than cassette ne o" the "irst listening courses (.s, oo* an!

/n!er'oo!) came out in 198, an! ar /n!er'oo!2s no'-classic authentic inter&ie's an! oral

narrati&es !ate "rom 1971 an! 197 (though, a!mitte!l, the

'ere ahea! o" their time in terms o" recor!e! content) Still, it is soering to re"lect that it 'as onl "rom

1970 that a listening component "eature! in the amri!ge 3irst erti"icate exam, an! that until 1984 its

listening texts consiste! o" passages o" 'ritten prose 'hich 'ere rea! alou!

%he lesson "ormat use! man teachers in those earl !as 'as a relati&el rigi! one 'hich re"lecte! the

structuralist ortho!ox o" the time (see %ale 11) Some "eatures o" this earl lesson "ormat are 'orth

noting

The three stages. %he lesson pro&i!e! "or a preliminar stage 'hen teachers prepare! learners "or the

listening exercise an! "or a "inal stage !uring 'hich the listening experience 'as re&ie'e! 5uring pre-listening, teachers tra!itionall presente! the ne' items o" &ocaular that learners 'ere aout to

encounter in the recor!ing In post-listening, the chec*e! the ans'ers to comprehension +uestions an!

explore! the language o" the recor!ing

Table 1.1Early format for a listening lesson

Pre-listening

6re-teach &ocaular 2to ensure maximum un!erstan!ing2

Listening

#xtensi&e listening "ollo'e! general +uestions on context

Intensi&e listening "ollo'e! !etaile! comprehension +uestionsPost -listening

%each an ne' &ocaular

.nalse language (Why did the speaker use the Present Perfect here?)

1In Jonh 3iel!sistening in the anguage !lassroom, amri!ge /ni&ersit 6ress (008), pages 1-)

2Spols* (1990) i!enti"ies the "irst-e&er secon! language listening test as eing the Barnar!- :ale .ural test,

!e&elope! Broo*s in the earl 190s


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compensate "or the limitations o" an au!io recor!ing It also ser&es an important "unction "or the 'ea*er

listeners in the class %he ma ha&e un!erstoo! &er little the "irst time roun!, ut the ans'ers gi&en

their peers pro&i!e them 'ith a "e' pegs upon 'hich to hang i!eas 'hen the listen again

In!ee!, an rehearing o" the recor!e! material assists all memers o" the class to exten! their

un!erstan!ing o" it . case can e ma!e not Aust "or *eeping the extensi&eintensi&e tra!ition ut also "oremploing multiple replas throughout the listening lesson %he original thin*ing 'as that replaing the

recor!ing allo'e! attention to e gi&en to the "orms o" language, ut it is no' recognise! that repeate!

listening enales the learner to uil! increasingl on the in"ormation that is extracte! . "irst hearing o" a

"oreign language passage ma pro!uce a partial un!erstan!ing, 'hich can e !eepene! onl

suse+uent exposure an! increasingl !eman!ing +uestions on the part o" the teacher

%he con&ention o" multiple-pla thus emo!ies a principle 'hich shapes much text-ase! 'or* in

language teaching - the i!ea o" 2narro'ing in2 (see 3igure 11) %he lesson starts 'ith general notions an!

"ocuses on more !etail as the learner ecomes increasingl "amiliar 'ith the text

C#>#?.$ >%#D%

3.%/.$ 5#%.I$

$I>C/IS%I

.>.$:SIS

So much "or the "eatures o" this earl lesson "ormat that ha&e sur&i&e! But a general criticism o" the

"ormat is that it 'as in"lexile, an! that the se+uence o" acti&ities ecame highl pre!ictale &er time, a

numer o" other aspects o" the approach 'ere also calle! into +uestion

It 'as not correct (an! smac*e! o" 2nanning2) to assume that stu!ents coul! han!le a listening

exercise onl i" the *ne' most or all o" the &ocaular in it

Intensi&e listening too* place 'ithout an clear aim Stu!ents 'ere not as*e! +uestions until a"ter

the ha! hear! the passage, so the !i! not *no' 'hat the 'ere listening "or %heir success in

ans'ering !epen!e! on memor as much as on listening s*ill

%he con&ention o" !ra'ing attention to examples o" grammar 'as a relic o" the i!ea that thelistening lesson shoul! ser&e to !emonstrate recentl taught language in e&er!a use In the en!,

lessons o"ten "ocuse! more on !iscussing the language o" the recor!ing than on practising

listening

6ause! pla coul! lea! to 2parroting2 Its critics argue! that stu!ents coul! repeat a stretch o" soun!

'ithout necessaril un!erstan!ing 'hat it meant


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1.2 Current practice

&er the ears, the original mo!el has een mo!i"ie! %he listening lesson that one encounters in goo!

#$% practice to!a has a rather !i""erent structure, 'hich inclu!es some or most o" the elements sho'n in

%ale1 $et us consi!er the rationale ehin! the changes

%ale 1 !urrent format for a listening lesson

Pre-listening

#stalish context

reate moti&ation "or listening

6re-teach onl critical &ocaular

Extensive listening

Ceneral +uestions on context an! attitu!e o" spea*ers

Intensive listening

6re-set +uestions

Intensi&e listening

hec*ing ans'ers to +uestions

Post listening optional!

3unctional language in listening passage

$earners in"er the meaning o" un*no'n 'or!s "rom the sentences

in 'hich the appear

3inal pla< learners loo* at transcript

1.2.1 Pre-listening

Pre-teaching vocabulary. %here are a numer o" reasons "or not pre-teaching all the un*no'n &ocaular

in a recording. It ta"es ti#e - ti#e which is #uch better spent listening. $ery i#portantly% it also

leavesstu!ents unprepare! "or 'hat happens in a real-li"e listening encounter 'here, ine&ital, there 'ill

e 'or!s 'hich the !o not *no' an! ha&e to 'or* out "or themsel&es . thir! consi!eration is the e""ect

upon the listening process B pre-teaching all the ne' 'or!s in a recor!ing, regar!less o" their

importance, the teacher encourages the learner to listen out "or those 'or!s ?esult; the learner2s attention

is "ocuse! upon the language o" the text rather than its meaning It ma also e mis!irecte! to parts o" the

recor!ing 'hich are not strictl

rele&ant to the main argument

%he current polic is to pre-teach onl critical 'or!s 2ritical2 is ta*en to mean those 'or!s 'ithout

'hich the recor!ing coul! not e un!erstoo! ("or example, in a passage aout Aogging, 'e 'oul! 'ant to

e sure that learners *ne' the &er to $og). In an gi&en listening text, there shoul! e &er "e' such

critical items - at most, "our or "i&e

Establishing context. .s alrea! note!, it is important to compensate "or the limitations o" using an au!io


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cassette gi&ing stu!ents a general i!ea o" 'hat the are going to hear In a real-li"e situation, the

'oul! usuall e a'are o" 'ho the spea*ers 'ere, 'here the 'ere an! so on It is onl "air to pro&i!e

some o" this in"ormation e"ore the listening exercise

Eo'e&er, the in"ormation !oes not nee! to e extensi&e In "act, there is consi!erale !anger in

expoun!ing too much on the context o" the listening passage %he more 'e tell the learners, the less the'ill nee! to listen to the recor!ing to extract the ans'ers the nee! %he criterion shoul! e; what would

the listener already know in real life before the speech e%ent began? &

Eere are tpical pieces o" contextualisation "rom the amri!ge 3irst erti"icate (3#) exam;

'ou will hear part of a radio programme in which two women, ary and Pat, will talk about their interest

in being an amateur radio operator, or radio ham.

(6aper 10, 6art ) ,

'ou will hear a man talking about how he $ogs - runs - in order to keep fit.(6aper 10, 6art )

%hese intro!uctions ser&e three !i""erent pre-listening purposes;

a %he estalish 2context2; inclu!ing the situation, the topic an! the genre o" the recor!ing

%he intro!uce critical &ocaular

c %he mention names 'hich help the listener to 2lael2 the spea*ers

. teacher might also inclu!e other proper nouns (eg names o" cities) 'hich 'oul! not e regar!e! as 2"air

game2, ie as part o" an learner2s normal &ocaular ase

Creating motivation. %his is an important goal o" pre-listening, an! one that is sometimes neglecte! =e

nee! to gi&e listeners a purpose "or listening %he, +ualit an! !epth o" listening is also enormousl

enhance! 'hen the listener has the right mental set - in other 'or!s, 'hen she has gi&en some "orethought

to 'hat the listening passage is li*el to contain

Eo' to create moti&ationF ne 'a is to 'rite a title "or the listening passage on the oar!, an! then to

as* the learners to pre!ict 'hat the 'ill hear (see panel elo') nce the ha&e create! a set o"

expectations, the goal o" the extensi&e listening phase is to chec* 'hich o" their pre!ictions pro&e to e

correct an! 'hich not %he process can e&en e competiti&e (*nna thinks there will be something about

noise pollution+ Enriue doesnt agree. ets see who is right.). >ote, the 'a, that the interactionexempli"ie! in the panel !oes more than Aust create mental set It also per"orms the pre-listening "unctions

o" outlining context an! intro!ucing critical &ocaular

Creating #otivation &or listening

%; :ou2re going to hear someo! tal*ing aout camels Ee2s a Goologist 'ho2s stu!ie!

them =hat !o ou thin* he2ll tal* aoutF


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Si; 5esert2

%; :es, he might mention !eserts -writes E/E01 on board2. .n-thing elseF

S; =ater =ater on the camel2s ac*

%; Ee might mention 'hat the camel has on its ac* Its hump %he 'or! is 2hump2 -writes

"3P2. .n other i!easF

S; Eot temperatureS4; =al*ing $ong !istance

%; Ee might tal* aout the heat in the !esert -writes "E*12. Eo' !o 'e measure thatF

Si; 5egree

%; :es, in !egrees .nthing elseF

S4; =al*ing amels 'al* a long !istance, carr people

%; :es, he might mention ho' "ar the camel 'al*s -writes I/1*4!E2. r F

S; @er slo'l

S; Eo' "ast is the camel

%; :es, ho' "ast the camel 'al*s -writes /PEE2. -5ther possibilities e6plored2

%; =ell, some o" ou guesse! correctl an! some o" ou are 'rong $et2s listen an! see 'ho'as right

. similar guessing acti&it ta*es a!&antage o" the lac* o" real-li"e context in an au!io recor!ing

plaing a short uncontextualise! extract an! as*ing learners to 'or* out 'hat is happening %his is !one to

great e""ect ale an! 5u"" (1978) 'ith passages such as the one elo' on"licting interpretations

lea! to animate !iscussion in the classroom an! (most importantl) to some &er care"ul listening an! re-

listening to Austi" the conclusions that ha&e een reache!

Contextual a#biguity

.; :ou *no' 'hat this is, I2m sure B; /m

; h, isn2t it, er

.; :es, I thought ou might li*e something "amiliar

B; h, es

.; It2s "unn, it too* me a long time to get to li*e it

; hF

.; But no' I2m &er "on! o" it " course, it2s nothing special

B; h no, it2s &er goo!

.; I thought ou2! li*e it (ale an! 5u"", 1978; 8)

1.2.2 uring listening

%he goals o" extensi&e listening remain unchange! - "or the reasons outline! ao&e Eo'e&er, the

approach to intensi&e listening has een greatl restructure!

Pre-set !uestions. I" +uestions are not as*e! until a"ter the recor!ing has een hear!, learners listen in a

36ossile explanations; . has coo*e! a meal "or t'o &isitors "rom o&erseas . has Aust plae! a recor!ing o" a rather

hea& piece o" classical music


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&er untargete! 'a %he are unclear aout 'here to !irect their attention< an! their ailit to ans'er

!epen!s upon 'hich parts o" the recor!ing the happen to ha&e pai! special hee! to %heir responses also

ecome hea&il !epen!ent upon memor - an! their recall ecomes unreliale as the teacher as*s more

an! more +uestions an! as time goes

. polic o" setting +uestions before the secon! pla o" the cassette ensures that learners *no' in a!&ance'hat the are listening "or %he can 'rite notes o" their ans'ers !uring listening, an! their ailit to

respon! 'ill not e !epen!ent upon their ailit to rememer 'hat 'as sai! >ote the con&ention in oth

teaching an! testing (a con&ention that has rarel een +uestione!) 'here the +uestions "ollo' the same

or!er as the passage

Chec"ing answers. %he teacher allo's learners time to 'rite up their ans'ers, an! then chec*s them 'ith

the class as a 'hole %his is sometimes a !i""icult phase o" the listening lesson $earners ma e slo' to

respon! - partl ecause the nee! to s'itch pschologicall "rom the recepti&e role o" listener to the

acti&e one o" class participant ut o"ten ecause o" a lac* o" con"i!ence in their replies Some learners

attriute their insecurit to the "act that the !o not (as in rea!ing) ha&e the text e"ore them in or!er to!oule-chec* e"ore the commit themsel&es to an ans'er ne 'a o" o&ercoming reluctance is "or

learners to compare ans'ers in pairs e"ore sumitting them to the

'hole class

1.2.# Post-listening

$unctional language. %he practice o" replaing a listening passage in or!er to rein"orce recentl taught

grammar has een aan!one!, along 'ith other structuralist notions Eo'e&er, man o" the !ialogues

'hich "eature in pulishe! listening materials represent common tpes o" human interaction %he

there"ore a""or! use"ul an! 'ell-contextualise! examples o" language "unctions such as re"using,

apologising, threatening, o""ering, etc %hese "unctions are relati&el !i""icult to teach in isolation It is'orth'hile !ra'ing attention to an 'hich "eature prominentl in a listening passage, an! e&en pausing

rie"l to practise them

'rawing attention to &unctional language

%; =hat !i! Ceorge sa aout the !amageF

Si; Ee 'ante! to pa

%; 5o ou rememer the 'or!s Ceorge use!F

S; I2ll pa the !amage2

%; :es 2I2ll pa "or the !amage2 So 'hat 'as he !oingFS; Ee promise!

%; >ot +uite promising

S4; Ee o""ere!

%; %hat2s right Ee o""ere! to pa "or the !amage Ee offered . ""er to carr m ag

S; -pause2 I2ll carr our ag

%; ""er to post the letter

SS; I2ll post the letter etc.


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gi&es a 'rong ans'er, it ma not e !ue to a "ailure o" listening at all It ma e ecause heshe has not

un!erstoo! the +uestion properl (a rea!ing prolem) or ecause heshe lac*s the language to "ormulate a

'ritten ans'er (a 'riting prolem) %here has there"ore een a mo&e to'ar!s chec*ing un!erstan!ing

setting tas*s rather than +uestions (see, eg, Blun!ell an! Sto*es, 1981) %hese tas*s can e +uite simple

an in&ol&e the completion o" simple gri!s thers in&ol&e "illing in "orms I" the listening passage is a

!ialogue et'een 2a customer an! a tra&el agent, then the tas* might re+uire the learner to complete the*in! o" "orm that the agent 'oul! e using %he a!&antage o" this *in! o" acti&it is not Aust that it re!uces

the amount an! complexit o" rea!ing (an! in!ee! 'riting) that has to e !one It also aligns the purposes

an! processes o" listening more closel 'ith 'hat occurs in real-li"e encounters

%as*-ase! acti&ities compare "a&oural 'ith the practice o" as*ing 'hole-class comprehension

+uestions, 'here the strong listeners are o"ten *een to respon! 'hile the 'ea*er ones mas* their "ailure o"

un!erstan!ing ehin! right smiles .ll class memers ha&e to participate, an! there is a tangile outcome

in the "orm o" a complete! "orm or chec*list 'hich can e collecte! an! mar*e!

Secon!l, there has een a mo&e to'ar!s using authentic recor!ings 'here&er possile %he term2authentic2 usuall re"ers to listening items originall inten!e! "or the ears o" a nati&e listener rather than

speciall prepare! "or language learners %he arguments "or using such materials are that the expose

learners to the real soun!s o" the language (inclu!ing the hesitations o" spontaneous speech) an! that the

pro&i!e a listening experience more li*e that o" real li"e, 'here stu!ents !o not *no' e&er 'or! an! ha&e

to ma*e guesses to "ill in gaps in un!erstan!ing

%o summarise, the changes that ha&e ta*en place re"lect three !e&elopments in the 'a listening is

&ie'e! 3irstl, there has een a shi"t in perspecti&e so that listening as a s*ill ta*es priorit o&er !etails o"

language content Secon!l, there has een a 'ish to relate the nature o" listening practise! in the

classroom to the *in! o" listening that ta*es place in real li"e %his is re"lecte! in the 'a the teacherpro&i!es contextual ac*groun!, gi&es practice in in"erring the meaning o" ne' 'or!s, uses recor!ings

'hich are 2authentic2 in origin an! uses simulate! tas*s rather than "ormal exercises %hir!l, 'e ha&e

ecome a'are o" the importance o" pro&i!ing moti&ation an! a "ocus "or listening %he listener is

encourage! to !e&elop expectations as to 'hat 'ill e hear! in the recor!ing, then to chec* them against

'hat is actuall sai! B pre-setting +uestions an! tas*s, 'e ensure that learners are clear "rom the start

aout the purpose o" the listening exercise an! 'ill not ha&e to rel hea&il on memor

1.( Conclusion

%he purpose ehin! this re&ie' o" changing practice has een to highlight some o" the principles 'hich

ga&e rise to present-!a approaches to the teaching o" listening It ma seem curious that the !iscussionshoul! ha&e co&ere! these important i!eas in the rie" space o" a single chapter rather

than exten!ing them o&er the maAor part o" the oo* But the o&er&ie' presente! here is inten!e! to ser&e

simpl as a point o" !eparture aim is not to pro&i!e a !etaile! exposition o" current practice< other

sources (/r, 1984< /n!er'oo!, 1989< =ilson, 008) alrea! !o that comprehensi&el, i" in rather

!i""erent 'as "rom the historical angle a!opte! here Instea!, it is to challenge man o" the recei&e! i!eas

'hich un!erlie our &ie's o" secon! language listening an! the metho!s that 'e emplo in practising it in

the classroom It 'ill e argue! that our present comprehension-ase! metho!olog is "la'e! . case 'ill


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