Reading Comprehension Problem Set #3€¦ · Reading Comprehension Problem Set #3. 3 3 3 3 3...

ReadingComprehensionProblemSet#3

3 3 3 3 3 Passage#21:June1996Questions9-14

ManyNativeAmericansviewthearchaeologicalexcavationandmuseumdisplayofancestralskeletal

remainsanditemsburiedwiththemasaspiritualdesecration.Anumberoflegalremediesthateither

(5) prohibitorregulatesuchactivitiesmaybeavailabletoNativeAmericancommunities,iftheycanestablishstandinginsuchcases.Indisintermentcases,courtshavetraditionallyaffirmedthestandingofthreeclasses

ofplaintiffs:thedeceased’sheirs,theownerofthe(10) propertyonwhichthegraveislocated,andparties,

includingorganizationsordistantrelativesofthedeceased,thathaveaclearinterestinthepreservationofaparticulargrave.Ifanarchaeologicallydiscoveredgraveisofrecenthistoricaloriginandassociatedwith

(15) anidentifiableNativeAmericancommunity,NativeAmericansarelikelytoestablishstandinginasuitto

preventdisintermentoftheremains,butincaseswhere thegraveisancientandlocatedinanareawherethe

communityofNativeAmericansassociatedwiththe(20) gravehasnotrecentlylived,theyarelesslikelytobe successfulinthisregard.Indeed,inmostcases

involvingancientgraves,torecognizethatNativeAmericanshavestandingwouldrepresentasignificantexpansionofcommonlaw.Incaseswherestandingcan

(25) beachieved,however,commonlawmayprovideabasisforsomeNativeAmericanclaimsagainstarchaeologistsandmuseums.

Propertylaw,forexample,canbeusefulinestablishingNativeAmericanclaimstoartifactsthat

(30) areretrievedintheexcavationofancientgravesandcanbeconsideredthecommunalpropertyofNativeAmericantribesorcommunities.InCharrier v. Bell,aUnitedStatesappellatecourtruledthatthecommonlawdoctrineofabandonment,whichallowsthefinder

(35) ofabandonedpropertytoclaimownership,doesnot applytoobjectsburiedwiththedeceased.Thecourt

ruledthatthepracticeofburyingitemswiththebody ofthedeceased“isnotintendedasameansof

relinquishingownershiptoastranger,”andthatto(40) interpretitassuch“wouldrenderagravesubjectto

despoliationeitherimmediatelyafterintermentor... afterremovalofthedescendantsofthedeceasedfrom theneighborhoodofthecemetery.”Thisruling

suggeststhatartifactsexcavatedfromNativeAmerican(45) ancestralgravesshouldbereturnedtorepresentatives

oftribalgroupswhocanestablishstandinginsuchcases.

Moregenerally,UnitedStatescourtshaveupheldthedistinctionbetweenindividualandcommunal

(50) property,holdingthatanindividualNativeAmericandoesnothavetitletocommunalpropertyownedandheldforcommonusebyhisorhertribe.Asaresult,museumscannotassumethattheyhavevalidtitletoculturalpropertymerelybecausetheypurchasedin

(55) goodfaithanitemthatwasoriginallysoldingoodfaithbyanindividualmemberofaNativeAmericancommunity.

9. Theprimarypurposeofthepassageistoprovideananswertowhichoneofthefollowingquestions?

(A) HowshouldthelegalprotectionofNativeAmericanburialgroundsbeenhanced?

(B) WhatcharacteristicsofNativeAmericanburialgroundsenhancetheirchancesforprotectionbythelaw?

(C) InwhatwaysdoesthelawprotecttherightsofNativeAmericansinregardtothecontentsofancestralgraves?

(D) WhyarethecourtsconcernedwithprotectingNativeAmericanburialgroundsfromdesecration?

(E) BywhatmeanscanNativeAmericansestablishtheirrightstolandonwhichtheirancestorsareburied?

10. ItcanbeinferredthatacourtwouldbemostlikelytodenystandinginadisintermentcasetowhichoneofthefollowingNativeAmericanplaintiffs?

(A) onewhoseeks,asoneofseveralbeneficiariesofhisfather’sestate,toprotectthefather’sburialsite

(B) onewhoseekstopreventtenantsonherlandfromtakingartifactsfromagravelocatedontheproperty

(C) onewhorepresentsatribewhosemembershopetopreventthedisintermentofremainsfromadistantlocationfromwhichthetriberecentlymoved

(D) onewhoseekstohaveartifactsthathavebeenremovedfromagravedeterminedtobethatofhersecondcousinreturnedtothegrave

(E) onewhoseeksthereturnofartifactstakenfromtheancientburialgroundsofdisparatetribesandnowdisplayedinamuseum

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3 3 3 3 311. Accordingtothepassage,whichoneofthefollowingis

trueofcasesinvolvingancientgraves?

(A) Onceaplaintiff’sstandinghasbeenestablished,suchcasesareusuallymoredifficulttoresolvethanarecasesinvolvingmorerecentgraves.

(B) Thedistinctionbetweenindividualandcommunalpropertyisusuallyanissueinsuchcases.

(C) Evenwhenaplaintiff’sstandinghasbeenestablished,propertylawcannotbeusedasabasisfortheclaimsofNativeAmericansinmostsuchcases.

(D) Inmostsuchcases,commonlawdoesnotcurrentlyprovideaclearbasisforestablishingthatNativeAmericanshavestanding.

(E) CommonlawisrarelyusedasabasisfortheclaimsofNativeAmericanswhohaveestablishedstandinginsuchcases.

12. ThepassagesuggeststhatinmakingtherulinginCharrier v. Bellthecourtismostlikelytohaveconsideredtheanswertowhichoneofthefollowingquestions?

(A) Arethedescendantsofthedeceasedstillalive?(B) Whatwasthereasonforburyingtheobjectsin

question?(C) Howlongafterintermenthadburiedobjectsbeen

claimedbyastranger?(D) Didthedescendantsofthedeceasedremainin

theneighborhoodofthecemetery?(E) Couldthepropertyonwhichburiedobjectswere

foundbelegallyconsideredtobeabandonedproperty?

13. Theauthorusesthesecondparagraphto

(A) illustratethecontentionthatcommonlawmaysupporttheclaimsofNativeAmericanstothecontentsofancestralgraves

(B) exemplifythedifficultiesthatNativeAmericansarelikelytoencounterinclaimingancestralremains

(C) introduceadiscussionofthedistinctionbetweenindividualandcommunalproperty

(D) confirmthecontentionthatcasesinvolvingancientgravespresentunresolvedlegalproblems

(E) suggestthatpropertylawisapplicableinmostdisintermentcases

14. Whichoneofthefollowingbestexpressesthemainideaofthepassage?

(A) Priortoanappellatecourt’srulinginCharrier v. Bell,NativeAmericanshadnolegalgroundsfordemandingthereturnofartifactsexcavatedfromancientgraves.

(B) PropertylawoffersthemostpromisingremediestoNativeAmericansseekingtorecovercommunallyownedartifactsthatweresoldtomuseumswithouttribalauthorization.

(C) Theolderthegrave,themoredifficultitisforNativeAmericanstoestablishstandingincasesconcerningthedispositionofarchaeologicallyexcavatedancestralremains.

(D) IncasesinwhichNativeAmericanscanestablishstanding,commonlawcanbeusefulinprotectingancestralremainsandtheartifactsburiedwiththem.

(E) NativeAmericansareunlikelytomakesignificantprogressintherecoveryofculturalpropertyuntilcommonlawissignificantlyexpandedtoprovidethemwithstandingincasesinvolvingtheexcavationofancientgraves.

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3 3 3 3 3 Passage#22:October1996Questions7-14

Bythemid-fourteenthcentury,professionalassociationsofcanonlawyers(legaladvocatesinChristianecclesiasticalcourts,whichdealtwithcasesinvolvingmarriage,inheritance,andotherissues)had

(5) appearedinmostofWesternEurope,andabodyofprofessionalstandardshadbeendefinedforthem.One

mightexpectthattheprofessionalassociationswouldplayaprominentroleinenforcingthesestandardsofconduct,asotherguildsoftendid,andasmodem

(10) professionalassociationsdo,butthatseemsnottohave happened.Advocates’professionalorganizations

showedlittlefervorfordiscipliningtheirerringmembers.Someevenattemptedtohobbleeffortsat

enforcement.TheFlorentineguildoflawyers,for(15) example,forbadeitsmemberstoplayanyrolein disciplinaryproceedingsagainstotherguildmembers.

Inthefewrecordedepisodesofdisciplinaryenforcement,theinitiativefordisciplinaryactionapparentlycamefromadissatisfiedclient,notfrom

(20) fellowlawyers. Atfirstglance,thereseemtobetwopossible

explanationsfortherarityofdisciplinaryproceedings.Medievalcanonlawyersmayhavegenerallyobservedthestandardsofprofessionalconductscrupulously.

(25) Alternatively,itispossiblethatdeviationsfromtheestablishedstandardsofbehaviorwerenotuncommon,butthatcanonicaldisciplinarymechanismsweresoinefficientthatmostdelinquentsescapeddetectionandpunishment.

(30) Twoconsiderationsmakeitclearthatthesecondof theseexplanationsismoreplausible.First,theEnglish civillawcourts,whoseethicalstandardsweresimilar tothoseofecclesiasticalcourts,showmanymore

examplesofdisciplinaryactionsagainstlegal(35) practitionersthandotherecordsofchurchcourts.This

discrepancycouldwellindicatethatthedisciplinarymechanismsofthecivilcourtsfunctionedmoreefficientlythanthoseofthechurchcourts.Thealternativeinference,namely,thatecclesiastical

(40) advocateswerelesspronetoethicallapsesthantheircounterpartsinthecivilcourts,seemsinherentlyweak,especiallysincetherewassomeoverlapofpersonnelbetweenthecivilbarandtheecclesiasticalbar.

Second,churchauthoritiesthemselvescomplained(45) aboutthefailureofadvocatestomeasureuptoethical standardsanddeploredtheshortcomingsofthe

disciplinarysystem.ThustheCouncilofBaseldeclaredthatcanonlawyersfailedtoadheretotheethicalprescriptionslaiddowninnumerouspapal

(50) constitutionsanddirectedCardinalCesarinitoaddresstheproblem.InEngland,wheremedievalchurchrecordsareextraordinarilyrich,similarcomplaintsaboutthefailureofthedisciplinarysystemtoreformunethicalpracticeswereverycommon.

(55) Suchcriticismsseemtohavehadaparadoxicalresult,fortheyapparentlyreinforcedtheprofessionalsolidarityoflawyersattheexpenseoftheenforcementofethicalstandards.Thustheprofession’scriticsmay

actuallyhaveinducedadvocatestoorganize(60) professionalassociationsforself-defense.Thecritics’

attacksmayalsohavepersuadedlawyerstoassignahigherprioritytodefendingthemselvesagainstattacksbynonprofessionalsthantodiscipliningwaywardmemberswithintheirownranks.

7. Whichoneofthefollowingbeststatesthemainconclusionofthepassage?

(A) Professionalorganizationsofmedievalcanonlawyersprobablyonlyenforcedethicalstandardsamongtheirownmemberswhenprovokedtodosobyoutsidecriticisms.

(B) Professionalorganizationsofmedievalcivillawyersseemtohavemaintainedstricterethicalstandardsfortheirownmembersthandidprofessionalorganizationsofmedievalcanonlawyers.

(C) Professionalorganizationsofmedievalcanonlawyersapparentlyservedtodefendtheirmembersagainstcritics’attacksratherthantoenforceethicalstandards.

(D) Theethicalstandardsmaintainedbyprofessionalassociationsofmedievalcanonlawyerswerechieflylaiddowninpapalconstitutions.

(E) Ethicalstandardsformedievalcanonlawyerswerenotlaiddownuntilprofessionalorganizationsfortheselawyershadbeenformed.

8. Accordingtothepassage,whichoneofthefollowingstatementsaboutlawcourtsinmedievalEnglandistrue?

(A) SomeEnglishlawyerswhopracticedincivilcourtsalsopracticedinchurchcourts,butothersservedexclusivelyinonecourtortheother.

(B) EnglishcanonlawyersweremorelikelytoinitiatedisciplinaryproceedingsagainsttheircolleaguesthanwereEnglishcivillawyers.

(C) EnglishcivillawyersmaintainedmorestringentethicalstandardsthandidcivillawyersintherestofEurope.

(D) EnglishecclesiasticalcourtshadoriginallybeenmodeleduponEnglishcivilcourts.

(E) EnglishecclesiasticalcourtskeptricherandmorethoroughrecordsthandidEnglishcivilcourts.

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3 3 3 3 39. TheauthorreferstotheFlorentineguildoflawyersin

thefirstparagraphmostprobablyinorderto

(A) introduceatheoryabouttobepromoted(B) illustratethetypeofactionreferredtointhe

previoussentence(C) underlinetheuniversalityofamethoddiscussed

throughouttheparagraph(D) pointoutaflawinanargumentpresentedearlier

intheparagraph(E) rebutananticipatedobjectiontoathesisjust

proposed

10. TheauthorreferstotheCouncilofBasel(line47)primarilyinorderto

(A) provideanexampleofthetypeofactionneededtoestablishprofessionalstandardsforcanonlawyers

(B) contrastthereactionsofEnglishchurchauthoritieswiththereactionsofotherbodiestoviolationsofprofessionalstandardsbycanonlawyers

(C) bolstertheargumentthatviolationsofprofessionalstandardsbycanonlawyersdidtakeplace

(D) explainhowrulesofconductforcanonlawyerswereestablished

(E) describethedevelopmentofadisciplinarysystemtoenforceprofessionalstandardsamongcanonlawyers

11. Accordingtotheinformationinthepassage,forwhichoneofthefollowingethicalviolationswoulddocumentationofdisciplinaryactionagainstacanonlawyerbemostlikelytoexist?

(A) betrayingaclient’ssecretstotheopposingparty(B) bribingthejudgetoruleinfavorofaclient(C) misrepresentingcredentialsinordertogain

admissiontothelawyers’guild(D) spreadingrumorsinordertodiscreditan

opposinglawyer(E) knowinglyhelpingaclienttomisrepresentthe

truth

12. Whichoneofthefollowingismostanalogoustothe“professionalsolidarity”referredtoinlines56-57?

(A) Membersofateachers’uniongoonstrikewhentheybelieveoneoftheircolleaguestobefalselyaccusedofusinganinappropriatetextbook.

(B) Inordertoprotectthereputationofthepressinthefaceofalargelyhostilepublic,ajournalistconcealsdistortionsinacolleague’snewsarticle.

(C) Severaldozenrecordingartistsagreetoparticipateinaconcerttobenefitanendangeredenvironmentalhabitat.

(D) Inordertoexpeditegovernmentalapprovalofadrug,agovernmentofficialispersuadedtolooktheotherwaywhenapharmaceuticalmanufacturerconcealsevidencethatthedrugmayhaveminorsideeffects.

(E) Apopularpoliticianagreestocampaignforanother,lesspopularpoliticianbelongingtothesamepoliticalparty.

13. Thepassagesuggeststhatwhichoneofthefollowingismostlikelytohavebeentrueofmedievalguilds?

(A) Fewguildsofanyimportanceexistedbeforethemid-fourteenthcentury.

(B) Manymedievalguildsexercisedinfluenceovertheactionsoftheirmembers.

(C) Mostmedievalguildsmaintainedmoreexactingethicalstandardsthandidtheassociationsofcanonlawyers.

(D) Medievalguildsfounditdifficulttoenforcedisciplineamongtheirmembers.

(E) Theethicalstandardsofmedievalguildsvariedfromonecitytoanother.

14. Theauthorwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingregardingthehypothesisthatmedievalcanonlawyersobservedstandardsofprofessionalconductscrupulously?

(A) Itisuntruebecauseitiscontradictedbydocumentsobtainedfromtheecclesiasticalcourts.

(B) Itisunlikelybecauseitdescribesbehaviormarkedlydifferentfrombehaviorobservedinthesamesituationinmodemsociety.

(C) Itisunlikelybecauseitdescribesbehaviormarkedlydifferentfrombehaviorobservedinasimilarareaofmedievalsociety.

(D) Itisimpossibletoassessintelligentlybecauseofthedearthofcivilandecclesiasticaldocuments.

(E) Itisdirectlysupportedbydocumentsobtainedfromcivilandecclesiasticalcourts.

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Manybirdsthatformflockscompetethroughaggressiveinteractionforpriorityofaccesstoresourcessuchasfoodandshelter.Theresultofrepeatedinteractionsbetweenflockmembersisthat

(5) eachbirdgainsaparticularsocialstatusrelatedtoitsfightingability,withpriorityofaccesstoresourcesincreasingwithhigherstatus.Asthenumberandintensityofinteractionsbetweenbirdsincrease,however,soincreasethecoststoeachbirdintermsof

(10) energyexpenditure,time,andriskofinjury.Thus,birdspossessingattributesthatreducethenumberofcostlyinteractionsinwhichtheymustbeinvolved,withoutleadingtoareductioninstatus,areatanadvantage.Anexternalsignal,suchasaplumagetype,

(15) announcingfightingabilityandtherebyobviatingtheactualneedtofight,couldbeonesuchattribute.

ThezoologistRohwerassertedthatplumagevariationsin“Harrissparrows”supportthestatussignalinghypothesis(SSH).Hereportedthatalmost

(20) withoutexceptionbirdswithdarkerthroatswinconflictswithindividualshavinglighterplumage.Heclaimedthatevenamongbirdsofthesameageandsex

theamountofdarkplumagepredictsrelativedominancestatus.

(25) However,Rohwer’sdatadonotsupporthisassertions:inoneofhisstudiesdarkerbirdswononly57outof75conflicts;withinanother,focusingonconflictsbetweenbirdsofthesameagegrouporsex,darkerbirdswon63andlost62.Thereareindications

(30) thatplumageprobablydoessignalbroadage-relateddifferencesinstatusamongHarrissparrows:adults,usuallydarkthroated,havehigherstatusthanjuveniles,

whoareusuallylightthroated;moreover,juvenilesdyedtoresembleadultsaredominantoverundyed

(35) juveniles.However,theHarrissparrows’age-relatedplumagedifferencesdonotsignalthestatusofindividualbirdswithinanageclass,andthuscannot

properlybeincludedundertheterm“statussignaling.” Thebestevidenceforstatussignalingisfromthe(40) greatertitmouse.Experimentsshowastrong

correlationbetweenthewidthoftheblackbreastplumagestripeandstatusasmeasuredbysuccessinaggressiveinteractions.Ananalysisoffactorslikelyto

beassociatedwithbreast-stripewidth(sex,age,wing(45) length,bodyweight)hasdemonstratedsocialstatusto betheonlyvariablethatcorrelateswithstripewidth

whentheothervariablesareheldconstant. Aningeniousexperimentprovidedfurtherevidence

forstatussignalinginthegreatertitmouse.Oneof(50) threestuffedtitmousedummieswasmountedona feedingtray.Whenalivebirdapproached,thedummy wasfumedbyradiocontroltofacethebirdandpresent itsbreaststripein“display.”Whenpresentedwitha dummyhavinganarrowerbreaststripethantheirown,(55) birdsapproachedcloselyandbehavedaggressively.

However,whenpresentedwithadummyhavingabroaderbreaststripethantheirown,livebirdsactedsubmissiveanddidnotapproach.

15. Accordingtothepassage,thestatussignalinghypothesisholdsthattheabilitytodisplayarecognizableexternalsignalwouldhavetheeffectonanindividualbirdof

(A) enablingittoattractamateofhighstatus(B) allowingittoavoidcostlyaggressiveinteractions(C) decreasingitsaccesstolimitedresources(D) makingitlessattractivetopredatoryspecies(E) increasingitsfightingability

16. TheauthorreferstothefactthatadultHarrissparrowsareusuallydarkthroated(lines31-32),inordertodowhichoneofthefollowing?

(A) supporttheconclusionthatplumagevariationamongHarrissparrowsprobablydoesnotsignalindividualstatus

(B) arguethatplumagevariationamongHarrissparrowshelpstoconfirmthestatussignalinghypothesis

(C) indicatethatinlightofplumagevariationpatternsamongHarrissparrows,thestatussignalinghypothesisshouldprobablybemodified

(D) demonstratethatHarrissparrowsarethemostappropriatesubjectsforthestudyofstatussignalingamongbirds

(E) suggestthatthesignalingofage-relateddifferencesinstatusiswidespreadamongbirdsthatformflocks

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3 3 3 3 317. Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmost

seriouslyunderminethevalidityoftheresultsoftheexperimentdiscussedinthelastparagraph?

(A) Thelivebirdsallcamefromdifferenttitmouseflocks.

(B) Thephysicalcharacteristicsofthestuffeddummiesvariedinwaysotherthanjustbreaststripewidth.

(C) Nolivejuvenilebirdswereincludedintheexperiment.

(D) Thefoodplacedinthefeedingtraywasnotthekindoffoodnormallyeatenbytitmiceinthewild.

(E) Eventhelivebirdsthatactedaggressivelydidnotactuallyphysicallyattackthestuffeddummies.

18. Whichoneofthefollowingbestdescribestheorganizationofthepassage?

(A) Ahypothesisisintroducedandstudiesrelevanttothehypothesisarediscussedandevaluated.

(B) Anaturalphenomenonispresentedandseveralexplanationsforthephenomenonareexaminedindetail.

(C) Behaviorisdescribed,possibleunderlyingcausesforthebehaviorarereported,andthelikelihoodofeachcauseisassessed.

(D) Ascientificconundrumisexplainedandthehistoryoftheissueisrecounted.

(E) Ascientifictheoryisoutlinedandopinionsforandagainstitsvalidityaswellasexperimentssupportingeachsidearecompared.

19. Accordingtothepassage,whichoneofthefollowingistrueofRohwer’srelationshiptothestatussignalinghypothesis(SSH)?

(A) AlthoughhisresearchwasdesignedtotesttheSSH,hisdataprovedtobemorerelevanttootherissues.

(B) HesetouttoconfirmtheSSH,butendeduprevisingit.

(C) HesetouttodisprovetheSSH,butendedupacceptingit.

(D) HealteredtheSSHbyexpandingittoencompassvarioustypesofsignals.

(E) HeadvocatedtheSSH,buthisresearchdatafailedtoconfirmit.

20. Thepassagesuggeststhatamongbirdsthatformflocks,abirdofhighstatusismostlikelytohavewhichoneofthefollowing?

(A) darkthroatplumage(B) greater-than-averagebodyweight(C) offspringofhighstatus(D) strongfightingability(E) frequentinjuries

21. WhichoneofthefollowingcanbeinferredaboutHarrissparrowsfromthepassage?

(A) AmongHarrissparrows,plumagedifferencessignalindividualstatusonlywithinagegroups.

(B) AmongHarrissparrows,adultshavepriorityofaccesstofoodoverjuveniles.

(C) AmongHarrissparrows,juvenileswithrelativelydarkplumagehavestatusequaltothatofadultswithrelativelylightplumage.

(D) juvenileHarrissparrowsengageinaggressiveinteractionmorefrequentlythandoadultHarrissparrows.

(E) Harrissparrowsengageinaggressiveinteractionlessfrequentlythandogreatertitmice.

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3 3 3 3 3 Passage#24:June1997Questions9-16

Inrecentyears,agrowingbeliefthatthewaysocietydecideswhattotreatastrueiscontrolledthroughlargelyunrecognizeddiscursivepracticeshasledlegalreformerstoexaminethecomplex

(5) interconnectionsbetweennarrativeandlaw.Inmany legalsystems,legaljudgmentsarebasedoncompeting storiesaboutevents.Withouthavingwitnessedthese

events,judgesandjuriesmustvalidatesomestoriesas trueandrejectothersasfalse.Thisprocedureisrooted(10) inobjectivism,aphilosophicalapproachthathas

supportedmostWesternlegalandintellectualsystemsforcenturies.Objectivismholdsthatthereisasingleneutraldescriptionofeacheventthatisunskewedbyanyparticularpointofviewandthathasaprivileged

(15) positionoverallotheraccounts.Thelaw’squestfortruth,therefore,consistsoflocatingthisobjectivedescription,theonethattellswhatreallyhappened,as

opposedtowhatthoseinvolvedthoughthappened.The seriousflawinobjectivismisthatthereisnosuchthing(20) astheneutral,objectiveobserver.Aspsychologists

havedemonstrated,allobserversbringtoasituationa setofexpectations,values,andbeliefsthatdetermine

whattheobserversareabletoseeandhear.Twoindividualslisteningtothesamestorywillhear

(25) differentthings,becausetheyemphasizethoseaspects thataccordwiththeirlearnedexperiencesandignore

thoseaspectsthataredissonatewiththeirviewofthe world.Hencethereisneveranyescapeinlifeorinlaw fromselectiveperception,orfromsubjective(30) judgmentsbasedonpriorexperiences,values,and

beliefs. Thesocietalharmcausedbytheassumptionof

objectivistprinciplesintraditionallegaldiscourseisthat,historically,thestoriesjudgedtobeobjectively

(35) truearethosetoldbypeoplewhoaretrainedinlegaldiscourse,whilethestoriesofthosewhoarenotfluent

inthelanguageofthelawarerejectedasfalse. LegalscholarssuchasPatriciaWilliams,Derrick

Bell,andMariMatsudahavesoughtempowermentfor(40) thelattergroupofpeoplethroughtheconstructionof

alternativelegalnarratives.Objectivistlegaldiscoursesystematicallydisallowsthelanguageofemotionandexperiencebyfocusingoncognitioninitsnarrowestsense.Theselegalreformersproposereplacingsuch

(45) abstractdiscoursewithpowerfulpersonalstories.They arguethattheabsorbing,nonthreateningstructureand

toneofpersonalstoriesmayconvincelegalinsidersfor thefirsttimetolistentothosenotfluentinlegal

language.Thecompellingforceofpersonalnarrative(50) cancreateasenseofempathybetweenlegalinsiders

andpeopletraditionallyexcludedfromlegaldiscourse and,hence,frompower.Suchalternativenarrativescan shatterthecomplacencyofthelegalestablishmentand disturbitstranquility.Thus,theengagingpowerof(55) narrativemightplayacrucial,positiveroleinthe

processoflegalreconstructionbyovercomingdifferencesinbackgroundandtrainingandforminganewcollectivitybasedonemotionalempathy.

9. Whichoneofthefollowingbeststatesthemainideaofthepassage?

(A) Somelegalscholarshavesoughttoempowerpeoplehistoricallyexcludedfromtraditionallegaldiscoursebyinstructingthemintheformsofdiscoursefavoredbylegalinsiders.

(B) Somelegalscholarshavebeguntorealizethesocialharmcausedbytheadversarialatmospherethathaspervadedmanylegalsystemsforcenturies.

(C) Somelegalscholarshaveproposedalleviatingtheharmcausedbytheprominenceofobjectivistprincipleswithinlegaldiscoursebyreplacingthatdiscoursewithalternativeformsoflegalnarrative.

(D) Somelegalscholarshavecontendedthatthosewhofeelexcludedfromobjectivistlegalsystemswouldbeempoweredbytheconstructionofanewlegallanguagethatbetterreflectedobjectivistprinciples.

(E) Somelegalscholarshavearguedthatthebasicflawinherentinobjectivisttheorycanberemediedbyrecognizingthatitisnotpossibletoobtainasingleneutraldescriptionofaparticularevent.

10. Accordingtothepassage,whichoneofthefollowingistrueabouttheintellectualsystemsmentionedinline11?

(A) Theyhavelongassumedthepossibilityofaneutraldepictionofevents.

(B) Theyhavegenerallyremainedunskewedbyparticularpointsofview.

(C) Theirdiscursivepracticeshaveyettobeanalyzedbylegalscholars.

(D) Theyaccordaprivilegedpositiontothelanguageofemotionandexperience.

(E) Theaccuracyoftheirbasictenetshasbeenconfirmedbypsychologists.

11. Whichoneofthefollowingbestdescribesthesenseof“cognition”referredtoinline43ofthepassage?

(A) logicalthinkinguninfluencedbypassion(B) theinterpretationofvisualcues(C) humanthoughtthatencompassesallemotionand

experience(D) thereasoningactuallyemployedbyjudgesto

arriveatlegaljudgments(E) suddeninsightsinspiredbythepowerofpersonal

stories

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3 3 3 3 312. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatWilliams,Bell,

andMatsudabelievewhichoneofthefollowingtobeacentralcomponentoflegalreform?

(A) incorporatingintothelawthelatestdevelopmentsinthefieldsofpsychologyandphilosophy

(B) eradicatingfromlegaljudgmentsdiscoursewithaparticularpointofview

(C) grantingallparticipantsinlegalproceedingsequalaccesstotrainingintheformsandmanipulationoflegaldiscourse

(D) makingthelawmoreresponsivetothediscursivepracticesofawidervarietyofpeople

(E) instillinganappreciationoflegalhistoryandmethodologyinalltheparticipantsinalegalproceeding

13. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribestheauthor’sattitudetowardproposalstointroducepersonalstoriesintolegaldiscourse?

(A) stronglyopposed(B) somewhatskeptical(C) ambivalent(D) stronglysupportive(E) unreservedlyoptimistic

14. ThepassagesuggeststhatWilliams,Bell,andMatsudawouldmostlikelyagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatementsregardingpersonalstories?

(A) Personalstoriesaremorelikelytoadheretotheprinciplesofobjectivismthanareotherformsofdiscourse.

(B) Personalstoriesaremorelikelytodeemphasizedifferencesinbackgroundandtrainingthanaretraditionalformsoflegaldiscourse.

(C) Personalstoriesaremorelikelytorestoretranquilitytothelegalestablishmentthanaremoreadversarialformsofdiscourse.

(D) Personalstoriesaremorelikelytoleadtotheaccuratereconstructionoffactsthanaretraditionalformsoflegalnarrative.

(E) Personalstoriesaremorelikelytobeinfluencedbyaperson’sexpectations,values,andbeliefsthanareotherformsofdiscourse.

15. Whichoneofthefollowingstatementsaboutlegaldiscourseinlegalsystemsbasedonobjectivismcanbeinferredfromthepassage?

(A) InmostWesternsocieties,thelegalestablishmentcontrolsaccesstotraininginlegaldiscourse.

(B) ExpertiseinlegaldiscourseaffordspowerinmostWesternsocieties.

(C) Legaldiscoursehasbecomeprogressivelymoreabstractforsomecenturies.

(D) Legaldiscoursehastraditionallydeniedtheexistenceofneutral,objectiveobservers.

(E) Traditionallegaldiscourseseekstoreconciledissonantworldviews.

16. Thosewhorejectobjectivismwouldregard“thelaw’squestfortruth”(lines15-16)asmostsimilartowhichoneofthefollowing?

(A) ahuntforanimaginaryanimal(B) thesearchforavaluablemineralamong

worthlessstones(C) thepainstakingassemblyofajigsawpuzzle(D) comparinganapplewithanorange(E) thescientificanalysisofachemicalcompound

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3 3 3 3 3 Passage#25:December1997Questions1-6

Tomanydevelopersoftechnologiesthataffect publichealthortheenvironment,“risk

communication”meanspersuadingthepublicthatthepotentialrisksofsuchtechnologiesaresmalland

(5) shouldbeignored.Thosewhocommunicaterisksin thiswayseemtobelievethatlaypeopledonot

understandtheactualnatureoftechnologicalrisk,and theycancitestudiesassertingthat,althoughpeople

apparentlyignoremundanehazardsthatpose(10) significantdanger,theygetupsetaboutexotichazards

thatposelittlechanceofdeathorinjury.Becausesome riskcommunicatorstakethispersuasivestance,many

laypeoplesee“riskcommunication”asaeuphemismforbrainwashingdonebyexperts.

(15) Since,however,thegoalofriskcommunicationshouldbetoenablepeopletomakeinformeddecisions

abouttechnologicalrisks,aclearunderstandingabout howthepublicperceivesriskisneeded.Laypeople’s definitionsof“risk”aremorelikelytoreflect(20) subjectiveethicalconcernsthanareexperts’

definitions.Laypeople,forexample,tendtoperceivea smallrisktochildrenasmoresignificantthanalarger risktoconsentingadultswhobenefitfromtherisk- creatingtechnology.However,ifaskedtorankhazards(25) bythenumberofannualfatalities,withoutreferenceto ethicaljudgments,laypeopleprovidequitereasonable estimates,demonstratingthattheyhavesubstantial

knowledgeaboutmanyrisks.Althoughsomestudiesclaimtodemonstratethatlaypeoplehaveinappropriate

(30) concernsaboutexotichazards,thesestudiesoftenuse questionablemethods,suchasaskinglaypeopleto rankrisksthatarehardtocompare.Incontrast,arecent studyshowedthatwhenlaypeopleweregiventhe necessaryfactsandtime,theyunderstoodthespecific(35) risksofelectromagneticfieldsproducedbyhigh-

voltagepowertransmissionwellenoughtomakeinformeddecisions.

Riskcommunicationshouldthereforebebasedontheprinciplethatpeopleprocessnewinformationin

(40) thecontextoftheirexistingbeliefs.Ifpeopleknownothingaboutatopic,theywillfindmessagesaboutthattopicincomprehensible.Iftheyhaveerroneousbeliefs,theyarelikelytomisconstruethemessages.Thus,communicatorsneedtoknowthenatureand

(45) extentofrecipients’knowledgeandbeliefsinorderto designmessagesthatwillnotbedismissedor

misinterpreted.Thisneedwasdemonstratedinaresearchprojectconcerningthepublic’slevelofknowledgeaboutrisksposedbythepresenceofradon

(50) inthehome.Researchersusedopen-endedinterviews andquestionnairestodeterminewhatinformation

shouldbeincludedintheirbrochureonradon.Subjects whoreadtheresearchers’brochureperformed

significantlybetterinunderstandingradonrisksthan(55) didacontrolgroupwhoreadabrochurethatwas

writtenusingadifferentapproachbyagovernmentagency.Thus,carefulpreparationcanhelpriskcommunicatorstoproducebalancedmaterialthattells

peoplewhattheyneedtoknowtomakedecisions(60) abouttechnologicalrisks.

1. Whichoneofthefollowingbestexpressesthemainpointofthepassage?

(A) Riskcommunicatorsareeffectivelyaddressingtheproliferationofcomplextechnologiesthathaveincreasingimpactonpublichealthandsafety.

(B) Riskcommunicatorsshouldassesslaypeople’sunderstandingoftechnologiesinordertobeabletogivethemtheinformationtheyneedtomakereasonabledecisions.

(C) Expertswhowanttocommunicatetothepublicaboutthepossiblerisksofcomplextechnologiesmustsimplifytheirmessagetoensurethatitisunderstandable.

(D) Riskcommunicationcanbeperceivedasthetaskofpersuadinglaypeopletoaccepttheimpactofaparticulartechnologyontheirlives.

(E) Laypeoplecanbeundulyinfluencedbysubjectiveconcernswhenmakingdecisionsabouttechnologicalrisks.

2. Theauthorsofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytoagreethattheprimarypurposeofriskcommunicationshouldbeto

(A) explainratherthantopersuade(B) promoteratherthantojustify(C) influenceexpertsratherthantoinfluencelay

people(D) allaypeople’sfearsaboutmundanehazards

ratherthanaboutexotichazards(E) fosterpublicacceptanceofnewtechnologies

ratherthantoacknowledgepeople’sethicalconcerns

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.

3 3 3 3 33. Accordingtothepassage,itisprobablethatwhichone

ofthefollowingwilloccurwhenriskcommunicatorsattempttocommunicatewithlaypeoplewhohavemistakenideasaboutaparticulartechnology?

(A) Thelaypeople,perceivingthattheriskcommunicatorshaveprovidedmore-reliableinformation,willdiscardtheirmistakennotions.

(B) Thelaypeoplewillonlypartiallyrevisetheirideasonthebasisofthenewinformation.

(C) Thelaypeople,fittingthenewinformationintotheirexistingframework,willinterpretthecommunicationdifferentlythantheriskcommunicatorshadintended.

(D) Thelaypeople,misunderstandingthenewinformation,willfurtherdistorttheinformationwhentheycommunicateittootherlaypeople.

(E) Thelaypeoplewillignoreanycommunicationaboutatechnologytheyconsiderpotentiallydangerous.

4. Whichoneofthefollowingismostclearlyanexampleofthekindofriskperceptiondiscussedinthe“studies”mentionedinline8?

(A) Askydiverchecksthelinesonherparachuteseveraltimesbeforeajumpbecausetangledlinesoftenkeeptheparachutesfromopeningproperly.

(B) Apersondecidestoquitsmokinginordertolessentheprobabilityoflungdamagetohimselfandhisfamily.

(C) Ahomeownerwhodecidestohaveherhousetestedforradonalsodecidesnottoallowanyonetosmokeinherhouse.

(D) Apersonwhooftenweavesinandoutoftrafficwhiledrivinghiscaratexcessivespeedsworriesaboutmeteoriteshittinghishouse.

(E) Agroupoftownspeopleopposesthebuildingofanuclearwastedumpoutsidetheirtownandproposesthatthedumpbeplacedinanothertown.

5. Itcanbeinferredthattheauthorsofthepassagewouldbemorelikelythanwouldtheriskcommunicatorsdiscussedinthefirstparagraphtoemphasizewhichoneofthefollowing?

(A) laypeople’stendencytobecomealarmedabouttechnologiesthattheyfindneworstrange

(B) laypeople’stendencytocomparerisksthatexpertswouldnotconsidercomparable

(C) theneedforlaypeopletoadoptscientists’adviceabouttechnologicalrisk

(D) theinabilityoflaypeopletorankhazardsbythenumberoffatalitiescausedannually

(E) theimpactoflaypeople’svaluesystemsontheirperceptionsofrisk

6. Accordingtothepassage,manylaypeoplebelievewhichoneofthefollowingaboutriskcommunication?

(A) Itfocusesexcessivelyonmundanehazards.(B) Itisatoolusedtomanipulatethepublic.(C) Itisamajorcauseofinaccuraciesinpublic

knowledgeaboutscience.(D) Itmostoftenfunctionstohelppeoplemake

informeddecisions.(E) Itslevelofeffectivenessdependsonthelevelof

knowledgeitsaudiencealreadyhas.

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.


Inrecentyears,scholarshavebeguntousesocialsciencetoolstoanalyzecourtopinions.Thesescholars

havejustifiablycriticizedtraditionallegalresearchfor itsfocusonafewcasesthatmaynotberepresentative(5) anditsfascinationwitharcanemattersthatdonot

affectrealpeoplewithreallegalproblems.Zirkeland Schoenfeld,forexample,havechampionedthe

applicationofsocialsciencetoolstotheanalysisofcaselawsurroundingdiscriminationagainstwomenin

(10) highereducationemployment.Theirstudieshavedemonstratedhowthesesocialsciencetoolsmaybe

usedtoservetheinterestsofscholars,lawyers,and prospectiveplaintiffsaswell.However,their

enthusiasmforthe“outcomesanalysis”technique(15) seemsmisguided. Offundamentalconcernistheoutcomesanalysts’

assumptionthatsimplycountingthenumberofsuccessfulandunsuccessfulplaintiffswillbeusefulto

prospectiveplaintiffs.Althoughtheoddsareclearly(20) againsttheplaintiffinsexdiscriminationcases,

plaintiffswhobelievethattheircauseisjustandthattheywillprevailarenotswayedbysuchevidence.In

addition,becauselawsuitsaresodifferentinthedetails ofthecase,inthequalityoftheevidencetheplaintiff(25) presents,andintheattitudeofthejudgetoward

academicplaintiffs,givingprospectiveplaintiffsstatisticsaboutoveralloutcomeswithoutanalyzingthe

reasonfortheseoutcomesisofmarginalassistance.Outcomesanalysis,forexample,ignoresthefactthatin

(30) certainacademicsexdiscriminationcases—thoseinvolvingseriousproceduralviolationsorincriminatingevidenceintheformofwrittenadmissionsofdiscriminatorypractices—plaintiffsaremuchmorelikelytoprevail.

(35) Twodifferentapproachesoffermoreusefulapplicationsofsocialsciencetoolsinanalyzingsex

discriminationcases.Oneisaprocesscalled“policy capturing,”inwhichtheresearcherreadseachopinion; identifiesvariablesdiscussedintheopinion,suchas(40) theregularityofemployerevaluationsoftheplaintiff’s performance,trainingofevaluators,andthekindof evaluationinstrumentused;andthenusesmultivariate analysistodeterminewhetherthesevariablespredict

theoutcomeofthelawsuit.Theadvantageofpolicy-(45) capturingresearchisthatitattemptstoexplainthe reasonfortheoutcome,ratherthansimplyreporting theoutcome,andidentifiesfactorsthatcontributetoa plaintiff’ssuccessorfailure.Takingaslightlydifferent approach,otherscholarshaveadoptedatechniquethat(50) requiresreadingcompletetranscriptsofallsex

discriminationcaseslitigatedduringacertaintimeperiodtoidentifyvariablessuchasthenatureofthe

allegedlyillegalconduct,theconsequencesforemployers,andthenatureoftheremedy,aswellasthe

(55) factorsthatcontributedtotheverdictandthekindofevidencenecessaryfortheplaintifftoprevail.Whilethefindingsofthesestudiesarelimitedtotheperiodcovered,theyassistpotentialplaintiffsanddefendantsinassessingtheircases.

14. Whichoneofthefollowingbestexpressesthemainideaofthepassage?

(A) Theanalysisofalimitednumberofatypicaldiscriminationsuitsisoflittlevaluetopotentialplaintiffs.

(B) Whenthenumberoffactorsanalyzedinasexdiscriminationsuitisincreased,thevalidityoftheconclusionsdrawnbecomessuspect.

(C) Scholarswhoarecriticaloftraditionallegalresearchfrequentlyofferalternativeapproachesthatarealsoseriouslyflawed.

(D) Outcomesanalysishaslesspredictivevalueinsexdiscriminationcasesthandocertainothersocialsciencetechniques.

(E) Givenadequateinformation,itispossibletopredictwithconsiderablecertaintywhetheraplaintiffwillbesuccessfulinadiscriminationsuit.

15. Itcanbeinferredfromtheauthor’sdiscussionof traditionallegalresearchthattheauthoris

(A) frustratedbecausetraditionallegalresearchhasnotachieveditsfullpotential

(B) criticalbecausetraditionallegalresearchhaslittlerelevancetothoseactuallyinvolvedincases

(C) appreciativeoftheroletraditionallegalresearchplayedindevelopinglater,moreefficientapproaches

(D) derisivebecausetraditionallegalresearchhasoutlasteditspreviouslysignificantrole

(E) gratefulfortheabilityoftraditionallegalresearchtodevelopuniquetypesofevidence

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.

3 3 3 3 316. WhichoneofthefollowingstatementsaboutZirkeland

Schoenfeldcanbeinferredfromthepassage?

(A) Theywerethefirstscholarstousesocialsciencetoolsinanalyzinglegalcases.

(B) Theyconfinedtheirstudiestotheoutcomesanalysistechnique.

(C) Theysawnovalueintheanalysisprovidedbytraditionallegalresearch.

(D) Theyrejectedpolicycapturingasbeingtoolimitedinscope.

(E) Theybelievedthattheinformationgeneratedbyoutcomesanalysiswouldberelevantforplaintiffs.

17. Theauthor’scharacterizationoftraditionallegalresearchinthefirstparagraphisintendedto

(A) providebackgroundinformationforthesubsequentdiscussion

(B) summarizeanopponent’sposition(C) argueagainsttheuseofsocialsciencetoolsin

theanalysisofsexdiscriminationcases(D) emphasizethefactthatlegalresearchersactto

thedetrimentofpotentialplaintiffs(E) reconciletraditionallegalresearcherstotheuse

ofsocialsciencetools

18. Theinformationinthepassagesuggeststhatplaintiffswhopursuesexdiscriminationcasesdespitethestatisticsprovidedbyoutcomesanalysiscanbestbelikenedto

(A) athleteswhocontinuetoemploytrainingtechniquesdespitetheirknowledgeofstatisticalevidenceindicatingthatthesetechniquesareunlikelytobeeffective

(B) lawyerswhohandlelawsuitsforalargenumberofclientsinthehopethatsomepercentagewillbesuccessful

(C) candidatesforpublicofficewhoaremoreinterestedinmakingapoliticalstatementthaninwinninganelection

(D) supportersofacausewhorecruitindividualssympathetictoitinthebeliefthatlargenumbersofsupporterswilllendthecauselegitimacy

(E) purchasersofacharity’sraffleticketswhoconsiderthepurchaseacontributionbecausethelikelihoodofwinningisremote

19. Thepolicy-capturingapproachdiffersfromtheapproachdescribedinlines50-62inthatthelatterapproach

(A) makesuseofdetailedinformationonagreaternumberofcases

(B) focusesmoredirectlyonissuesofconcerntolitigants

(C) analyzesinformationthatismorerecentandthereforereflectscurrenttrends

(D) allowsassessmentofaspectsofacasethatarenotspecificallymentionedinajudge’sopinion

(E) eliminatesanydistortionduetopersonalbiasonthepartoftheresearcher

20. Whichoneofthefollowingbestdescribestheorganizationofthepassage?

(A) Atechniqueisintroduced,itsshortcomingsaresummarized,andalternativesaredescribed.

(B) Adebateisintroduced,evidenceispresented,andacompromiseisreached.

(C) Atheoryispresented,clarificationisprovided,andaplanoffurtherevaluationissuggested.

(D) Standardsareestablished,hypotheticalexamplesareanalyzed,andthecriteriaareamended.

(E) Apositionischallenged,itsshortcomingsarecategorized,andthechallengeisrevised.

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.


ManyeducatorsinCanadaandtheUnitedStatesadvocatemulticulturaleducationasameansofachievingmulticulturalunderstanding.Thereare,

however,avarietyofproposalsastowhatmulticultural(5) educationshouldconsistof.Themostmodestofthese proposalsholdsthatschoolsandcollegesshould

promotemulticulturalunderstandingbyteachingabout othercultures,teachingwhichproceedsfromwithin

thecontextofthemajorityculture.Studentsshould(10) learnaboutothercultures,proponentsclaim,but

examinationoftheseculturesshouldoperatewiththe methods,perspectives,andvaluesofthemajority

culture.Thesevaluesaretypicallythoseofliberalism:democracy,tolerance,andequalityofpersons.

(15) Criticsofthisfirstproposalhavearguedthatgenuineunderstandingofotherculturesisimpossibleif

thestudyofotherculturesisrefractedthroughthedistortinglensofthemajorityculture’sperspective.Notallculturesshareliberalvalues.Theirvalue

(20) systemshaveariseninoftenradicallydifferentsocial andhistoricalcircumstances,andthus,thesecritics argue,cannotbeunderstoodandadequately

appreciatedifoneinsistsonapproachingthemsolelyfromwithinthemajorityculture’sperspective.

(25) Inresponsetothisobjection,asecondversionofmulticulturaleducationhasdevelopedthatdiffersfrom

thefirstinholdingthatmulticulturaleducationoughtto adoptaneutralstancewithrespecttothevalue

differencesamongcultures.Thevaluesofoneculture(30) shouldnotbestandardsbywhichothersarejudged;

eachcultureshouldbetakenonitsownterms.However,themethodsofexamination,study,andexplanationofculturesinthissecondversionofmulticulturaleducationarestillidentifiablyWestern.

(35) Theyarethemethodsofanthropology,socialpsychology,politicalscience,andsociology.Theyare,

thatis,methodswhichderivefromtheWesternscientificperspectiveandheritage.

Criticsofthissecondformofmulticultural(40) educationargueasfollows:TheWesternscientific

heritageisfoundeduponanepistemologicalsystemthatprizestheobjectiveoverthesubjective,thelogical

overtheintuitive,andtheempiricallyverifiableoverthemystical.Themethodsofsocial-scientific

(45) examinationofculturesarethusalreadyvalueladen;thechoicetoexamineandunderstandotherculturesby

thesemethodsinvolvesacommitmenttocertainvalues suchasobjectivity.Thus,thesecondversionof

multiculturaleducationisnotessentiallydifferentfrom(50) thefirst.Scientificdiscoursehasaprivilegedplacein Westerncultures,butthediscoursesofmyth,tradition, religion,andmysticalinsightareoftenthedominant

formsofthoughtandlanguageofnon-Westerncultures.Toinsistontryingtounderstandnonscientific

(55) culturesbythemethodsofWesternscienceisnotonly distorting,butisalsoanexpressionofanattemptto maintainaEurocentricculturalchauvinism:the

chauvinismofscience.Accordingtothisobjection,itis

onlybyadoptingthe(oftennonscientific)perspectives(60) andmethodsoftheculturesstudiedthatreal

understandingcanbeachieved.

8. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthemainpointofthepassage?

(A) Proponentsoftwoproposalsforpromotingmulticulturalunderstandingdisagreeaboutboththegoalofmulticulturaleducationandthemeansforachievingthisgoal.

(B) Proponentsoftwoproposalsforpromotingmulticulturalunderstandingclaimthateducationshouldbefoundeduponanepistemologicalsystemthatrecognizestheimportanceofthesubjective,theintuitive,andthemystical.

(C) Proponentsoftwoproposalsforpromotingmulticulturalunderstandingclaimthatitisnotenoughtorefrainfromjudgingnon-WesternculturesifthemethodsusedtostudytheseculturesarethemselvesWestern.

(D) Criticsoftwoproposalsforpromotingmulticulturalunderstandingdisagreeabouttheextenttowhichaculture’svaluesareaproductofitssocialandhistoricalcircumstances.

(E) Criticsoftwoproposalsforpromotingmulticulturalunderstandingclaimtheseproposalsarenotvalueneutralandarethereforeunabletoyieldagenuineunderstandingofcultureswithadifferentvaluesystem.

9. Criticswhoraisetheobjectiondiscussedinthesecondparagraphwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowing?

(A) Thesocialandhistoricalcircumstancesthatgiverisetoaculture’svaluescannotbeunderstoodbymembersofaculturewithdifferentvalues.

(B) Thehistoricalandsocialcircumstancesofaculturecanplayanimportantroleinthedevelopmentofthatculture’svalues.

(C) Itisimpossibleforoneculturetosuccessfullystudyanothercultureunlessitdoessofrommorethanoneculturalperspective.

(D) Genuineunderstandingofanothercultureisimpossibleunlessthatculturesharesthesameculturalvalues.

(E) ThevaluesofliberalismcannotbeadequatelyunderstoodifweapproachthemsolelythroughthemethodsofWesternscience.

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.

3 3 3 3 310. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribes

theorganizationofthepassageasawhole?

(A) Difficultiesinachievingagoalarecontrastedwiththebenefitsofobtainingthatgoal.

(B) Agoalisarguedtobeunrealizablebyraisingobjectionstothemeansproposedtoachieveit.

(C) Twomeansforachievingagoalarepresentedalongwithanobjectiontoeach.

(D) Difficultiesinachievingagoalareusedtodefendseveralradicalrevisionstothatgoal.

(E) Thedesirabilityofagoalisusedtodefendagainstanumberofobjectionstoitsfeasibility.

11. Theversionofmulticulturaleducationdiscussedinthefirstparagraphisdescribedas“modest”(line5)mostlikelybecauseit

(A) reliesontheleastamountofspeculationaboutnon-Westerncultures

(B) callsfortheleastamountofchangeintheeducationalsystem

(C) involvestheleastamountofEurocentricculturalchauvinism

(D) istheleastdistortingsinceitemploysseveralculturalperspectives

(E) deviatesleastfromaneutralstancewithrespecttodifferencesinvalues

12. Giventheinformationinthepassage,whichoneofthefollowingwouldmostlikelybeconsideredobjectionablebyproponentsoftheversionofmulticulturaleducationdiscussedinthethirdparagraph?

(A) astudyofthedifferencesbetweenthemoralcodesofseveralWesternandnon-Westernsocieties

(B) astudyofagivenculture’sliteraturetodeterminethekindsofpersonalcharacteristicsthecultureadmires

(C) astudythatemploysthemethodsofWesternsciencetoinvestigateanonscientificculture

(D) astudythatusestheliterarytheoriesofonesocietytocriticizetheliteratureofasocietythathasdifferentvalues

(E) astudythatusesthemethodsofanthropologyandsociologytocriticizethevaluesofWesternculture

13. Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldprovidethestrongestobjectiontothecriticisminthepassageofthesecondversionofmulticulturaleducation?

(A) Itisimpossibletoadopttheperspectivesandmethodsofacultureunlessoneisamemberofthatculture.

(B) Manynon-Westernsocietieshavevaluesystemsthatareverysimilartooneanother.

(C) Somenon-Westernsocietiesusetheirownvaluesystemwhenstudyingculturesthathavedifferentvalues.

(D) StudentsinWesternsocietiescannotunderstandtheirculture’sachievementsunlesssuchachievementsaretreatedasthesubjectofWesternscientificinvestigations.

(E) Genuineunderstandingofanothercultureisnecessaryforadequatelyappreciatingthatculture.

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.


InstudyingtheautobiographiesofNativeAmericans,mostscholarshavefocusedonas-told-tolifehistoriesthatweresolicited,translated,recorded,andeditedbynon-NativeAmericancollaborators—that

(5) emergedfrom"biculturalcompositeauthorship."Limitingtheirstudiestosuchwrittendocuments,these

scholarshaveoverlookedtraditional,preliteratemodes ofcommunicatingpersonalhistory.Inaddition,they

havefailedtoaddresstheculturalconstructsofthe(10) highlydiverseNativeAmericanpeoples,whopriorto contactwithnonindigenousculturesdidnotsharewith Europeansthesameassumptionsaboutself,life,and writingthatunderlietheconceptofanautobiography— thatindeedconstitutetheEnglishword’srootmeaning.(15) Theideaofselfwas,inanumberofpre-contact

NativeAmericancultures,markedlyinclusive:identity wasnotmerelyindividual,butalsorelationaltoa society,aspecificlandscape,andthecosmos.Within thesecultures,theexpressionoflifeexperiencestended(20) tobeorientedtowardcurrentevents:withthe

participationoffellowtribalmembers,anindividualpersonwouldarticulate,reenact,orrecordimportantexperiencesasthepersonlivedthem,amodeofautobiographyseeminglymorefragmentedthanthe

(25) Europeancustomofwritingdowntherecollectionsofa lifetime.Moreover,expressionitselfwasnotamatter

ofwritingbutoflanguage,whichcanincludespeechandsigns.Oralautobiographycomprisedsongs,chants,

stories,andeventheprocesswherebyonerepeatedly(30) tookonnewnamestoreflectimportanteventsand

deedsinone’slife.Danceanddramacouldconveypersonalhistory;forexample,theadventofavisiontoonepersonmightrequiretheenactmentofthatvisionintheformofatribalpageant.

(35) Onecanviewasautobiographicaltheelaboratetattoosthatsymbolizedawarrior’svalorousdeeds,and

suchartifactsasadecoratedshieldthatcommunicated theaccomplishmentsandaspirationsofitsmaker,ora robethatwasemblazonedwiththepictographichistory(40) ofthewearer’sbattlesandwassometimesusedin

reenactments.Alsoautobiographical,andindicativeof highstatuswithinthetribe,wouldhavebeenatepee paintedwithsymbolicdesignstorecordthe

achievementsanddisplaythedreamsorvisionsofits(45) owner,whowasoftenassistedinthepaintingbyother

tribalmembers. Atribewould,then,havecontributedtothe

individual’snarrativenotmerelypassively,byits socialcodesandexpectations,butactivelybyjoining(50) intheexpressionofthatnarrative.Suchintracultural

collaborationmayseemalientotheEuropeanstyleof autobiography,yetanyautobiographyisshapedbyits creator’sideasabouttheaudienceforwhichitis

intended;inthissense,autobiographyisjustlycalleda(55) simultaneousindividualstoryandculturalnarrative.

AutobiographicalexpressionsbyearlyNativeAmericansmayadditionallyhavebeenshapedbytheculturalperspectivesofthepeoplewhotransmittedthem.

14. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyexpressesthemainconclusionofthepassage?

(A) ScholarshavetendedtooverlookthenuancesofconceptsaboutidentitythatexistedinsomeoftheearlyNativeAmericancultures.

(B) AsdemonstratedbyearlyNativeAmericans,autobiographycanexistinavarietyofmediaotherthanwrittendocuments.

(C) TheNativeAmericanlifehistoriescollectedandrecordedbynon-NativeAmericanwritersdifferfromEuropean-styleautobiographiesintheirdepictionsofanindividual’srelationtosociety.

(D) EarlyNativeAmericanscreatedautobiographieswithformsandunderlyingassumptionsthatfrequentlydifferfromthoseofEuropean-styleautobiographies.

(E) TheautobiographicalformstraditionallyusedbyNativeAmericansaremorefragmentedthanEuropeanformsandthuslesseasilyrecognizableaspersonalhistory.

15. Whichoneofthefollowingphrasesbestconveystheauthor’sattitudetowardtheearlierscholarshiponNativeAmericanautobiographiesthatismentionedinthepassage?

(A) “failedtoaddress"(line9)(B) “highlydiverse"(line10)(C) “markedlyinclusive"(line16)(D) “seeminglymorefragmented"(line24)(E) “alientotheEuropeanstyle"(line51)

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.

3 3 3 3 316. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyconveys

themeaningofthephrase"biculturalcompositeauthorship"asitisusedinline5ofthepassage?

(A) writtenbyamemberofoneculturebutbasedontheartifactsandoraltraditionsofanotherculture

(B) writtenbytwopeople,eachofwhombelongstoadifferentculturebutcontributesinthesamewaytothefinishedproduct

(C) compiledfromthewritingsofpeoplewhocomefromdifferentculturesandwhoseidentitiescannotbedetermined

(D) writtenoriginallybyamemberofoneculturebuteditedandrevisedbyamemberofanotherculture

(E) writtenbyamemberofoneculturebutbasedonoralcommunicationbyamemberofanotherculture

17. Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribesthefunctionofthethirdparagraphwithinthepassageasawhole?

(A) torefutetraditionalinterpretationsofcertainartifacts

(B) topresentevidencethatunderminesatheory(C) toprovideexamplesthatsupportanargument(D) tocontrastseveraldifferentmodesofexpression(E) toenumeratespecificinstancesinwhicha

phenomenonrecurred

18. Theauthorofthepassagerefersto"self,life,andwriting"(lines12-13)mostprobablyinorderto

(A) identifyconceptsaboutwhichEuropeansandNativeAmericanshadcontrastingideas

(B) defineawordthathadadifferentmeaningforearlyNativeAmericansthanithasforcontemporaryNativeAmericans

(C) illustratehowwordscanundergoachangeinmeaningaftertheirintroductionintothelanguage

(D) positafundamentalsimilarityintheoriginsofaconceptinbothEuropeanandNativeAmericancultures

(E) explainhowtheassumptionsthatunderlieEuropean-styleautobiographyarose

19. Whichoneofthefollowingwouldbemostconsistentwiththeideasaboutidentitythattheauthorattributestopre-contactNativeAmericancultures?

(A) Apersonwhoisbornintoonetribebutisbroughtupbymembersofanothertriberetainsanamegivenatbirth.

(B) Apictographthatrepresentsaspecificpersonincorporatesthesymbolforaconstellation.

(C) Asimilarritualforassuminganewnameisusedindiversecommunities.

(D) Anamegiventoonememberofacommunitycannotbegiventoanothermemberofthesamecommunity.

(E) Adecoratedshieldthatbelongedtoanindividualcannotbetracedtoaparticulartribe.

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.


TheautobiographicalnarrativeIncidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself(1861),byHarriet

A.Jacobs,aslaveofAfricandescent,notonlyrecountsanindividuallifebutalsoprovides,implicitlyand

(5) explicitly,aperspectiveonthelargerUnitedStatesculturefromtheviewpointofonedeniedaccesstoit.Jacobs,asawomanandaslave,facedthestigmastowhichthosestatusesweresubject.Jacobscraftedhernarrative,inaccordancewiththemainstreamliterary

(10) genreofthesentimentaldomesticnovel,asanembodimentofcherishedculturalvaluessuchasthedesirabilityofmarriageandthesanctityofpersonalidentity,home,andfamily.Shedidsobecauseshewaswritingtothefreewomenofherday–theprincipal

(15) readersofdomesticnovels–inthehopesthatthey wouldsympathizewithandcometounderstandher

uniquepredicamentasafemaleslave.Byapplying theseconventionsofthegenretohersituation,Jacobs

demonstratestoherreadersthatfamilyanddomesticity(20) arenolessprizedbythoseforcedintoslavery,thus

leadingherfreereaderstoperceivethosevalueswithinabroadersocialcontext.

Somecriticshavearguedthat,byconformingtoconvention,Jacobsshortchangedherownexperiences;

(25) onecritic,forexample,claimsthatinJacobs’swork thepurposesofthedomesticnovelovershadowthose ofthetypicalslavenarrative.Buttherelationship

betweenthetwogenresismorecomplex:Jacobs’sattempttoframeherstoryasadomesticnovelcreatesa

(30) tensionbetweentheusualportrayalofwomeninthisgenreandheractualexperience,oftencallingintoquestiontheapplicabilityofthehierarchyofvaluesespousedbythedomesticnoveltothosewhoareinhersituation.Unlikethetraditionalromanticepisodesin

(35) domesticnovelsinwhichamanandwomanmeet,fallinlove,encountervariousobstaclesbuteventuallymarry,Jacobs’sprotagonistmustsendherlover,a

slave,awayinordertoprotecthimfromthewrathof herjealousmaster.Inaddition,bytheendofthe(40) narrative,Jacobs’sprotagonistachievesherfreedom

byescapingtothenorth,butshedoesnotachievethedomesticnovel’sidealofastablehomecompletewithfamily,asthepriceshehashadtopayforherfreedom

isseparationfrommostofherfamily,includingoneof(45) herownchildren.Jacobspointsoutthatslavewomen

viewcertaineventsandactionsfromaperspectivedifferentfromthatoffreewomen,andthattheymustmakedifficultchoicesthatfreewomenneednot.Hernarrativethusbecomesanantidomesticnovel,for

(50) Jacobsacceptsreadilythegoalsofthegenre,butdemonstratesthatitshierarchyofvaluesdoesnotapplywhenexaminedfromtheperspectiveofafemaleslave,suggestingtherebythatherexperience,andthatofanyfemaleslave,cannotbefullyunderstoodwithout

(55) sheddingconventionalperspectives.

8. Theauthorofthepassagedisplayswhichoneofthefollowingattitudestowardthepositionofthecriticsmentionedinline23?

(A) completerejection(B) reluctantrejection(C) completeneutrality(D) reluctantagreement(E) completeagreement

9. Accordingtothepassage,Jacobs’snarrativedepartsfromtheconventionsofatypicaldomesticnovelinwhichoneofthefollowingways?

(A) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotultimatelyachieveherfreedom.

(B) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotwishforthesameidealsastheprotagonistsofdomesticnovels.

(C) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotencountervariousobstaclesinherquestforlove.

(D) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotultimatelyachievetheidealsofhomeandfamily.

(E) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotexperiencethestigmastowhichwomenandslavesweresubject.

10. Itcanmostreasonablybeinferredfromthepassagethatthecriticsmentionedinline23holdwhichoneofthefollowingviews?

(A) Themixtureofliterarygenresinasinglenarrativeoftencreatesausefultensionthataddsvaluetothenarrative.

(B) Themixtureofliterarygenresinasinglenarrativetendstocausethegoalsofbothgenrestobecompromised.

(C) Themixtureofliterarygenresinasinglenarrativetendstofavorthegenrehavingthegreaterdegreeofrealism.

(D) Themixtureofliterarygenresinasinglenarrativetendstofavorthegenrehavingthelesserdegreeofsentimentality.

(E) Themixtureofliterarygenresinasinglenarrativecansometimescausethegoalsofoneofthegenrestobecompromised.

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.

3 3 3 3 311. Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostsupport

thepositionofthecriticsmentionedinline23?

(A) MostreadersofJacobs’snarrativewhenitwasfirstpublishedconcludedthatitwassimplyadomesticnovelandwerethusdisinclinedtoseeitasanattempttoprovokethought.

(B) ManyreviewersofJacobs’snarrativeincludedpassionatestatementsintheirreviewscallingfortheimmediateabolitionofslavery.

(C) MostscholarsbelievethatJacobs’snarrativewouldnothavebeenabletocommunicateitsmessageeffectivelyifithadnotadoptedtheconventionsofthedomesticnovel.

(D) Jacobs’snarrativewasmodelednotonlyafterdomesticnovelsoftheperiodbutafterrealisticnovelswhosegoalwastopointoutsocialinjustices.

(E) Jacobs’sgoalincraftinghernarrativewasnotonlytopreachagainsttheinjusticesofslaverybutalsototellapowerfulstorythatwouldmakethoseinjusticesvividtoreaders.

12. TheauthordescribesJacobs’snarrativeasan“antidomesticnovel”(line49)forwhichoneofthefollowingreasons?

(A) Jacobs’sprotagonistdoesnotlamentherseparationfromherfamily.

(B) Jacobs’sprotagonistisdisinclinedtowardstereotypicaldomesticaspirations.

(C) Jacobs’snarrativerevealsthelimitationsofthehierarchyofvaluesespousedbythedomesticnovelgenre.

(D) Jacobs’snarrativeimplicitlysuggeststhatthedesirefordomesticidealscontributestotheprotagonist’splight.

(E) Jacobs’snarrativecondemnsdomesticvaluesasahindrancetoitsprotagonist’sdevelopmentofpersonalidentity.

13. Withwhichoneofthefollowingstatementswouldtheauthorofthepassagebemostlikelytoagree?

(A) Someauthorsofslavenarrativesallowedthepurposesofthegenretoovershadowtheirownexperiences.

(B) Theslavenarrative,nolessthanthedomesticnovel,constitutesaliterarygenre.

(C) Authorswhowriteinaparticulargenremustobeytheconventionsofthatgenre.

(D) Anautobiography,nolessthananovel,shouldtellapowerfulstory.

(E) Autobiographiesshouldbeevaluatednotontheirliterarymeritbutontheirhistoricalaccuracy.

14. Whichoneofthefollowingprinciplesmostlikelygovernstheauthor’sevaluationofJacobs’snarrative?

(A) Thoseautobiographicalnarrativesthatcapturethemoodofaparticularperiodaretherebymorevaluable.

(B) Thoseautobiographicalnarrativesthatfocusonaccuratelydepictingtheeventsintheindividual’slifearetherebymorevaluable.

(C) Thoseautobiographicalnarrativesthatforcereaderstoviewcertainfamiliarculturalvaluesinawidercontextaretherebymorevaluable.

(D) Thoseautobiographicalnarrativesthatarewrittenfromaperspectivefamiliartothemajorityoftheirreadersaretherebymorevaluable.

(E) Thoseautobiographicalnarrativesthatemploytheconventionsofanotherliterarygenrearetherebymorevaluable.

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.


Expertsanticipatethatglobalatmosphericconcentrationsofcarbondioxide(CO

2)willhave

doubledbytheendofthetwenty-firstcentury.ItisknownthatCO

2cancontributetoglobalwarmingby

(5) trappingsolarenergythatisbeingreradiatedasheatfromtheEarth’ssurface.However,someresearchhassuggestedthatelevatedCO

2levelscouldenhancethe

photosyntheticratesofplants,resultinginalushworldofagriculturalabundance,andthatthisCO

2(10) fertilizationeffectmighteventuallydecreasetherate

ofglobalwarming.TheincreasedvegetationinsuchanenvironmentcouldbecountedontodrawmoreCO

2

fromtheatmosphere.ThelevelofCO2wouldthus

increaseatalowerratethanmanyexpertshave(15) predicted. However,whileanumberofrecentstudiesconfirm

thatplantgrowthwouldbegenerallyenhancedinanatmosphererichinCO

2,theyalsosuggestthat

increasedCO2woulddifferentiallyincreasethegrowth

(20) rateofdifferentspeciesofplants,whichcouldeventuallyresultindecreasedagriculturalyields.

Certainimportantcropssuchascornandsugarcane thatcurrentlyhavehigherphotosyntheticefficiencies

thanotherplantsmaylosethatedgeinanatmosphere(25) richinCO

2.PattersonandFlinthaveshownthatthese

importantcropsmayexperienceyieldreductionsbecauseoftheincreasedperformanceofcertainweeds.Suchdifferencesingrowthratesbetweenplantspeciescouldalsoalterecosystemstability.Studieshave

(30) shownthatwithinrangelandregions,forexample,aweedygrassgrowsmuchbetterwithplentifulCO

2

thandothreeothergrasses.Becausethisweedygrasspredisposeslandtoburning,itspotentialincreasemayleadtogreaternumbersofandmoreseverewildfiresin

(35) futurerangelandcommunities. ItisclearthattheCO

2fertilizationeffectdoesnot

guaranteethelushworldofagriculturalabundancethatonceseemedlikely,butwhataboutthepotentialfortheincreaseduptakeofCO

2todecreasetherateofglobal

(40) warming?SomestudiessuggestthatthechangesaccompanyingglobalwarmingwillnotimprovetheabilityofterrestrialecosystemstoabsorbCO

2.

Billings’simulationofglobalwarmingconditionsin wettundragrasslandsshowedthatthelevelofCO

2(45) actuallyincreased.Plantgrowthdidincreaseunder theseconditionsbecauseofwarmertemperaturesand

increasedCO2levels.Butasthepermafrostmelted,

morepeat(accumulateddeadplantmaterial)begantodecompose.ThisprocessinturnliberatedmoreCO

2to

(50) theatmosphere.BillingsestimatedthatifsummertemperaturesrosefourdegreesCelsius,thetundra

wouldliberate50percentmoreCO2thanitdoes

currently.Inawarmerworld,increasedplantgrowth,whichcouldabsorbCO

2fromtheatmosphere,would

(55) notcompensateforthisrapidincreasein decompositionrates.Thisobservationisparticularly

importantbecausehigh-latitudehabitatssuchasthetundraareexpectedtoexperiencethegreatesttemperatureincrease.

15. Whichoneofthefollowingbeststatesthemainpointofthepassage?

(A) ElevatedlevelsofCO2wouldenhance

photosyntheticrates,thusincreasingplantgrowthandagriculturalyields.

(B) RecentstudieshaveyieldedcontradictoryfindingsaboutthebenefitsofincreasedlevelsofCO

2onagriculturalproductivity.

(C) ThepossiblebeneficialeffectsofincreasedlevelsofCO

2onplantgrowthandglobalwarming

havebeenoverstated.(D) IncreasedlevelsofCO

2wouldenhancethe

growthratesofcertainplants,butwouldinhibitthegrowthratesofotherplants.

(E) IncreasedlevelsofCO2wouldincreaseplant

growth,buttherateofglobalwarmingwouldultimatelyincrease.

16. Thepassagesuggeststhatthehypothesismentionedinthefirstparagraphisnotentirelyaccuratebecauseitfailstotakeintoaccountwhichoneofthefollowinginpredictingtheeffectsofincreasedvegetationontherateofglobalwarming?

(A) IncreasedlevelsofCO2willincreasethe

photosyntheticratesofmanyspeciesofplants.(B) Increasedplantgrowthcannotcompensatefor

increasedratesofdecompositioncausedbywarmertemperatures.

(C) Low-latitudehabitatswillexperiencethegreatestincreasesintemperatureinanatmospherehighinCO

2.

(D) IncreasedlevelsofCO2willchangepatternsof

plantgrowthandthuswillalterthedistributionofpeat.

(E) IncreasesinvegetationcanbecountedontodrawmoreCO

2fromtheatmosphere.

17. Whichoneofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthelastparagraphofthepassage?

(A) Itpresentsresearchthatmayundermineahypothesispresentedinthefirstparagraph.

(B) Itpresentssolutionsforaproblemdiscussedinthefirstandsecondparagraphs.

(C) Itprovidesanadditionalexplanationforaphenomenondescribedinthefirstparagraph.

(D) Itprovidesexperimentaldatainsupportofatheorydescribedintheprecedingparagraph.

(E) Itraisesaquestionthatmaycastdoubtoninformationpresentedintheprecedingparagraph.

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.

3 3 3 3 318. ThepassagesuggeststhatPattersonandFlintwouldbe

mostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatementsaboutincreasedlevelsofCO

2intheEarth’s

atmosphere?

(A) Theywillnotincreasethegrowthratesofmostspeciesofplants.

(B) Theywillinhibitthegrowthofmostcrops,thuscausingsubstantialdecreasesinagriculturalyields.

(C) Theyareunlikelytoincreasethegrowthratesofplantswithlowerphotosyntheticefficiencies.

(D) Theywillincreasethegrowthratesofcertainspeciesofplantsmorethanthegrowthratesofotherspeciesofplants.

(E) Theywillnotaffectthephotosyntheticratesofplantsthatcurrentlyhavethehighestphotosyntheticefficiencies.

19. Theauthorwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatementsabouttheconclusionsdrawnonthebasisoftheresearchonplantgrowthmentionedinthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

(A) TheconclusionsarecorrectinsuggestingthatincreasedlevelsofCO

2willincreasethe

photosyntheticratesofcertainplants.(B) Theconclusionsarecorrectinsuggesting

thatincreasedlevelsofCO2willguarantee

abundancesofcertainimportantcrops.(C) Theconclusionsarecorrectinsuggestingthat

increasedplantgrowthwillreversetheprocessofglobalwarming.

(D) Theconclusionsareincorrectinsuggestingthatenhancedplantgrowthcouldleadtoabundancesofcertainspeciesofplants.

(E) TheconclusionsareincorrectinsuggestingthatvegetationcandrawCO

2fromtheatmosphere.

20. Thepassagesupportswhichoneofthefollowingstatementsaboutpeatinwettundragrasslands?

(A) MoreofitwoulddecomposeiftemperaturesrosefourdegreesCelsius.

(B) ItcouldhelpabsorbCO2fromtheatmosphereif

temperaturesrosefourdegreesCelsius.(C) Itwillnotdecomposeunlesstemperaturesrise

fourdegreesCelsius.(D) Itdecomposesmorequicklythanpeatfoundin

regionsatlowerlatitudes.(E) Moreofitaccumulatesinregionsatlower

latitudes.

21. Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,isLEASTconsistentwiththehypothesismentionedinlines22-25ofthepassage?

(A) TherootsofacertaintreespeciesgrowmorerapidlywhentheamountofCO

2inthe

atmosphereincreases,thuspermittingthetreestoexpandintohabitatsformerlydominatedbygrasseswithhighphotosyntheticefficiencies.

(B) WhengrowninanatmospherehighinCO2,

certainweedswithlowphotosyntheticefficienciesbegintothriveincultivatedfarmlandsformerlydominatedbyagriculturalcrops.

(C) WhentreesofaspecieswithahighphotosyntheticefficiencyandgrassesofaspecieswithalowphotosyntheticefficiencywereplacedinanatmospherehighinCO

2,the

treesgrewmorequicklythanthegrasses.(D) Whentwodifferentspeciesofgrasswith

equivalentphotosyntheticefficiencywereplacedinanatmospherehighinCO

2,onespeciesgrew

muchmorerapidlyandcrowdedtheslower-growingspeciesoutofthegrowingarea.

(E) ThenumberofleguminousplantsdecreasedinanatmosphererichinCO

2,thusdiminishing

soilfertilityandlimitingthetypesofplantspeciesthatcouldthriveincertainhabitats.

22. Accordingtothepassage,Billings’researchaddresseswhichoneofthefollowingquestions?

(A) WhichkindofhabitatwillexperiencethegreatesttemperatureincreaseinanatmospherehighinCO

2?

(B) HowmuchwillsummertemperaturesriseiflevelsofCO

2doublebytheendofthetwenty-

firstcentury?(C) Willenhancedplantgrowthnecessarilydecrease

therateofglobalwarmingthathasbeenpredictedbyexperts?

(D) WouldplantgrowthbedifferentiallyenhancedifatmosphericconcentrationsofCO

2wereto

doublebytheendofthetwenty-firstcentury?(E) Doespeatdecomposemorerapidlyinwettundra

grasslandsthanitdoesinothertypesofhabitatswhenatmosphericconcentrationsofCO

2

increase?

GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.

Reading Comprehension Problem Set #3 Answer Key

Passage #21: June 1996 Questions 9-14 9.C10.E11.D12.B13.A14.D

Passage #22: October 1996 Questions 7-14 7.C8.A9.B10.C11.A12.B13.B14.C

Passage #23: October 1996 Questions 15-21 15.B16.A17.B18.A19.E20.D21.B

Passage #24: June 1997 Questions 9-16 9.C10.A11.A12.D13.D14.B15.B16.A

Passage #25: December 1997 Questions 1-6 1.B2.A3.C4.D5.E6.B

Passage #26: December 1997 Questions 14-20 14.D15.B16.E17.A18.A19.D20.A

Passage #27: October 2000 Questions 8-13 8.E9.B10.C11.B12.D13.A

Passage #28: October 2000 Questions 14-19 14.D15.A16.E17.C18.A19.B

Passage #29: December 2000 Questions 8-14 8.A9.D10.E11.A12.C13.B14.C

Passage #30: December 2000 Questions 15-22 15.C16.B17.A18.D19.A20.A21.C22.C

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