2015

Agriculture Research and Outreach Organization

(AGRO2)

11/1/2015

Re-circulating Water in Agriculture: Water Security for Caribbean Agriculture in a Changing Climate

Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Agriculture: A Document of Proven

Practices and Tools to Manage Potential Water Scarcity in Food Production.

Re-Circulating Water and Rainwater Harvesting as a Climate Change Adaptation

Strategy for Horticulture Production in the Caribbean

Acknowledgment

The Agriculture Research and Outreach Organization (AGRO2) expresses gratitude to all the practitioners

and stakeholders consulted during research in the Bahamas, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname.

We are grateful for the support of all actors and key experts interviewed. Most importantly, we sincerely

thank the following individuals for their support; Mr. Manuel Messina and Ms. Shacara Lightbourne (IICA

office in Bahamas), Mr. Jervis Rowe (Jamaica Greenhouse Growers Association) and Ms. Grace del Prado

(Ministry of Agriculture, Suriname).

Lastly, we express our gratitude to the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) for

providing the resources to undertake this research.

Malcolm Wallace Project Leader Director of Planning and Implementation Agriculture Research and Outreach Organization (AGRO2) On behalf of other Directors Nkosi Felix, Tristan Alvarez, Sarah Dharoo and Stephan Moonsammy

Executive Summary

Climate Change and moreso Climate Variability, are thematic areas of paramount concern for the Caribbean Region. These concerns have been focused on high impact extreme weather events, to which the agricultural sector is extremely vulnerable. It's vulnerability is predicated on the fact that the majority of agricultural production in the Region is open field, susceptible to natural hazards such as hurricanes, flooding and drought and dependent on rainfall, being also characterized as 'rain-fed agriculture'. Based on current experiences and climate models for the future, the emerging Caribbean context is that of increased risk towards natural hazards and reduced water availability for agriculture based on increasingly variable rainfall patterns.

Mitigation and adaptation strategies such as Re-Circulating Water production systems (hydroponics and aquaponics) and the concept of Rainwater Harvesting have been utilized by practitioners to treat with the issue of rainfall variability in agricultural production. Rain-fed agricultural production systems require large quantities of water and are largely inefficient as a sizeable amount of resource wastage occurs whereas Re-Circulating Water production systems, utilize a fixed volume of water within an enclosed structure and addresses issues of effective water usage and conservation. Coupled with Rainwater Harvesting these systems reduce risk and provide an overall climate smart approach towards agricultural production.

Four countries were identified for reconnaissance and documentation of Re-Circulating Water production systems and Rainwater Harvesting practices. The Bahamas, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname all had their own unique situational context which played an important role in adoption, innovation and the level of technology employed by practitioners. Key observations entailed, noticeable phenomena with respect to Climate Change and Climate Variability, the benefits of Re-Circulating systems in reducing risk, increasing water use efficiency and conservation, improving productivity and enhancing livelihoods as well as raising the level of innovation within the agriculture sector. Ultimately, the trend in discovery was that the use of re-circulating systems and rainwater harvesting straddled the key pillars of sustainability (economic, social, environmental and cultural) while encompassing the wider scope of climate resilience.

Key Words: Climate Change, Climate Variability, Rainwater Harvesting, Re-Circulating Water Systems, Water Availability, Water Use Efficiency, Caribbean, Bahamas, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, Hydroponics, Aquaponics.

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Table of Contents

Page No List of Figures i Acronyms / Abbreviations ii Section 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Water Availability and its Importance to Agriculture 2 Section 2: Systems and Practices 3 2.1 Recirculating Systems: Hydroponics and Aquaponics 3 2.1.1 Hydroponic System Dynamics 3 2.1.2 Aquaponics System Dynamics 4 2.2 Rainwater Harvesting and Collection Ponds 4 Section 3: Discussion 5 3.1 Geographical Area of the Case Study 5 3.2 Overall Observations 6 3.3 Adoption / Technology Transfer 11 3.4 Impacts 14 3.5 Validation 14 3.6 Drivers of Success 15 3.7 Potential for Scaling Up 17 3.8 Sustainability 17 3.9 Conclusion 18 References 19 Appendix 1: Hydroponic Systems 21 Appendix 2: Hydroponic System Illustrations 23

List of Figures

Page No Figure 1: Aerial Map of Caribbean Country and Specific Locations of Practice (Bahamas / Jamaica

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Figure 2: Aerial Map of Caribbean Country and Specific Locations of Practice (Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname)

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Acronyms / Abbreviations

ACP African, Pacific and Caribbean Countries CCCCC Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre CTA Technical Center for Agriculture and Rural Cooperation FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GFA Greenhouse Farmers Association IICA Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture MOA Ministry of Agriculture NFT Nutrient Film Technique OECS Organization of Eastern Caribbean States SIDS Small Island Developing States TTMS Trinidad and Tobago Meteorological Service UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change USACE United States of America Army Corps of Engineers UVI University of the Virgin Islands UWI University of the West Indies

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Re-circulating Water and Water Harvesting as a Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for Horticulture Production in

the Caribbean

Section 1 Introduction

1.1 Background Climate change is an inevitable phenomenon with variations in global weather patterns including fluctuating rainfall intensity, severe droughts, and changes in environmental conditions. Many of the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of the Caribbean have recorded significant changes in climatic conditions over the last four decades (UNFCCC, 2005). Crucially, changing climatic conditions in the Caribbean has caused a sense of uncertainty with respect to water availability. Within the past five years, Caribbean islands such as Trinidad and Tobago, St. Lucia, Barbados and Jamaica, have experienced severe drought conditions, possibly the worst in recent history (TTMS, 2015). This has exacerbated the challenge that Caribbean islands face in allocating water for food production particularly in the agricultural sector, which is dominated by rain fed production systems. In some instances however, farmers utilize other sources of water - namely ground and surface - obtained primarily from rivers and streams. According to the United States of America Army Corps of Engineers (2011), water sources for agriculture in selected Caribbean countries are affected by salt water intrusion, sea level rise, drought and storms as a result of climate change (Table 1). Table 1: A Snap Shot of Water Profiles for Agriculture in Selected Caribbean Countries

Country Natural Water Source Climate Change Vulnerability

Bahamas Groundwater: primarily from limestone aquifers

Salt-water intrusion, storms, sea level rise, drought

Jamaica Groundwater: primarily from limestone aquifers Surface water: rivers and Stream

Drought, Salt-water intrusion, storms, sea level rise

Trinidad and Tobago

Surface water: Rivers and streams Ground water: Wells

Drought, sea level rise

Suriname Surface water: Rivers Salt water intrusion in coastal areas, sea level rise

Source: USACE (2011)

It is therefore expected that water scarcity will be a prevailing issue for Caribbean agriculture in the future as it is predicated that the Caribbean will continue to experience intensified climatic hazards which are inter-related and inextricably linked to each other (Table 2).

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Table 2: Climatic Hazards affecting Water Supply for Agriculture in the Caribbean Region

Rainfall Variability Caribbean Scenario

Change in normal rainfall patterns. Fluctuating rainfall intensity and duration. Change in seasonality of rainfall.

Caribbean agriculture depends on rainfall as a primary source of water. Fluctuating water supply has impacted domestic production and has created a sense of insecurity in planning crop cycles. It has also affected the recharge of major sources of water (rivers, streams and aquifers) in many countries.

Drought Caribbean Scenario

Prolonged periods of little or no rainfall. Drought has resulted in a reduction of available water to agriculture due to depletion of stream discharge and reservoir storage, and depletion of ground water resulting in Saline intrusion and contamination from adjacent water bodies.

The Caribbean region has experienced extended periods of deficiency of precipitation during the last two decades. The most severe impact was during the period 2009 – 2010, with the wet season of 2009 having reduced rainfall while an intensive dry season was experienced in 2010. The agricultural sectors of Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and the islands of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) were severely affected.

Flooding Caribbean Scenario

Intense or prolonged periods of rainfall. Flooding causes water quality degradation from pollution stemming from urban and industrial centers.

During the period 2005 - 2006 Guyana and Suriname suffered significant losses to infrastructure and agricultural production due to flooding. Most recently (2013), there were widespread instances of flooding across the Eastern Caribbean and devastating floods in Trinidad and Tobago in 2014 (CCCCC, 2009).

Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes, Tropical Storms and Tropical Depressions)

Caribbean Scenario

Rapidly rotating storm systems characterized by strong winds and thunderstorms that produce heavy rain. Cyclones destroy water catchment areas (damage to vegetation that protect the catchment / landslides alter water courses or reduce the capacity of the catchment to store significant quantities of water).

In 2004 Hurricane Ivan significantly reduced agricultural production in Grenada especially that of the important nutmeg industry. Hurricane Omar in 2008 and hurricane Tomas in 2010 caused widespread flooding across several Eastern Caribbean countries. Recently (August 2015), tropical storm Erica devastated Dominica causing severe damage to the agricultural sector, infrastructure and loss of human life.

Saline Intrusion Caribbean Scenario

The infiltration of salt water into fresh water sources.

Low lying countries of the Caribbean like the Bahamas have reported a rise in sea level resulting in salinization of coastal aquifers and subsequent reduction of fresh water available for domestic consumption and agricultural production.

1.2 Water Availability and its Importance to Agriculture One of the major effects of climate change is changing weather patterns along the equatorial belt and tropical convergence zones of the world. These changes may result in variable rainfall and severe drought conditions. Many of the African, Pacific and Caribbean (ACP) countries are located along the equatorial and tropical belts and depend on rainfall as a source of water for the replenishment of watersheds. As

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such, rainfall is an essential source of water for urban use and agriculture in the ACP countries. The majority of agriculture throughout the ACP Region is classified as open-field, rain-fed production systems. Fertile agricultural land has proven to be a limiting factor and along with varying weather conditions, climate change poses a significant threat to agriculture in the ACP countries. The agricultural sector is the second largest consumer of water within the Caribbean region behind the industrial sector (FAO, 2015). Recent climate change has resulted in water scarcity and as such improvements in the efficiency of water use in the industry is of vital importance. Rain-fed agricultural systems require large quantities of water and can perpetuate water inefficiency. Outdated technology such as overhead sprinkler systems have been shown to waste large volumes of water since water is supplied not only to the crops but also to surrounding soil and foliage. Therefore, in order to address this concern, new and novel technologies that improve water use in agriculture must be adopted by practitioners. Additionally, mechanisms for promoting the use and provision of technical support should be instituted through national and regional policies. It should be highlighted that some countries of the Caribbean notably Jamaica, St. Lucia, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago have recently implemented strategies that seek to incorporate key tenets of integrated water resources management (IWRM) (Farrell, Trotman and Cox, 2011).

Section 2 Systems and Practices

This section presents a description of the systems and practices utilized in the Caribbean region that maximise the use of water resources primarily in horticulture production. Specifically, it provides a brief overview of hydroponic and aquaponic systems, rainwater harvesting and the use of collection ponds for water storage.

2.1 Recirculating Systems: Hydroponics and Aquaponics Agricultural practitioners throughout the region particularly those engaged in horticulture production have experimented with two recirculating systems - hydroponics and aquaponics. Hydroponic systems facilitate the growing of plants using a soilless medium with nutrients supplied through water. The combination of hydroponics with aquaculture (the method of rearing aquatic animals, freshwater and/or saltwater, under controlled conditions or within a controlled environment) led to the development of a convenient symbiotic relationship between plants and aquatic animals. This system known as aquaponics, provides nutrients to plants through the breakdown of the ammonia by-products from the aquatic animals by nitrification bacteria into nitrates and nitrites. This process also purifies the nutrient rich water after which it is re-circulated. The ability of these systems to re-circulate water minimizes the need to constantly recharge water supplies thereby increasing the utilization of this resource. It also provides the added benefit of fish production for commercial or domestic use.

2.1.1 Hydroponic System Dynamics Hydroponic system designs are categorized based on root growth or nutrient solution cycling. Systems categorized by root growth are classified as either liquid culture or aggregate culture and those designed by nutrient cycling are classified as either open systems or closed systems (Resh, 2001). Open systems are exposed to water loss due to evaporation and therefore should not be used for managing water scarcity, while closed systems provide the engineering schematics for recirculating agricultural operations.

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Closed systems have been found to be effective in managing water scarcity since it can circulate the same volume of water for an extended period of time. Commercial closed systems that circulate large volumes of water are designed with specialized sensors that monitor pH, temperature, salinity and often require regular sterilization from microbial build up using UV or ozone treatments. The majority of the hydroponic system designs use some form of growing media aptly termed ‘aggregate’ in hydroponic technology. Aggregate culture designs use an inert substrate as a medium which is saturated at the depth where the roots lay for the roots to grow through. The most commonly used inert substrates are expanded clay aggregates, coir, peat moss, grow stones, sand and gravel (Table 1). Table 3: Growing Mediums for Hydroponic Systems

Clay Aggregates Coir Peat Moss Grow Stones Gravel Perlite/ Vermiculite

There are several hydroponic system designs that use inert substrates and a range of other materials in construction. The most common systems are the wick system, water culture system, drip recovery and non-recovery systems, ebb and flow, nutrient film technique (NFT) and Aeroponics (Table 4 Appendix 1).

2.1.2 Aquaponics System Dynamics Aquaponics systems were developed as an adaptation to recirculating hydroponic systems such as the deep water culture, nutrient film technique, recovery drip systems, aeroponics systems and the ebb and flow systems. A typical aquaponics system requires a fish tank, a recirculating hydroponic component, a bio-filter, a solid matter separator and a pump. The system works by connecting the hydroponic component to the fish tank using PVC pipes and pumps that move the water through the system so that it can flow from the fish tank to the hydroponic design and back to the fish tank. The basic concept of the aquaponics system is that the effluent from the fish tank will flow to the plants in the hydroponic component and add nutrients to them. The plants absorb the fish effluents which allows for purification of the water. The purified water returns to the fish tank and the cycle begins again (Figure 7). An aquaponics system is predominantly designed for vegetable production with the fish production as a secondary product. A low intensity aquaponics system primarily focuses on crop production and as such most of the income derived comes from the sale of crops. The fish are used as a source of nutrients and contribute only a minimal amount to income generated. High intensity aquaponics system produce high volumes of crops and fish for commercial purposes. However, these systems require a high level of management and monitoring. Costs associated with the establishment and operation of the system may also be high, particularly the cost of feed for growing large numbers of fish (Rakocy, Masser, and Losordo, 2006). There are no standard costs for a hydroponic and aquaponic system as this will depend on the design and scale adopted.

2.2 Rainwater Harvesting and Collection Ponds

This is the collection of rainwater for storage and later use in domestic agricultural production and the agroindustry. Water may be gathered from every square area on which it falls. These areas include concrete/zinc roofs, road pavements, corridors, and greenhouse plastic roofing among others. The water collected is usually directed to a storage area (collection pond, plastic tanks).

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Rainwater harvesting is important to agricultural production especially in developing countries as it provides an independent and free source of water which supplements the main water supply. In many instances it serves as the only source of water for irrigation and other on farm production and processing activities. Additionally, harvesting of rain water mitigates against drought conditions, assists in the prevention of flooding of low-lying areas, and reduces the demand on other sources of surface and ground water.

Furthermore, the concentration of contaminants in rainwater is significantly less than other sources since it is saline free and calcium and pH levels are low. This makes it ideal for irrigation and fertigation. Plants are better able to absorb nutrients and less additives are required to eliminate the effects of contaminants (correct the water) as may be the case for water from other sources.

In the Caribbean, particularly in Jamaica, practitioners engaged in horticultural production have established innovative water harvesting systems and collection ponds which in many cases serve as the major source of water for production. The systems are made up of mainly PVC pipes and zinc roofing material attached to various structures and surfaces that trap significant volumes of water. The collection ponds in which the water is stored is constructed by digging holes into the ground in suitable areas. They are then lined with a special type of plastic to prevent seepage. These collection ponds can store large quantities of water capable of sustaining farming operations for several weeks without replenishment.

Section 3 Discussion

This section discusses the cases examined during the research on agricultural systems and practices within the Caribbean region that recirculate and collect / conserve water and as such assist in mitigating against the varying effects of climate change, in particular, reduced water availability for agriculture. It provides a synopsis of field visits to practitioners and overall observations of low intensity hydroponics and aquaponics systems in Trinidad and Tobago, hydroponic greenhouse operations in Suriname, hydroponic, rainwater harvesting and collection pond systems in Jamaica and aquaponic systems for high end crops in the Bahamas. The section highlights the adoption and impact of these systems, provides validation and identifies the drivers of success associated with establishment and growth. It also addresses the potential for scaling up and sustainability of these operations.

3.1 Geographical Area of the Case Study The Caribbean climate is described as tropical marine, positioned between 100 and 260N. The Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean and the North-East Trade Winds largely influence the climate of the Region but the geography and elevation of the individual countries influences their local conditions. The countries chosen for this study are located within different agro-ecological zones which exhibit variations in weather and climate. This enabled the research to capture the vulnerabilities of practitioners to the vagaries of unpredictable climatic conditions.

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Figure 1: Aerial Map of Caribbean Country and Specific Locations of Practice

The Bahamas

Jamaica

Figure 2: Aerial Map of Caribbean Country and Specific Locations of Practice

Trinidad and Tobago

Suriname

3.2 Overall Observations As established previously, a potential adaptation strategy for the inclement effects of climate variability on water availability for agriculture is the promotion of production systems that minimise water wastage and where possible, harvest and store rainwater for use during periods of reduced water supply.

Eleuthera Nassua

Manchester

St Augustine

Cedros

Paramaribo

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System Design and Innovation

The enterprises documented throughout the targeted countries ranged from small backyard operations to semi-commercial and fully commercial operations mostly under protected structures (Greenhouses / Shadehouses). Practitioners possessed some form of a recirculating system (hydroponics, aqauponics or other) and in most cases engaged in rainwater harvesting with varying degrees of technology integrated to maximise efficiency. All practitioners utilized a mixture of local and imported material in the design of their systems with adaptations to suit local conditions. In several instances, discarded materials from the construction and manufacturing industries were modified to fulfil vital functions. Cheaper alternatives, including products manufactured and sold for other purposes were used on site as substitutes to products generally designed for use in the horticultural industry.

Caption: Locally built NFT system at Abbey Garden Farms in Jamaica. The frames and other components of the systems was built using local construction material.

Caption: Nursery box built from discarded storage tank at an aquaponics operation in the Bahamas.

Caption: System for Trapping rainwater at Abbey Gardens Farms in Jamaica.

Caption: Use of infant swimming pool as water storage tank at Goodfellow Farms in the Bahamas.

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Caption: Low cost aquaponics system built from discarded oil drums and tanks in Trinidad.

Caption: Section of drum used as housing for submerged water pump at aquaponics operation in the Bahamas.

Water Utilization and Efficiency

Management of small operations is not an exact science. However, practitioners generally reported that the use of recirculating systems has resulted in a reduction in water consumption which was usually reflected in their water bill. This was the case for the enterprise Naturally Bahamian, which produces local teas, herbs, spices and condiments. According to Denise Worrel (proprietor), production of crops used as the raw material for these products using conventional methods resulted in huge costs particularly for water, which eroded profits. An investment in a locally designed backyard aquaponics system has drastically reduced her water consumption and increased productivity. She indicated that overall, water loss from the system was minimal. However, periodically a couple buckets of water would be added to the system to account for water lost through evaporation and normal plants processes. She also highlighted that her enterprise could now be considered as a sustainable production system which has translated into increased profits through product branding. Tilapia produced in the system has also contributed to increased household food security.

Caption: Denise Worrel and her son Michael, of Naturally Bahamian explaining their backyard aquaponics operation

Caption: IICA model for backyard aquaponics unit in the Bahamas

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Caption: Plant meal or duck weed used to feed Tilapia

Caption: Tilapia produced at Naturally Bahamian aquaponics operation in the Bahamas

Practitioners with larger operations stated definitively that recirculating systems had drastically reduced the amount of water required for production of the same quantity of crops grown in conventional production systems. It was evident that due to their lack of dependence on a rain fed system of production, they have been able to negate any adverse effects arising from rainfall variability.

“Re-circulating systems can utilize a finite amount of water for several production cycles. Water loss from evaporation and transpiration normally accounts for approximately 3 – 10% of the water in most systems. This is markedly lower than the losses experienced with other forms of irrigation within conventional systems such as overhead sprinklers and drip systems”.

In most cases practitioners indicated that they have noticed changes in the weather patterns over the last two decades. The scarcity of water resources for agriculture has served as an impetus to investment in systems that efficiently utilize water i.e. recirculation and reuse. Another primary concern was the quality of water available for use in horticultural production. Mr. Raveen Ramthahasing of Spirits Grun2 N.V. Suriname explained that even in countries where water is abundantly available the quality of the water may be less than desirable and significant investment is required to purify the water from heavy metals and to correct the pH in order to facilitate effective nutrient uptake by plants. This has spurred interest in rain water harvesting as a replacement to his current source which is ground water.

Caption: Manager Raveen Ramthahasing explain operations at Spirits Grun2 N.V. Suriname.

Caption: Pond used to store and extract ground water in Suriname.

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Caption: Collection of waste water from Strawberry production for reuse at Adams Valley Farms Jamaica.

“Practitioners highlighted additional benefits resulting from the use of recirculating systems and protected structures for horticultural production including; improved product quality, larger production volumes, better use of technology and increased ability to manage production scientifically”.

Rainwater Harvesting

It should be stated emphatically that rainwater harvesting was championed by many practitioners’ particularly semi-commercial and commercial greenhouse farmers. The systems varied from simple operations using pvc guttering and plastic storage tanks, to elaborate systems of collection from multiple greenhouse structures and other sources (including surface runoff) and storage in collection ponds which hold significant volumes of water capable of sustaining production for as long as three months in some cases. To redistribute the stored water throughout the enterprise for production and processing, practitioners often utilized sustainable methods such as solar powered pumps and in some cases gravity flow.

Caption: Lester Murray of Adams Valley Farms Jamaica discusses rainwater harvesting and use of plant meal as feed for Tilapia.

Caption: Tom Stack of Goodfellow Farms Bahamas dicusses the design of the rain water harvesting system with Steven Issacs of the BAIC

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Caption: Rain water harvesting from greenhouse structures and collection ponds at Adams Valley Farms Jamaica.

In addition, many practitioners have invested in small weather stations to monitor rainfall and temperature. These systems provide data in real time, and guide farm management decision making relating to rainwater harvesting and water use, particularly, planning for increased water use efficiency.

Lester Murray, Adams Valley Farm Jamaica; “1 inch of rain on 1 acre of land represents roughly 26,000 gallons of water. With 3 acres of surface area for collection this results in approximately 80,000 gallons with every inch of rain. It is estimated that on average Jamaica receives 60 inches of rainfall per annum; this represents 1.5 million gallons per acre. Given our current capacity Adams Valley Farm can harvest 4.5 million gallons of water per annum.

3.3 Adoption / Technology Transfer Within the Caribbean, re-circulating systems aren't exclusively widespread as they still remain a non-traditional form of agricultural production. They have become increasingly popular however, and practitioners have adopted different types of re-circulating systems based on their particular production situation. This has been the case in the Bahamas, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname. Agricultural stakeholders particularly in the Bahamas have made significant headway in promoting re-circulating systems as an alternative and recommended production model. Institutions such as the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA) and the Eleuthera Island School among others, have hosted, either jointly or individually, training workshops, seminars and programs on different types of re-circulating systems.

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Caption: Shacara Lightbourne of the IICA discusses aquaponics training programme and model backyard system in the Bahamas.

Caption: Aquaponics research and demonstration facility at the Eleuthera Island School in the Bahamas.

Many of the existing practitioners have promoted re-circulating systems either directly and in some cases indirectly, by assisting others by providing testimony on what worked for them in establishing their own systems. In that regard the IICA during its training workshop contracted a practitioner, Mr. Jon Chaiton who possessed practical experience on the construction and operation of aquaponics systems to serve as the facilitator for the exercise. Other practitioners have facilitated demonstrations and field visits in an effort to promote proven concepts. This is exemplified in the case of Goodfellow Farms where demonstrations highlighting the movement from conventional type production to recirculating systems and other tenants of sustainable agriculture are showcased.

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Caption: Jon Chaiton of Tropics Seafood Bahamas discusses his sustainable aquaponics system made exclusively from discarded construction material.

Caption: Jon Chaiton displays banana grown in aquaponics system.

Caption: Construction of protected structure for aquaponics system alongside conventional production using drip irrigation at Goodfellow Farms Bahamas.

Caption: Production Technician transplanting seedlings into deep water culture aquaponic system at Goodfellow Farms Bahamas.

In Jamaica, the Greenhouse Farmers Association (GFA) and other farmer organisations have successfully assisted their members in establishing infrastructure for rainwater harvesting. Using climate variability as a major advocacy theme the association has successfully lobbied government for support and as a result, incentives have been put in place for farmers who engage in rain water harvesting. According to the GFA, the adoption rate is fairly high especially among commercial horticulture farmers since it is a proven practice that has significantly increased the productivity of these enterprises. It has also reduced costs associated with sourcing and trucking water for production in areas with no surface water (rivers, streams etc.). In Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname, farmer associations and the Ministries of Agriculture assist with training and information with respect to the promotion and development of re-circulating systems. However, in many cases some practitioners have embarked on the development of their own systems without any external aid. Those practitioners who were interviewed, some of them expressed concern over the lack of technical capacity among support institutions with respect to hands-on establishment of systems and sourcing of equipment, materials and supplies. In many cases it appears that practitioners were much more advanced and knowledgeable than the institutions who were supposed to provide them with support. As a direct response, the Bahamas Agriculture and Industrial Corporation has established a research and training facility in an effort to curtail any barriers to adoption and encourage these novel approaches within the horticultural sector.

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Caption: Example of a typical collection pond utilized for water storage in Jamaica.

Caption: Aquaponic system using deep water culture designed by young farmer Nicholas Rauseo in Trinidad and Tobago

Caption: Members of the Suriname Greenhouse Growers Group discuss the application of new technologies for cooling water in NFT systems following a training session in Brazil.

Caption: Vernon Darvo of the Bahamas Agricultural Industrial Corporation provides an overview of the new integrated research and demonstration facility and its possible impact on the adoption of recirculating systems throughout the Bahamas.

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3.4 Impacts Across the Region and in particular, within the identified project countries, though the level of impact may be varied, the nature of the impact has been relatively similar. Benefits with respect to improved water use efficiency, production management, mitigation/adaptation towards climate variability, and associated natural hazards have been experienced and positive impact has also been experienced in terms of supporting livelihoods and increasing revenue generating capacity. Specific cases like the Worrels have been highlighted where they have stated that they got into aquaponic agricultural production because they wanted to develop a sustainable way to provide raw material for their cottage industry as well as reduce household food cost. One practitioner in Trinidad and Tobago, Nicholas Rauseo, noted that his experience has been one where the system is much more economical compared to traditional agriculture and is environmentally friendly through the reduction or elimination of chemical inputs. Indeed, the re-circulation system Mr. Rauseo has, which is a deep water aquaponic system, has been directed towards organic production, allowing him to create and enter into a niche market, where he can realize higher profit margins. With regards to rainwater harvesting, one key impact has been the ability of the interviewed practitioners to treat with variable rainfall, the chief water source for traditional open field agriculture. They have been able to harvest water during rainfall events, and from other sources store the water and make use of it in such an efficient manner, that water availability is less of a concern and production can continue unabated in the dryer periods of the year. The system has thus demonstrated its resilience to such natural hazards as drought and flooding, both a result of climate and rainfall variability. The impact is a much more resilient and secure livelihood practice.

3.5 Validation The impact and benefits experienced by the practitioners have been mostly observations, as poor data collection and information management has been endemic to the Region. Their observations however, correspond with statements made by scientists within the sphere of climate variability research. One particular statement has been that the observed temperature changes which are consistent with global trends with respect to the Region having more warm nights and days and fewer cool nights and days (Nurse, Leonard 2015). In the Bahamas, Jamaica and Suriname, practitioners indicated that there had been some noticeable phenomena such as longer dry periods and significant variability in rainfall occurrence and intensity. In fact, the drought conditions have affected most of the target countries within the 2010 - 2015 period and currently there exists dryer than normal conditions within the Region, particularly in Jamaica (2014 – 2015). Practitioners noted that such conditions pose a challenge to agricultural production which warrants remedial measures as a means of sustaining production. Hence, across countries, based on statements from relevant stakeholder agencies, there has been an increasing number of practitioners’ investing in re-circulating systems and water harvesting and storage infrastructure. Additionally, where data exist among practitioners, there is evidence that these investments have improved water use and efficiency and improved sustainability of production. Likewise, experimentation at the producer level have resulted in unique system designs and practices which are now being validated by key research institutions within target countries.

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3.6 Drivers of Success

One of the key drivers of success thus far, which has been a commonality in the identified project countries, has been a desire to produce sustainable, quality, good tasting food, through the mechanism of a re-circulating water system. The underlying driver for the choice of re-circulating systems and the harvesting of rain water for agricultural production, has been the necessity to mitigate and adapt to variable rainfall and weather conditions. Though the desire to produce sustainable, quality, good tasting food is something which is innate to the producers themselves it is the increasing weather variability which has acted as a prerequisite for engaging in such a non-traditional form of agriculture. The Region has increasingly become cognisant of the impacts of climate variability, especially as it relates to agricultural production and this is evident in the growing proliferation of re-circulating systems as mitigation and adaptation measure. Indeed where water scarcity is an issue for producers, the need for an integrated water resource management system, on a localized scale, which promotes efficiency and minimization of wastage has been adopted by way of re-circulating water systems and rainwater harvesting technologies.

Implicit is the association of re-circulating water systems with producing sustainable, quality, good tasting food. This has connotations with good environmentally friendly practices, safe wholesome food, sustainable development and livelihood support which attracts producers and consumers alike. As such, there is a growing market for such niche products which can be labelled as "Hydroponically Grown", "Organic" and "Certified Green". This has proven to be another driver of success as it is aligned with consumer trends towards nutrition and health oriented products.

The marketability and potential profitability of an enterprise based on such a system, has also garnered the attraction and motivation of the vibrant youth population. Youth involvement has been a highlight factor throughout all enterprises in target countries. The Region has bemoaned the fact that it has an aging population with respect to the agriculture sector and there has been repeated calls for youth involvement. Not only has re-circulating systems been touted as a production system which would encourage youth participation, youths have been a driving force in its adoption thus far. This was demonstrated in the individual practitioners as most of them had an element of youth. The Worrel family aqauponics operation in the Bahamas consisted of Denise Worrel and her son, Michael Worrel. In addition, they were assisted in the development of the re-circulating system by a student, Carlos Lara, from Earth University, Costa Rica. Likewise, the production technician at Goodfellow Farms and one of the lead researchers at the Eleuthera Island School research facility in the Bahamas were also youth. In Jamaica, the management of Abbey Garden Farms was primarily done by Diandra Rowe a vibrant young woman who explained that regardless of the fact that her area of training was not in agriculture, she had a passion for agriculture production technology and this led her back to the farm where she has been able to use her expertise and skills from other areas of training to boost production and sales at Abbey Garden.

These systems also allow for the type of innovation and invention which youths are willing to engage in, whether it be at the level of experimentation or scaling up and/or across production systems. This was effectively demonstrated in Trinidad and Tobago by young entrepreneurs Nicholas Rauseo (Trinbago Aquaponics) and Rory Reddix who developed experimental aquaponics systems from local material. Since then they have both been able to scale up and their operations and have attained commercial success. Randy Jackson and Raveen Ramtahasing from Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname respectively have also attained similar success with hydroponic systems.

A lot of material with respect to re-circulating systems and harvesting of rain water for production exist but the type of hands on support which is necessary to take such a project from the conceptualization

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stage to the finished model, has been relatively lacking. This has been expressed by existing practitioners who noted a lacked of support in that regard. In some cases, they identified a lack of support regarding training activities and the sourcing of relevant equipment, materials and supplies. It is believed that such support will greatly increase and encourage, the adoption of re-circulating systems as a viable alternative means of agriculture production.

Re-circulating systems and rainwater harvesting has also been promoted by research and development agencies, as well as educational institutions, as a model for treating with issues arising from Climate Variability. As part of agencies/institutions programmes towards the development of sustainable industries and technology transfer of climate resilient production systems, such agencies/institutions have a critical role to play in sensitizing agri-stakeholders, supporting technological transfers and validating such models as viable climate resilient production models for the provision of quality, safe wholesome food, which can satisfy market/consumer demand and livelihood requirements.

Another key driver of success has been the flexibility of re-circulating and rainwater harvesting systems in terms of scalability, to match different livelihood needs. Some practitioners were drawn to it as it allow them to sustainable produce enough food to satisfy their own needs, as well as supplement their income by being able to sell whatever excess production they had at relevant markets while others, engaged in it as a commercial enterprise which minimized costs and climate risks and allowed for the niche marketing, meaning higher prices and larger profit margins. This flexibility of engaging in different scales of production has been shown to be an attractive feature of re-circulating systems, enabling backyard production, small scale producer enterprise and medium to large scale commercial production.

Policy directives have always laid out a direction for action on the ground level, as well as creating an enabling environment for the development of fledging industries, to mitigate risk and seize opportunities. An adequate policy environment for re-circulating systems and rainwater harvesting techniques, is one other key driver of success, which can indeed make a positive impact in terms of adoption and up-scaling of systems, especially the use of incentives and national bodies which can provide the relevant support. The research revealed that there are existing policies in some countries which can lend support to the establishment of these systems. For example, in Jamaica, the Water Sector Policy / Strategies and Plans (2004) and subsequent incentive programmes have promoted rainwater harvesting for agriculture and has had an impact on adoption of the practice among small scale and commercial farmers. There are also policies that promote overall investment in agriculture throughout most countries (e.g. The Agriculture Incentive Programme of Trinidad and Tobago) however, these programmes can be streamlined to target re-circulating systems in order to have a greater in pact on adoption and innovation and technological advancement within the subsector.

3.7 Potential for Scaling Up

Re-circulating systems (hydroponics and aquaponics) complemented by rainwater harvesting can replace conventional farming techniques for horticultural crops once practitioners have accesses to basic infrastructure and materials. An assessment of the Caribbean agricultural sector in comparison to many African and Pacific countries has shown that the African and Pacific countries still have a large population of small to medium scale farmers that primarily grow short and medium term horticultural crops. This population of farmers are the most vulnerable to water shortages due to variable climatic conditions. As it relates to horticultural production, re-circulating systems maximizes production from minimal space use because its design can be adjusted to fit into any geographic condition. In instances where the availability

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of arid lands is difficult due to land use conflicts, hydroponics and aquaponics are ideal as barred land spaces can now become productive. Horticultural farmers can now see this as a viable option for changing their current farming practises to a method that can maximize their output and minimize their water use.

In order to have farmers adopt recirculating agricultural technology and practice water harvesting, there needs to be financial, technical and extension support systems in place which can also be accessible to end users. Commercial hydroponics and aquaponics systems can cost anywhere between US $45,000.00 to $90,000.00 which represents a substantial investment especially for small and medium scale horticultural crop producers. For wide scale adoption of recirculating and rainwater harvesting technology in the Caribbean, accessing financial support through development banks or as incentives from the government is critical. Most importantly, technical and extension support is an essential element for the successful use and adoption of these technologies. As observed in many instances throughout the target countries, practitioners were more advanced technically and had better knowledge and skills relating to the use of recirculating systems and rainwater harvesting than the staff from governmental support institutions who were supposed to advise them. For widespread adoption and scaling up of current operations this situation has to be addressed.

Despite these challenges, the research discovered programmes within institutions such as the Ministry of Agriculture in the Bahamas, Jamaica and Suriname, development organisations such as IICA and FAO, and at the tertiary education level institutions (University of the Virgin Islands, University of the West Indies, Eleuthera Island School Bahamas) which attempted to fill the void and provide much needed technical support to practitioners.

Likewise, practitioners have grouped themselves together to facilitate access to information and technical services and conduct advocacy on a wide range of issues affecting their members. Of critical importance to most groups was the issue of infrastructure to facilitate access to and/or harvesting of water for production. This was a primary issue highlighted during consultations with groups in Jamaica and Suriname in particular. It should be emphasized that peer to peer learning forms an integral part of a strategy for promoting the scaling up of these technologies. This has already been a key feature in many of the groups consulted and in that regard support to increase the technical and managerial capacity of these groups can only benefit existing and new entrants who will utilize recirculating systems and practice rainwater harvesting.

3.8 Sustainability There needs to be a cultural shift by horticultural crop producers in the African, Pacific and Caribbean countries in order to successfully transition to a wide scale adoption of recirculating agricultural technology. Potential users need to be educated on the benefits of re-circulating systems and rainwater harvesting, especially as it relates to the lower cost of production, consistency in harvest rates and reduction in environmental impacts. An important intangible benefit is the reduction in the application of agrochemicals. Aquaponics operations eliminates the use of over 90% of inorganic fertilizers and hydroponics systems eliminates the use of over 60% of pesticides and 100% of herbicides in comparison to conventional field operations. This translates into a major socioeconomic impact which is a reduction in the public health cost associated with agrochemical poisoning. Recirculating technology has no chemical run off therefore the typical environmental issues with agrochemicals such as water catchment contamination is eliminated with this technology. Mr. Rauseo from Trinbago aquaponics noted that his intention regarding his re-circulating system was to make it fully self-sustainable, that is, non-reliant on external inputs and he is well on his way to attaining that objective.

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His system is regarded as economical as there is little to no external input and there is little wastage of water. His system is also environmentally friendly (he uses no chemicals and filters his water to negate any harmful build-up of naturally produced nutrients before reintroduction into the environment), climate resilient (he is less impacted by rainfall variability), and he has employed mitigation measures to treat with high temperatures (reflective shade cloths, painting of the raft beds in reflective colours and use of cooling fans powered by solar energy). The scalability of the system has been mentioned on previous occasions and in this instance, it relates to its sustainability. Re-circulating systems complemented by rainwater harvesting on the lower end of the scale have demonstrated their viability in using low-cost local material and supplies, requiring little start-up capital and thereby facilitating sustainability through the fact that anyone with the desire of getting into back-yard re-circulating agriculture production for the benefit and sustenance of their own livelihood can do so with meagre resources at their disposal.

3.9 Conclusion From the observation and testimony of practitioners who utilize re-circulating systems and conduct rainwater harvesting, the research concluded that they have been able to mitigate against and adapt to climate variability. It was evident throughout all countries visited that practitioners addressed practical issues such as water availability for production, food security and environmental and livelihood sustainability by employing in some instances simple technologies and techniques that promote the collection and reuse of water. Practitioners pointed out that the transition from conventional production systems to recirculating systems improved their managerial skills and business acumen. In addition, data collection, though in some instances rudimentary, had improved their ability to make key decisions that resulted in reduction of inefficiencies related to water and energy use. Overall, the research garnered that the co-benefits resulting from the use of re-circulating systems and rainwater harvesting straddled the key pillars of sustainability (economic, social, environmental and cultural) while encompassing the wider scope of climate resilience. Practitioners within the Caribbean in particular the Bahamas, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname have demonstrated that ingenuity and the tenacity to address the emerging issues of climate variability can produce a mixture of locally designed technological adaptations that are sustainable, scalable and viable and as such these systems can impart similar benefits if adopted across the wider ACP Region.

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References

Aeroponics Systems. 2015. “What is Aeroponics?”Accessed June 18, 2015. http://www.aeroponicssystems.com/

Aquaponics Plans. 2015. “The Eco-Friendly Aquaponics Business.” Accessed August 20, 2015. http://aquaponicsplan.com/the-eco-friendly-aquaponics-business/

D’Anna, Christine. 2015. “Hydroponic Gardens: Wick Systems.” Accessed June 18, 2015. http://hydroponics.about.com/od/hydrosystems/a/Hydroponic-Gardens-Wick-System.htm

D’Anna, Christine. 2015. “Hydroponic Gardens: Nutrient Film Technique.” Accessed June 18, 2015. http://hydroponics.about.com/od/hydrosystems/a/Hydroponic-Gardens-Wick-System.htm

FAO AQUASTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2015. “Water Withdrawal by Sector.” Accessed August 30, 2015. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/americas/table08.pdf.

Farrell, D., Trotman, A. and Cox, C. (2010) Drought warning and risk reduction: a case study of the Caribbean drought 2009–2010. Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, New York, NY, USA.

GWP (Global Water Partnership). 2015. Integrated Water Resource Management in the Caribbean. Technical Focus Paper. Accessed August 20, 2015. http://www.gwp.org/Global/ToolBox/Publications/Technical%20Focus%20Papers/04%20Caribbean_TFP_2014.pdf

Hannah Instruments. 2015. “Hydroponics: Drip Growing System.” Accessed June 18, 2015. http://shop.hannainst.com/hydroponics-drip-growing-system

Home Hydro Systems. 2015. “Wick System Design.” Accessed June 18, 2015. http://www.homehydrosystems.com/hydroponic-systems/wick-system_systems.html

Hydroponics Centre. 2015. “Advantages and Disadvantages of Wick Hydroponics Systems.” Accessed June 18, 2015. http://www.hydroponics-center.com/2011/03/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-wick.html

Hydroponic 2302. 2015. “Hydroponic Culture, a Modern Crop Production Approach; Water Culture Systems.” Accessed June 18, 2015. http://hydroponic2302.blogspot.com/p/catagory.html

Mohapatra, Tamana. 2015. “Aquaponics vs Hydroponics vs Ecoponics.” Musings, blog, March 7. Accessed August 20, 2015. https://searchforagreenerlife.wordpress.com/2015/03/07/aquaponics-vs-hydroponics-vs-ecoponics/

Rackocy, James E., Michael P. Masser, and Thomas M. Losordo. 2006. “Recirculating Aquaculture Tank Production Systems: Aquponics – Integrating Fishing and Plant Culture.” Publication No. 454, Southern Regional Aquaculture Centre.

Resh, H.M. 2001. Hydroponic Food Production. 6th ed. Santa Barbara, CA: Woodbridge Press Publishing.

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SACAN (South Asian Conservation Agriculture Network). 2015. “Sprinkler Irrigation.” Accessed August 20, 2015. http://sacanasia.org/sprinkler-irrigation/.

The Hydroponics Grower. 2015. “Types of Hydroponics Systems: A Complete Guide.” Accessed June 18, 2015. http://hydroponicsgrower.org/introduction-to-different-types-of-hydroponics-systems/

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Appendix 1: Hydroponic Systems

Wick System: Considered to be the most basic hydroponic design, the Wick system has been classified as a low technology passive design with no sophisticated mechanisms or moving parts (D’Anna 2015). The nutrient solution moves from a reservoir to the roots of the plant grown in a growing medium by a wick that enables capillary action. The wick is commonly made of felt or wick rope and the plants are typically grown in coconut fibre, perlite or vermiculture compost. The wick design has two main components: the reservoir which can be any physical structure that can pool water (such as a bucket, drum or tank); and the growing tray with the growing medium to house the roots of the plants (Figure 1, Appendix 1). There are variations of wick design that are dependent on the nature and scale of the hydroponic operation, for example for a back yard garden or a commercial operation. The main challenge with this design is associated in commercial operations where the crops’ demand for water may not match the ability of the wick to supply. Wick systems are therefore not suitable to grow hydrophilic plants such as tomato since the water absorption from these crops normally exceeds the water absorbed through the wick (Hydroponics Centre 2015).

Water Culture System: Water culture system is a modified design where the growing container directly contacts the reservoir. The growing container is made with PVC pipes to create a platform that contacts the surface of the reservoir which is constructed using an aquarium tank or plastic container. The nutrient solution is held in the reservoir and the roots are submerged while the plants are held in place using the platform. The platform can either be stationary or floating depending on the material used to build it. The nutrient solution in the reservoir is aerated using an air pump and an air stone which provides oxygen to the submerged roots (Figure 2, Appendix 1).

Drip Recovery and Non Recovery Systems: Drip hydroponic systems have been described as a merger in the structural mechanism between the wick and water culture designs. The drip hydroponic system has two components similar to the wick system i.e. the reservoir with the nutrient solution and the growing tray with plants in a growing medium. The advancement of this design is the pumping mechanism that both aerates and pumps the nutrient rich solution to the roots of plants. This solution is pumped through a rubber tubing to an emitter that is placed in the drip zone of the plants (Figure 3, Appendix 1).The drip system can be designed as either a recovery or non-recovery system which refers to the manner in which the nutrient is treated. Under the recovery system the excess runoff is returned to the reservoir through an overflow pipe, while in non-recovery system there is no return flow. Drawbacks based on research has shown that non-recovery systems are not efficient with respect to water management and recovery systems require pH management of the reservoir (Growth Technology 2015).

Ebb and Flow: The ebb and flow design is another advanced adaptation to the wick and deep water culture systems. This system design temporarily floods the growing tray with nutrient solution and then drains the solution back into the reservoir. The ebb and flow system is classified as a closed system as the water in this system predominantly re-circulates. The ebb and flow design uses two components similar to the drip system. The growing tray with plants grown in mediums such as Pro –Mix, coconut fibre, rocks and gravel, and the reservoir which contains a submerged nutrient pump and timer to regulate nutrient flow. The timer triggers the pump and it floods the growing tray. Once the water level in the growing tray reaches a certain level, the pump is switched off and the water is allowed to drain into the reservoir through an overflow tube (Figure 4 Appendix 1). The primary advantage of the ebb and flow system when compared to other designs is the distribution of nutrient solution at the roots. Where other system designs can have an uneven distribution of nutrient solution at the roots, due to the flooding of the growing tray in the ebb and flow design, each plant receives an equal amount of nutrients (The Hydroponics Grower 2014).

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Nutrient Film Technique (NFT): In NFT systems there is a continuous flow of the nutrient solution. The nutrient solution is pumped from the reservoir into growing trays after which it is returned to the reservoir. The trays are sloped to allow the solution to be returned by means of gravity flows (Figure 5, Appendix 1). This cycling increases the utilization of water and minimizes the amount of water required to replenish the system. There is however a loss of water, but only due to plant transpiration. Since this system doesn’t utilize a growing medium, the design cannot support larger plants and is best suited for green leafy vegetables such as lettuce which have short growth cycles. However, it should be noted that moderately heavy plants such as tomatoes can be grown using NFT but a custom fit support structure would be needed for root support (D Anna 2014). The NFT’s growing trays are made with Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), which provides rigidity and flexibility. The main challenge with this design involves determining the ideal length of the growing trays. If these trays are too long, the concentration of nutrients and oxygen would deplete and therefore lead to unbalanced distribution among the plants.

Aeroponics: Aeroponics systems have been shown to be the latest technology in drip systems whereby the nutrient solution is sprayed directly to the roots of the plant using a mist. The solution is applied at high pressure to create smaller droplet sizes since these droplets have a higher surface area to volume ratio. This increases the efficacy of the solution through diffusion which is critical for nutrient absorption by the plants. To create the high pressure mist, the solution is pumped through a narrow tubing to strategically placed nozzles (Figure 6, Appendix 1). The use of a timer in this system is critical since it affects electricity use, minimizes evaporation and transpiration loss, and also minimizes the likelihood of disease impact on roots. Green leafy vegetables and other shallow rooted fast growing plants are ideal for Aeroponics. However, in order to grow larger plants, these systems will require supporting structures similar to the NFT systems. It should be noted that the major advantage of the Aeroponics system is the increased efficiency of the distribution of nutrients to plants and therefore it allows for expansion by creating additional mist nozzles.

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Appendix 2: Hydroponic System Illustrations

Figure 1: Typical Wick Hydroponic System Designs – Cylinder Reservoir

Figure 2: Water Culture Hydroponic System with Floating Platform

Source: Home Hydrosystems 2015

Source: Hydroponic 2302 Blogpost 2015

Figure 3: Drip Hydroponic System Figure 4: Ebb and Flow Hydroponic System

Source: Hanna Instruments 2015

Source: The Hydroponics Grower 2015

Figure 5: Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) Hydroponic System Design

Figure 6: Aeroponics System

Source: About Home 2015

Source: Aeroponics Systems 2015

Figure 7: Illustration of Aquaponic System

Source: Waterme Natural Pools 2015