Rbview o forestmanagement systemsof troolca AsiaCase-studies of natural forest managementfor timber production in India, Malaysia andthe Philippines

FAOFORESTRY

PAPER

89

FOODANV

AGR1CULTUORGAMZAT]ail

OF THEUNITED NATOS

Roa-te, 1989

Review of forest management systems of tropical Asia Case-studies of natural forest management for timber production in India, Malaysia and the Philippines

FAO FORESTRY

PAPER

89

FOOD AND

AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION

OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 1989

The designations employed and the presentation ofmaterial in this publication do not imply the expression ofany opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nationsconcerning the legal status of any country, territory, cityor area or of its.authorities, or concerning the delimitationof its frontiers or boundaries.

M-36ISBN 92-5-102757-9

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, withoutthe prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statementof the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director. PublicationsDivision. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalia,00100 Rome, Italy.

t. FAO 1989

The designations employed and the presentation of material in th is publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part o f the Food and Agricu lture Organ iza'lion of the United Nations concern ing the legal status of any country, terr itory, city or area or of its.authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-36 ISBN 92-5-102757-9

All righ ts reserved . No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means. electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise. without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission. with a statement of the pu rpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division , Food and Ag ricultu re Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla , 00100 Rome , Ilaly.

© FAO 1989

-

Foreword

In recent years FAO's Forest Resources Division has undertaken aseries of studies on management of tropical humid forests in collabora-tion with national institutes in developing countries. FAO's ForestryPapers 53 and 55 presented case studies of management systems in India;and in Ghana, Honduras and Trinidad. A Forestry Paper in preparationwill review management systems for tropical humid forests in Africa, anda subsequent review of Latin America is planned.

This paper shows that sustained management of tropical humidforests is feasible and economically viable. It further clearlydemonstrates that forest management systems cannot be developed inisolation but, in order to be successful, they must be adapted toprevailing economic and social realities of the countries concerned, andcarried out with the approval and active collaboration of the localcommunities.

Although there are considerable gaps in our knowledge of thebiology and ecology of the humid tropical forest these do not, per se,prevent initiating management programmes, carried out in parallel withstudies and research aimed at improving present-day practices in thefuture.

The tropical humid forest can survive only if the land itself isseen by the people concerned to be more valuable retained as forest thanconverted to any other form of land use. Future survival of the foreststhus depends on their productive utilization, at the same time ensuringthe conservation of genetic resources and the maintenance of theenvironmental functions such forests perform.

A key factor in forest management is political will to instituteeffective management programmes. The stakes here are enormous: thequality of life of millions of people will depend on sustainable,productive land use; ecosystem conservation and the conservation andmanagement of genetic resources are inseparably tied to sustainabledevelopment; small and large-scale industries in tropical countries, amainstay of national economies and many local communities, will onlycontribute to development if they can be assured a continuing supply ofraw materials.

FAO will continue to assign highest priority to the conservationand sustained use of tropical forests, in support of national develop-ment programmes; and to provide a forum for technical and policy-leveldiscussions furthering the management of this valuable resource.

J.. LanlyDirector

Forest Resources DivisionForestry Department

FAO

- i -

Foreword

In recent years FAO's Forest Resources Division has undertaken a ser ies of studies on management of tropical humid forests in collabora­tion wi th national institutes in developing countries. FAO's Forestry Papers 53 and 55 presented case studies of management systems in India; and in Ghana, Honduras and Trinidad. A Forestry Paper in preparation will review management systems for tropical humid forests in Africa, and a subsequent review of Latin America is planned.

This paper shows that sustained management of tropical humid forests is feasible and economically viable. It further clearly demonstrates that forest management systems cannot be developed in isolation but, in order to be successful, they must be adapted to prevailing economic and soci!,l realities of the countries concerned, and carried out with the approval and active collaboration of the local communities.

Although there are considerable gaps in our knowledge of the biology and ecology of the humid tropical forest these do not, ~~, prevent initiating management programmes, carried out in parallel with studies and research aimed at improving present-day practices in the future.

The tropical humid forest can survive only if the land itself is seen by the people concerned to be more valuable retained as forest than converted to any other form of land use. Future survival of the forests thus depends on their productive utilization, at the same time ensuring the conservation of genetic resources and the maintenance of the environmental functions such forests perform.

A key factor in forest management is political will to institute effective management programmes. ·The stakes here are enormous : the quality of life of millions of people will depend on sustainable , productive land use; ecosystem conservation and the conservation and management of genetic reSOurces are inseparably tied to sustainable development; small and large-scale industries in tropical countries, a mainstay of national economies and many local communities, will only contribute to development if they can be assured a continuing supply of raw materials.

FAO will continue to assign highest priority to the conservation and sustained use of tropical forests, in support of national develop­ment programmes; and to provide a forum for technical and policy-level discussions furthering the management of this valuable resource.

J •• Lanly Director

Forest Resources Division Forestry Department

FAO

TABLE OF CCUTF1\TTS

214References

Chapter Pe

Introduction: The Nature of the Problem 1

Historical Overview

Forest Management Systems in the Tropical

Mixed Forests of India

Forest Management Systems in Malaysia

The Management of Mixed Tropical Hardwcod

Forests in the Philippines

Evaluation of the Asian Management Systems

Tropical Forest Management in General 206

7

19

90

146

192

TABIE OF cx:mrnrs

Chapter

Introduction: The Nature of tre Problem

2. Historical CNervicw

3. Forest Mana;:jerrent Systems in the Tropical

Mixed Forests of India

4. Forest Mana;:jerrent Systems in Malaysia

5. The Mana;:Jerrent of Mixed Tropical HaJ:dl.=d

Forests in the Philippines

6. Evaluatim of the Asian Managerrent Systems

7. Tropical Forest Managerrent in General

Feferences

1

7

19

146

192

214

- 1 -

MAPIER I

LNIRCOUCTION: THE NATURE CF 'n-TE PROBLEM

CONSERVATION BY MANA1711=

Concern over rapid depletion of the world's tropical forests has become an

increasingly prominent theme in the last two decades. It has sparked many

conferences, many controversies and still growing literature. One of the issues it

has raised is that of the renewability of tropical forests under management for

production purposes. The extreme view presented that tropical forests are not

renewable is, as a general statement, not correct. Nevertheless, the implication

that the utilization of tropical forests for their timber is necessarily incompatible

with their conservation, has a considerable and sometimes powerful following.

It is a mdsconception but one that thrives, despite the fact that timber production

management and utilization is an insignificant direct cause of tropical

deforestation. Most of the deforestation, it is no w generally conceded, is the

result of the conversicn of tropical forest to agriculture. OE that, a significant

proportion, can be attributed, except in Latin America (where clearing forest for

cattle grazing predominates), to clearing for subsisten agriculture. This, in

turn, is a direct consequence of the failure of economic and social development to

provide alternative livelihoods for more than a small fraction of the increasing

populations in most of the developing countries in the tropical forest zones.

Furthermore, many of the planned programmes for agricultural development based on

clearing tropical forest originated in policies aimed at relieving that same pcverty

pressure.

The conservation of the world's tropical forests thus depends on a solution to the

problem of third world poverty. So long as the world ccmmunity is unable or

unwilling to overcome the self-imposed political obstacles to applying what are, by

ccmparison, relatively simple technical solutions to that problem, then no amount of

talk, research or exhortation is going to conserve the tropical forests. One thing

that can make significant impact in reducing deforestation is to apply fotms of

forest use under which the rural populaticns realise that the forest is more valuable

to them as forest than as a temporary source of farm land. One possibility for doing

that is the sustained yield management of tropical forests for industrial timber

production under a natural system of silviculture with full industrial processing of

the output close to the point of origin.

- 1 -

CllAPIER I

CCN3ER\1.Z'a'ICN BY MI\NIIJ:EMENI'

Concern over rapid depletim of the wor:ld's tropical forests has becare an

increasirgly praninent there in the last two decades. It has sparked many

omferences, many omtrover:sies and still gnMirg literatur:e. One of the is9.les it

has raised is that of the renewability of tropical forests urrler managerrent for

pr:cx:luctim p.u:pa3es. 'The ext:rerre view presented that t.rqJical forests are rot

renewable is, as a general staterent, !lOt correct. Nevertheless, the :iJq:llicatim

that the utilizatim of tropical forests for their timber is necessarily in=tpatible

with their omservatim, has a omsiderable and saretiIres p::1.'lerful follcwirg.

It is a misomceptim but me that thrives, despite the fact that timber production

managarent and utilization is an insignificant direct cause of trq:>ical

deforestation. r1:lst of the deforestation, it is new generally omceded, is the

result of the omversim of tropical forest to agrirultur:e. Of that, a significant

pr:q:>ertion, can be attributed, except in Latin Arrerica (\\here clearirg forest for

cattle grazirg ·predaninates), to clearirg for subsisterce agriculture. This, in

turn, is a direct consequence of the failure of econanic and social develqrrent to

provide alternative livelihocds for llOre than a s:nall fractim of the increasirg

[Xp..llations in llOSt of the develq:>irg countries in the t.rqJical forest zones.

Furtherrrore, many of the planned prq:jrdItlies for agria.iltur:al develqrrent based on

clearirg tropical forest originated in policies aill'ed at relievirg that sarre pJIlerty

pres9.lr:e.

'The omserVatim of the wor:ld' s tropical forests thus depen:ls on a solution to the

problem of third \<'or:ld pJIlerty. So long as the \<,Or ld =muni ty is unable or

unwillirg to overcare the self-irrpJsed political cbstacles to applyirg what are, by

carpar:ism, relatively sinI>le technical solutions to that problem, then ro arrrunt of

talk, research or exmrtation is goirg to conserve the t.rqJical forests. One thirg

that can make significant ilrpact in reducirg deforestation is to apply foms of

forest use wrlcr ~ich the rural [Xp..llations realise that the forest is llOre valuable

to than as forest than as a terrporary sam:e of farm land. One possibility for doirg

that is the 9.lstained yield nenagarent of t.rqJical forests for industrial timber

pr:cx:luction wrler a natural systan of silviculture with full irdustrial pr:ooessirg of

the Oltput close to the point of origin.

- 2 -

Waether that possibility is realistic depends on the several, crucial assumptions

implied in it, being true. The one with which this review is concerned is that it is

posible and feasible to manage tropical forests on a sustained yield basis, under

timber production. That in turn depends on two things:

That silvicultural systems for reproducing the particular tropical forest type

and maintaining, for the most part the initial ecology (Catinot, 1974) will

work in conjunction with timber harvesting, and

that the yield which can be sustained in that forest type is adequate in

quantity, quality, distribution and economics, to support viable, labour

intensive, rurally located forest industries in long term production.

The evidence on these issues is equivocal to say the least (Baur, 1964). Not so long

ago, the Observation that "Far too little is known about silvics and the silviculture

of the different forest communities and thus appropriate silvicultural systems can be

confidently prescribed for only a few limited areas" (FAD, 1974) would have been

widely endorsed. 'hile the point may be less readily conceded now, there is still a

very strong body of opinion that, after more than a century of experience in tropical

forest management, there is "little future hope for the managed regeneration of mixed

natural high forest" (Duke University, 1965). The essentially economic basis of that

judgement is more recently reflected in Spear's (1979) statements in favour of

plantations over natural management.

LEARNING FROM ASIA

Yet there are important exceptions to that pessimistic overgeneralisation. For

instance, Jabil (1983) points out that the forest industries in Peninsular Malaysia

would now be drawing logs from second rotation tropical forests, had those lowland

dipterocarp forests not been cleared for agriculture. Obviously then the natural

management of tropical forests is considerad hy some, in some conditions at least,

both technically and economically feasible. In fact, in parts of Asia, natural

management systems are not only persisted with despite the general approach, but also

quite definitely preferred.

The path to that situation has not been easy. Many systems have been introduced,

modified, abandoned and replaced as they failed or as conditions changed. Sometimes

the failures have come from defects inherent in the system, sometimes from the

transfer of the forest type for which the systems worked to other forms of land use.

- 2-

Vhether that possibility is realistic deperrls on the several, crucial ass..mptions

inplied in it, beirg true. The one with which this review is concerned is that it is

p.Esible and feasible to manage trcpical forests en a sustainerl yield basis, urrler

tinber productien. That in turn deperrls en tWJ thirgs:

a) That silvirultural systems for reprcducirg the particular trq:>ical forest type

and rraintainirg, for the IlOSt part the initial ecology (Catinot, 1974) will

~)]:k in ocnjun::tion with tinber harvestirg, and

b) that the yield which can be SJstainerl in that forest type is adequate in

quantity, q.m.lity, distribution and econcmics, to SJPport viable, l~

intensive, rurally located forest industries in loo;) term productien.

The evidence on these issues is equivocal to say the least (Baur, 1964). Not so loo;)

ego, the cbservation that "Far too little is knoNn aboJt silvics and the silvirulture

of the different forest camunities and thus apprq>riate silvirnltural systems can be

ccnfidently prescribed for only a few limiterl areas" (Fro, 1974) w:uld have been

widely endorsed. Vhile the point rray be less readily ocncerled 1YM, there is still a

very stron::J bcdy of q:>inien that, after rrore than a century of exrerience in trcpical

forest rranagerrent, there is "little future hq:>e for the rranaged regeneration of mixerl

natural high forest" (IAlke University, 1%5). The essentially econcmic basis of that

ju:gerrent is rrore recent! y reflected in Spear's (1979) staterrents in favrnr of

plantations aver natural rranagerrent.

Yet there are inp:lrtant exceptions to that pessimistic avergeneralisation. For

instance, Jabil (1983) points cot that the forest industries in Peninsular Malaysia

w:uld IYM be drawirg legs fron sec:ord rotation tropical forests, had those lCMland

dipterocarp forests not been cleared for agrirulture. Cl:Jl7ioosly then the natural

rranagerrent of tropical forests is considered t:1y SCIre, in sore e<ndi tions at least,

both technically and econanically feasible. In fact, in parts of Asia, natural

rranagerrent systems are not only persisterl with despite the general approach, but also

quite definitely preferred.

The path to that situatien has not been easy. Many systaTS have been introduced,

rrodified, abandcnerl and replaced as they failerl or as e<nditions changed. Saretirres

the failures have care fron defects inherent in the system, soretirres fron the

transfer of the forest type for whim the systems WJrkerl to other forms of land use.

- 3 -

But out of that experience, a very considerable pool oE empirical and fundamental

knowledge has been accumulated and it is on that which the policy of natural

management is firmly based.

Latin America and Africa now have the most extensive areas of tropical moist forest

for which the options are still open. The Asian experience Shows that sustained

timber production through natural regeneration of native species is an option that

should be given serious consideration. The Asian experience, and the knowledge

underlying it, represent an informational base accumulated over a century of

sustained yield management, and covering a wide range of non-technical as well as

technical ccnsiderations. It is a source of information on Which tropical foresters

everyWhere should he able to draw on, for the develcpment and improvement of

management of tropical forests.

Unfortunately very little of the information is readily accessible. Much of it is in

pUblications dating from a long way back and even more lies unpliblished in department

files and research reports. Moreover it is, for the most part, whether published ornot, presented and stored in compartmentalised blocks as inventory, silvicultural,

marketing, eccnomic, utilisation and policy information. Appraisals of results or

methods in terms of total management systems are rare and presentations in that form

even rarer. Yet it is the integrated form in which the field operational manager has

to apply his skills, and it is the sort of knowledge which the practical manager

accumulates in his experience but rarely pUblishes.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS REVIEN

This review therefore aims at taking a first step towards filling soma of those gaps.

Forest management systems whieh have been successful or wddely used in three Asian

countries are reviewed as evolving dynamic total systems. For each country, this has

been done collectively or individually by people responsible for the development,

administration and application in the field of the management systems analysed.

In attempting this, the country reviews reveal much about the necessarily tentative

nature of the processes by which management systems for tropical forests trust be

developed and of the management systems eventually developed. TWo features are of

particular relevance at this point. Ce is that in sudh brief sammaries little more

than a glimpse can be given of the wealth of information-which lies behind the system

- 3 -

But out of that experience, a very cmsiderable p::lOl of errpirical and fundamental

J<rn./lcdge has been aCCLmllated and it is on that ...nich the IXllicy of natural

mmagem:mt is firmly based.

Latin Arrerica and Africa roN have the rrost extensive areas of tropical mist forest

for ...nich the options are still cpen. The Asian experience shOllS that sustained

t :irrber prrouction throu;Jh natural regeneration of native species is an option that

should be given serious oonsideration. The Asian experience, and the kroNledJe

underlyirg it, represent an infomational base acamulated CNer a century of

sustained yield managerrent, and cCNerirg a wide rarge of mn--technical as "",11 as

technical oonsiderations. It is a source of infomation on ...nich tropical foresters

every.here should be able to draw on, for the developrent and inproverrent of

mmagarent of tropical forests.

Unfortunately very little of the infomation is readily accessible. Much of it is in

publications datirg fron a long \'lay. back and even rrore lies unpublished in d~nt

files and research reports. M:JreCNer it is, for the rrost part, ...nether published or

rot, presented and stored in anpart::nentalised blocks as inventory, silvicultural,

rrarketirg, econanic, utilisation and policy infomation. Appraisals of results or

rrothods in terrrs of total managerrent systEm; are rare and presentations in that form

even rarer. Yet it is the integrated form in ...nich the field cperational mmager has

to awly his skills, and it is the sort of krDNlcdge ...nich the practical mmager

acrurrulates in his experience but rarely publishes.

THE PlJRfC6E OF THIS REIlIEW

This review therefore aims at takirg a first step tcMards fillirg sare of those gaps.

Forest rranagarent systerrs ...nich have been successful or widely used in three Asian

countries are reviev.ed as evolving dynamic total systerrs. For each camtry, this has

reen done collectively or individually try people responsible for the develq:rrent,

adninistration and application in the field of the rranagarent systEm; analysed.

In attenptirg this, the country reviews reveal ITU.lch abcut the necessarily tentative

nature of the processes try ...nich rranagarent systEm; for tropical forests rust be

developed and of the rranagerrent systems eventually developed. Tho features are of

particular relevance at this point. (he is that in such brief smrraries little rrore

than a glimpse can he given of the v.ealth of infomation ·...nich lies behind the systGn

-4

in each country, and the painstaking way in whidh that knowledge has been

accumulated. The other is that the idea of a forest management system as an entity

in itself, rather than a loose coalition of specialisations, is a very old one, but

its develcpment into a practical cperaticnal form is not easy and is a long way fron

complete.

There are therefore some very important and salutary lessons in the experiences

outlined here, both for other regions and other parts of Asia and the Pacific region

and for the countries from whidh the experiences have been drawn. The main ones will

be considered later, but there are two which are worth mentioning now. These are

firstly, the management of tropical foresta involves the manipulation of and

adjustment to, a mudh wider set of elements than the forests and their immediate

environments, and secondly that these elements are much more complex and dynamdc,

both in themselves and in their interactions, than even the most successful of

present management systems have yet adequately recognized.

This is perhaps not the place to go into what that implies for the management of

tropical forests. In any case, the application of systems analysis to the management

of complex biological - social systems is too far fram an operaticnal status to

provide mudh guidance (Gall, 1977). Nevertheless, same principies can serve as bench

marks for the evaluation of how well argoing management systems rate as integrated

total systems.

Cbviously enough, the managed interaction between forests and their imrrediate and

work environuents must be executed in and on the forests. Forest management thus

covers what is done to forests and how it is done, to meet certain specified

purposes. Those purposes are many and growing, apparently in number and variety, as

well as in magnitude. But for working purposes they can he grouped into three broad

classes of services and products, whidh warrant the continued occupation of land by

forests. Those groups are an infrastructural group carprising the environmental

protection and amelioration influences of forests; a social group comprising those

products and services that contribute directly to community welfare and stability and

thirdly a ccumercial group which covers those products which make their social

contribution indirectly through local, national and international trade. Tb be

successful a forest management system has to be able to maintain a forest structure

and distribution Whidh can supply Whatever ccmbination of those requirements that

circumstances impose, explicitly or implicitly on the forest. That is no easy

matter. Some of the main difficulties arise from the facts that:

- 4 -

in each ca.mtry, am the painstakirg way in whim that kn::Mledge has been

aCOJI11Ulated. The other is that the idea of a forest rranagarent system as an entity

in itself, rather than a loose ooalitim of specialisations, is a very old one, but

its develq:rrent into a practical q:eratimal form is not easy am is a lorg way fron

carplete.

There are therefore sore very irrportant am salutary lessons in the experierces

mtlined here, both for other regions am other parts of Asia am the Pacific region

am for the ca.mtries from which the experienoes have been drawn. The rrain ones will

be considered later, but there are tv.u •• hich are worth rrentimirg row. These are

firstly, the managarent of tropical forests involves the rranipulation of am adjustrrent to, a!!Um wider set of elerrents than the forests and their irnrediate

enviroments, and seccn:lly that these elerrents are !!Uch rrore carplex an:] dynamic,

both in tharsclves and in their interactions, than even -the rrost successful of

present rrana;jerrent systEms have yet adequately recqjnized.

This is perhaps not the place to go into what that inplies for the managerrent of

tropical forests. In any case, the application of systerrs analysis to the rranagerrent

of carplex biolCx:Jical - social systEms is too far fran an operational status to

provire !!Uch guidance (Gall, 1977). Nevertheless, sore principles can serve as bench

rrarks for the evaluation of hCAY well on-goirg rranagerrent systEms rate as integrated

total systerrs.

Cbvimsly era.!gh, the rranaged interactim between forests and their imrediate an:]

WJrk enviroments !lUSt be executed in and on the forests . Forest rranagerrent thus

COJers what is dme to forests and hew it is done, to rreet certain specified

purposes. Those prrposes are many and grcwirg, apparently in rurrber and variety, as

well as in rragni tude. But for \'.Drkirg plrp::lSCS they can be grruped into three broad

classes of servires am products, whim warrant the continued ocrupation of land by

forests. Those grrups are an infrastructural grrup carprisirg the envircnrental

protection am arrelioration influences of forests; a social group oarprisirg these

products am services that contribute directly to camunity welfare am stability am thirdly a ccmrercial grrup which COJers these products whim rrake their social

contrirutim irdirectly thrcugh local, national am international trade. 'Tb be

SJccessful a forest rranagerrent systEm has to be able to rraintain a forest structure

and distribution whim can supply whatever canl:>ination of these requirerrcnts that

circunstanoes ilr!:ose, explicitly or inplicitly m the forest. That is no easy

llBtter. SCIre of the rrain diffimlties arise fron the facts that:

•

- 5 -

The oatbination can rarely be taken for granted or as given, so that it has to

be worked out largely within the forest management system itself.

It is not simply the catbination that currently applies which is important,

but, even more so that which will apply in the future.

The failure to get that right, as the country reviews and experience elsewhere show,

can distort and misdirect the course of forest management as badly as apy

deficiencies on the silvicultural side can. The main weaknesses, it is now clear,

have been in the anticipation of social changes and their consequences, and it has

been difficult for policy-makers in apy field to anticipate changes. Nevertheless,

in the countries under review, it was on the forests as a land bank that the main

impact of unanticipated changes fell, and the effect on the forest resource base has

often been devastating (e.g. Wilson, 1983; Joshi, 1983).

FOREST MANAGEMENT WITH SOCIAL PURPOSE

Forestry is based on very long term anticipation and planning. And in fact, forest

management systems have always incorporated long-term forecasts of market and,

although to a lesser extent, in recent years, non-market demands for wood and other

services. Moreover right from the start of forest administration and management in

the Asian region, the rights and needs of local ccmainities and waterahed protection

were accorded high priority (e.g. Ribbentrop, 1900; Stebbing, 1926). Coed intentions

are not, however, enough. It is what happens in the field that counts and that is

not always what it has been decided elsewhere should happen. The discrepancy was

noted officially as early as 1894, with the Government of India reprimanding its own

forest department for an unduly restrictive interpretation of the National Forest

Policy, whidh was meant to protect local rights and land uses (Taylor, 1981).

Espite that warning, an effective incorporation of social values into forest

management systems has been a long time in caning. Forest management has, it must be

admitted, been much more concerned with conserving the forests, than with protecting

the communities. At times, in fact, protecting the forests was seen as necessitating

disruption of the traditional ways of life of local communities. The imbalance

eventually back-fired so that management systems are now perforce having to

incorporate measures to protect both.

Technically, however, no great change is involved. The reasons for felling the trees

may Change, and even the choice of trees to be felled but the technical problems

remain the same. In a silvicultural phase, the natural management of tropical

- 5-

a) The cx:nbinatim can rarely be taken for granted or as given, so that it has to

be \\Orked oot largely within the forest rranagarent system itself.

b) . I.t is rot sirrply the cx:nbinatim that currently applies which is irrportant,

but, even IlOre so that which will apply in the future.

The failure to get that right, as the coontry reviews and experien:::e elsewhere shoN,

can distort and rnis:lirect the coorse of forest rranagarent as badly as any

deficiencies on the silvicultural side can. 'Ihe rein weaknesses, it is rr::JI< clear,

have been in the anticipation of social changes and their cmsequenoes, and it has

been difficult for policy-makers in any field to anticipate changes. Nevertheless,

in the coontries under review, it was on the forests as a land bank that the rein

irrpact of unanticipated changes fell, and the effect on the forest resource base has

often been devastating (e.g. Wilson, 1983; Joshi, 1983).

Forestry is based m very long term anticipatim and planning. And in fact, forest

rranagarent systrnE have always incorporated long-term forecasts of rmrket and,

althoogh to a 1esoor extent, in recent years, non-market derrands for w:icd am other

services. M::>reover right fron the start of forest adrninistratim and rranagarent in

the Asian region, the rights am needs of local =munitics am watershed protectim

_re acroroed high priority (e.g. Ribbentrop, 1900; Stebbing, 1926). Cco:l intentims

are rot, ~ver, eno..gh. I.t is what ha~ns in the field that coontS and that is

not all'ays what it has been deciried elsewhere shoJld happen. The discrepancy was

noted officially as early as 1894, with the Governrent of India reprirmnding its 0N!l

forest departrrent for an unduly restrictive interpretatim of the National Forest

Eblicy, which was rreant to protect local rights and lam uses (Tay lor, 1981).

Lespite that warning, an effective incorporatim of social values into forest

rra.na;Jarent systerrs has been a long tiIre in =ning. Forest rranagarent has, it rrust be

adnitted, been rruch IlOre cmcerned with cmoorving the forests, than with protecting

the =munities. At tirres, in fact, protecting the forests was seen as necessitating

disruption of the trcditimal ways of life of local =munities. The irrbalance

eventually back-fired so that rranagerrent systems are nCJ.ol perforce having to

incorporate rreas.rres to protect both.

Technically, h:::1.ever, no great change is involved. 'Ihe reasons for felling tre trees

rey chan.:le, am even the choice of trees to be felled but the technical prcblems

remain the sane. In a silvicultural phase, the natural nanagment of tropical

6

forests still aims at turning the necessarily destructive harvesting of some trees

into mechanisms for replacing them. And for sustained yield, a regulatory phase is

still required to ensure that the rate of harvesting and the rate of replacement are

properly matched.

That, in principle, is no different from the management of any other type of forest.

As far as the regulatory aspect is concerned, there are only three options - to

harvest all the increment; less than the increment; or more than it. In the

silvicultural aspect, if it has been decided to harvest any increment at all then

there are more but still not many options. The proportion of the increment that has

been decided to harvest can be met by felling and removing:

Isolated trees (Single Tree Selection Systems) or small groups of trees

scattered throughout the forest (Group Selection Systems).

A proportion of the trees more or less uniformly distributed over a part of

the forest (Uniform or Shelterwood Systems).

Nearly all of the trees on a part of the forest (Seed Tree, TWo-Storied High

Forest, Standards Systems).

All of the trees on a part of the forest (Clear Felling).

These four spatial distributions of the harvest can be coMbined with a narrow range

of choice, in the vertical dimension, of trees to fell or retain, according to their

relative positicns in the canopy. Then more possibilities are offered by the form in

whidh regeneration is secured. But when all the conceivable coMbinations are added

up, the possibilities are still relatively limited in total. Even so, workable, let

alone optimum, combinations of the silvicultural and regulatory phases for the

natural management of any type of forest are not easily found, nor can the solution,

once found, be taken as fixed.

The diffidulties are compounded many times over in tropical forestry. Fundamentally,

the structural and compositional complexity of the ecosystems compared with those in

temperate forests and the virtual absence of any short-cuts to the determination of

increment would, alone, greatly magnify the technical preblems in tropical forest

management. Hewever, the tremendous environnental and economic benefits to be

derived from proper forest management, supply the rationale and motivation for

continued efforts to develop forest ranagement systems, while strengthening

institutions and infrastructures in support of them.

- 6 -

forests still aims at turning the necessarily destructive harvesting of same trees

into rrechanisrrs for replacing than. And for sustained yield, a re;JUlatory ,nase is

still required to ensure that the rate of harvesting and the rate of replacarent are

properly matched.

That, in principle, is no different fram the management of any other type of forest.

As far as the re;JUlatory aspect is corcerned, there are only three c:ptions - to

harvest all the incrarent; less than the incrarent; or nore than it. In the

silvicultural aspect, if it has been decided to harvest any incrarent at all then

there are nore but still not many c:ptions. The prc:portion of the incrarent that has

been decided to harvest can be rret by felling and rerroving:

a) Isolated trees (Single Tree Selection Systems) or SlI3ll groups of trees

scattered thrcu<;1lcut the forest (Grcup Selection Systems).

b) A prc:portion of the trees rore or less uniforrnl y distributed OIler a part of

the forest (Uniform or Shelterw:xxl Systems).

c) Nearly all of the trees on a part of the forest (Seed Tree, 'lID-Storied High

Forest, Standards Systems).

d) All of the trees on a part of the forest (Clear Felling).

1hese fcur spatial distributions of the harvest can be carbined with a narroN range

of choioe, in the vertical dirrension, of trees to fell or retain, acoording to their

relative positions in the canopf. Then nore possibilities are offered by the form in

which regeneration is secured. But when all the conceiVable ccnbinations are added

up, the possibilities are still relatively limited in total. Even so, w::Jrkable, let

alone c:ptiIrurn, ccnbinations of the silviOJltural and regulatory rhases for the

natural managarent of any typa of forest are not easily fc:und, nor can the solution,

once fc:und, be taken as fixed.

The diffiOJlties are caq;x;urrled many tirres OIler in trc:pical forestry. Furdanentally,

the structural and cCllp::.sitional carplexity of the ecosystems carpared with those in

terrp3rate forests and the virtual absenoe of any short-cuts to the determination of

increrrent \'O.Ild, alone, greatly magnify the technical prcblems in tropical forest

management •. ~ver, the trarendc:us environrrental and ecc.roni.c benefits to be

derived fram proper forest management, SJpply the rationale and notivation for

continued efforts to develc:p forest management systems, while strengthening

institutions and infrastructures in SJpport of them.

PRE-TWENTIETH CENTURY

- 7 -

CHAPTER II

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

The origins of scientific forest management in the tropics are to be found in India.

Dating fram the mid 19th Century, they are part of that is now regarded as classical

forest management. In fact, one of the tropical systems - the Brandis System - is

often included in the classical lexicon (e.g. Jerram, 1935).

The pioneers of that work, were, for the most part, educated in the German forest

schools. They brought with them to India a capacity for rational, systematic

analysis whiCh was the hallmark of that tradition. The fact that they were applying

it to infinitely more complex ecosystems in very difficult social environments, they

neither ignored nor were they daunted by it.

Cver the years they incorporated the various elements of their scientific approach

into an iterative seqpence of:

Establishing firm administrative control over the forests.

Clarifying and formalising ownership and customary rights.

Defining the physical dimensions of the forest estate so identified.

Investigating the silvical characteristics and behaviour of the main

tiMber species, and their wood properties.

Estimating growth rates and patterns, pending the results of more

precise further investigations.

Prescribing sustained yield management regimes, Whidh coMbined yield

control and replacement of the forest as it was utilised.

The very important point is that this was no mechanical application of already

formalised systems from Western Europa. It was a concurrent development; the

approach was imported, not the methods. For any type of forest in any geographical

location and any social setting the analytical process must be the same. A range of

- 7 -

CJlAPTER 11

HISICruCAL CM:RVIEW

PRE-'IW'NTIEIH CENIURY

The origins of scientific forest rranagerrent in the trcpics are to be fQlnd in India.

Dating fron the mid 19th ('..entury, they are part of what is raN regarded as classical

forest rranagerrent. In fact, one of the tropical systems - the Brandis System - is

often included in the classical lexicx:n (e.g. Jerrarn, 1935).

The pioneers of that W)rk, \'.ere, for the rrost part, educated in the German forest

schools. They brought with them to India a capacity for rational, systerratic

analysis whim was the hallnark of that traditim. The fact that they \'.ere applying

it to infinitely more oamplex ecosystems in very difficult social environments, they

neither igncred ror \'.ere they da\mted bt it.

OJer the years they incorporated the varicus elerrents of their scientific approach

into an iterative sequence of:

i) Establishing firm administrative control aver the forests.

ii) Clarifying and forrralising =ership and custmary rights.

iii) Dafining the tiJ.ysical d:iJrensims of the forest estate so identified.

iv) Investigating the silvical characteristics and behaviour of the main

tirrber species, and their wxx:l prcperties.

v) Estimating grcwth rates and patterns, pending the rerults of rrore

precise further investigatims.

vi) Prescribing rustained yield rranagerrent reg:iJres, whim camined yield

cx:ntrol and replacarent of the forest as it was utilised.

The very irrp:>rtant point is that this was ro rrechanical application of already

forrralised systems from W2stern Europe. It was a concurrent develqxrent; the

approach was irrp:>rted, not the rrethcds . For any type of forest in any geogratiJ.ical

location and any social setting the analytical process rrust be the sarre. A range of

possible parallels between tropical and temperate systems is therefore inevitable,

but the conclusion sometimes drawn from sudh resemblances, that the limited success

with tropical forest management is due to slavish imitation of European modes, is

both illogical and superficial.

This does not mean that there was no direct imitation of European models in the

tropical forests. It undcObtedly did occur, just as it did in the temperate forests

of the new world. But that does not alter the fact that tropical forestry developed

largely in its cwn right, not out of European forestry, but out of a common

philosophy.

Eventually the experience from India diffused to other parts of the British Empire,

as it then was. The diffusion was, however, direct to a limited extent only. The

main channel was through the education and training of foresters for the Colonial

Forest Service in the British forestry schools, where many of the teaching staff drew

on their own experience in the forests of India.

A similar moulding of tropical forest management in the European scientific

philosophy took place more or less simultaneously in What is ro w Indonesia. There,

however, the Dutch foresters tended, it seems, to place more stress on the botany and

structural ecology of the various forest types, as a pre-requisite to their

management.

In the Philippines, early discouraging results from European-type forest management

on the one hand, and structural similarities between the tropical foresta and old

growth forests in the USA on the other, led to management systems which emphasized

the engineering and economic aspects of utilisation.

Thus, the early management systems were grappling with a common preblem, which had a

nuMber of almost irreconcilable components. Firstly, there was the necessity, as it

was seen, to ensure the retention of enough forest to meet future needs for wood and

non-wocd products and services, while still meeting present demands on the forests

for traditional products and uses, for new and growing industrial uses, for exports,

for revenue and for land for agricultural expansion. At the same time, there was the

need to draw on even those forests which it was felt should comprise the permanent

forest estate, to meet current requirements, without impairing their long term

productive and environmental protection capacity. And thirdly to do this in forests

- 8 -

possible parallels between tropical and taq:Jerate systems is therefore irevitable,

but the oonclusim scrretirres drawn fron such reserblances, that the limited success

with trcpical forest managerrent is due to slavish imitatim of Eurcpean m::des, is

both illcgical and superficial.

This does not rrean that there was ro direct imitation of Eurcpean rrcdels in the

trcpical forests. It urrlcubtedly did ccrur, just as it did in the terrperate forests

of the new \>.Orld. &It that does not alter the fact that tropical forestry develcped

largely in its aNI1 right, not rut of Eurcpean forestry, but rut of a =[[(U,

phiJ.oscphy.

Eventually the experierce fron India diffused to other parts of the British Einpire,

as it then was. 'lhe diffusim was, ho"ever, direct to a limited extent only. 'lhe

rein channel was thrru::jh the educatim and trainin;) of foresters for the Colonial

Forest Service in the British forestry schools, \Yhero IT\3.ny of the teachin;) staff drew

on their 0N!1 experience in the forests of India.

A similar rruildin;) of trcpical forest rranagarent in the Eurcpean scientific

philosophy t:od< place rrore or less sim.Jltanerusly in \'.hat is rotl Indcnesia. 'lhere,

~ver, the DJtch foresters tended, it se€ll5, to place rrore stress on the ootany and

structural ecolcgy of the varirus forest types, as a pre-requisite to their

renagerrent.

Iri the Philippines, early disccuragin;) results fron European-type forest I1'a11agE!lent

on the me hand, and structural similarities be~n the tropical forests and old

grnoth forests in the USA m the other, led to managerrent systems which ertphasized

the en;)ineerin;) and eccncmic aspects of utilisatim.

Thus, the early renagerrent systems were grapplin;) with a =rm::n prcblem, which had a

nU!Tber of alrrost irreconcilable CCI!pQI1ents. Firstly, t.l)ere was the necessity, as it

was seen, to ensure the retention of ena.gh forest to rreet future needs for w::xxl and

ncn-w::xxl prcducts and services, while still rreetin;) present delTl3.nds on the forests

for traditicnal prcducts and uses, for new and growin;) industrial uses, for exports,

for revenue and for land for agricultural expansion. At the sane time, there was the

need to draw m even these forests which it was felt sha.lld a::rrprise the perrranent

forest estate, to rreet current req..lirerrents, withrut irrpairin;) their laog term

prrouctive and envircnrrental protection capacity. And thirdly to do this in forests

- 9 -

whidh are infinitely more complex to study, to monitor and to control than the ones

frcwwhich forest management has grown and, in physical environments which were

almost completely the reverse and in social settings strangely different from those

into which the forest management systems had fitted.

It is hardly surprising, therefore, that the early forest management systems

developed for the tropics can, in retrospect, be seen as greatly oversimplified.

With few exceptions, neither the technial nor the social constraints and difficulties

that are now evident received adequate recognition. Nor is it surprising that the

systems now in use and in development are tending to converge towards a very similar

pattern.

The first step in all instances was to establiSh some order into the utilisation of

those forests foreseen as necessary for the future and some system into the

conversion of the remainder to other uses. The extent to which this became a major

exercise and sUbsequently a major part of the management systems varied.

Institutional arrangements, therefore, varied with the ways in which the colonial

powers imposed their legal and administrative systems on, or merged than with, the

bocal systems. Tb a large extent, protection of the reserved forests frun

encroachment by settlers or disposessed poachers came to be a dominant aspect of

forest management in India fram an early stage. In other countries, where the local

situation was either simpler, or simply ignored, such an emphasis either never

developed or came much later.

In the three countries covered in this review, the next step in establishing forest

management - formalising ownership - had to be taken in the light of very different

situations. In India, the rather aMbiguous relationShips between the British

Government and the British East India Company and their relationships with the Indian

rulers of the various states and principalities had produced, as far as forestry was

concerned, a rather confused and erratic progress towards stabilisation and

management. But it was progress all the same, despite a tendendy for revenue

considerations to over-ride conservation.

Mth the BritiSh Government taking over full responsibility after 1858, surveys,

demarcation and registration of ownerShip and rights became more systematic and

uniform. Then, as the railway system expanded, cammunications became more rapid and

reliable and public works programmes, including irrigation, grew. Institutional

- 9 -

which are infinitely IlOre ccrrplex to study, to IlOnitor and to cmtrol than the ones

fron which forest managerrent has gr= and, in physical envin:nrrents which were

aJrrcst ccrrpletely the reverse and in social settirgs strargely different fron t.hose

into which the forest rrana;Jerrent systars had fitted.

It is hardly surprisirg, therefore, t.hat the early forest mana;Jerrent systars

developed for the tropics can, in retrospect, be seen as greatly oversirrplified.

With few eXCEptions, neither the technial nor the social constraints and diffirulties

that are fOol evident received adequate recognition. Nor is it surprisirg that the

systars fOol in use and in develq:rrent are tendirg to converge I:<J..iards a very similar

pattern.

The first step in all instances was to establish SCIre order into the utilisation of

those forests foreseen as na::essary for the future and s:ne systan into the

cmversion of the reminder to other uses. The extent to which this becarre a rrajor

exercise and subsequently a major part of the rrana;Jerrent systars varied.

Institutional arrargerrents, therefore, varied with the ways in which the colonial

po.vers :irrpcsed their legal and adninistrative systars on, or nerged than with, the

local systars. 'lb a large extent, protectim of the reserved forests fron

encroachnent by settlers or niS[:osessed poachers cane to be a daninant aspect of

forest l1'i'lI'l1'garent in India fron an early sta;Je. In other ccuntries, where the local

situation was either sirrpler, or sirrply ignored, such an €ITlJhasis either never

developed or cane IlUch later.

In the three ccuntries covered in this review, the next step in establishirg forest

rranagement - forma1isirg ownership - had to be taken in the light of very different

situations. In India, the rather arrbigurus relationships between the British

Cbverment and the British East India Carpany and their relatimships with the Indian

rulers of the vari= states and prircipalities had prcrluoed, as far as forestry was

cmcerned, a rather ccnfused and erratic prcgress t:cMards stabilisation and

nanagemmt. rut it W"IS progress all the sane, de5[:lite a tendency for revenue

considerations to over-ride conservatim.

With the British Cbverment takirg over full responsibility after 1858, surveys,

danarcation and registratioo of ownerffiip and rights becarre IlOre systatatic and

unifonn. Then, as the railway systan expanded, camunications becarre IlOre rapid and

reliable and plblic works prograrnres, including irrigation, grew. Institutional

arrangements for moving nore and more land out of sdbsistence farming into cash crop

and commercial agriculture had to be made more effective. The land resources of the

emerging forest administrations were both part of this development, and affected by

it and its social repercussions.

The end result was, however, a strongly establiShed, demarcated and well protected

system of forest reserves across the whole country. Not sufficient in the foresters'

opinion, but nevertheless quite extensive and well distributed.

The situation was appreciably simpler in the Malay states and protectorates.

Pooulations were nowhere pressing on resources, there were no natural teak foresta on

whidh to build a prosperous export trade and an industry based on timber harvesting,

while the growth of commercial agriculture, although rapid and widespread following

the successful introduction of rubber, did not seriously erode the total forest

estate at this point. Forest reservation nevertheless pushed ahead systematically,

if not so urgently, in accordance with the accepted principle of reserving an

adequate forest estate.

In the Philippines, three centuries of Spanish occupation and colonisation had left a

very distinct institutional mark. Traditional rights and customary laws of the

indigenous people had not been recognised in the official pattern of land ownerShip.

Yet it was necessary to legitimise the timber rights which were gradually being

introduced. This, it was found, necessitated nationalisaticn of the more important

forest lands and a government forest service to manage than.

Thus with more or less stable and identifiable forest estates on whidh to base it,

management then began with the development of early simple area methods of yield

control and empirical investigations of silvicultural prospects. The yield to be

controlled was almost invariably considered in terms of industrial wood. For that

purpose, very few of the hundreds of the species in the tropical forests were in

demand. Teak dominated the Indian scene, strong durable hardwoods the Malayan and

early Philippine demande with fine quality Dipterocarps taking over soon after the

American occupation of the Philippines (Roth, 1983). Other species were taken of

course and some were highly valued for speciality purposes, but in total the

commercial species never amounted to more than a handful of the posibles.

Area control, apart from its simplicity, has the advantage of being not too demanding

in its informational requirements. All that is needed is a determination of the area

comprising the management unit and an estimate of the rotation. The formar came out

of the surveys, but the latter could be no more than an educated guess, and

- 10 -

arrargerrents for IrCNing rore am rrore land rut of subsistence farmi.ng into cash crr.p

am o:mrercial cgrirulture had to be rrade rrore effective. The lam resources of the

errerging forest crlninistrations >.ere ixlth part of this develcprent, am affected by

it am its oocial repercussions.

The errl result vas, h~er, a s~ly established, dararcated am well protected

system of forest reserves across the whole country. Not sufficient in the foresters'

cpinien, but nevertheless quite extensive am well distributed.

The situatien was appreciably sirrpler in the Malay states am protectorates.

Pcp..ilations >.ere roNhere pressing en resrurces, there were no natural teak forests en

whim to build a prospercus export trade am an irrlustry based en tinber harvesting,

while the grcwth of cCI!lIDrcial agriculture, althc:u;Jh rapid and widespread follcwing

the successful intrcductioo of rubber, did rot serirusly .ercrle the total forest

estate at this point. Forest reservatien nevertheless pushed ahead systematically,

if not so urgently, in accordance with the accepted principle of reserving an

adequate forest estate.

In the Philippines, three centuries of Spanish occupatioo am colenisation had left a

very distinct institutiooal rraD<. Tra::litiooal rights am rustanary laws of the

irrligenrus pecple had not been reocgnised in the official pattern of land OII!1ership.

Yet it was necessary to legitimise the tinber rights which were gradually being

introduced. This, it was found, necessitated nationalisatioo of the rrore iTIportant

forest lands and a gcwemrent forest service to rranage than.

Thus with rrore or less stable am identifiable forest estates on which to tase it,

rrana;J€filent then began with the develcprent of early sirrple area rrethods of yield

control and atpirical investigations of silvicultural prospects. The yield to be

controlled was alI10st invariably considered in terms of irrlustrial \'OXl. For that

purpose, very few of the hundreds of the species in the trcpica1 forests were in

demand. Teak daninated the Indian scene, strrng durable hard<t.axls the Malayan and

early Philippine darand, with fine quality Dipte=arps taking over 90CKl after the

Prrerican occupatioo of the Philippines (Roth, 1983). Other species were taken of

courS3 and sate were highly valued for speciality purposes, but in total the

=rrrercial species never cm::unted to rrore than a handful of the possibles.

Area control, apart fron its sirrplicity, has the a::lvantcge of being not too daranding

in its infomatirnal requirerrents. All that is needed is a determinatien of the area

=rprising the rranagerent unit and an estirrate of the rotatioo. The fourer care rut

of the surveys, but the latter COJ.ld be ro rore than an educated guess, and

applicable to all the commercial species. Commonly, 100 to 120 years was adopted as

a first approximation, giving 1/100 or 1/120 of the area of the management unit to be

cut over annually.

This might have been a mederately successful initial system if:

The composition and size structure of the forest had been reasonably

uniform over the management unit.

The markets had been relatively static.

The prescriptions had been enforceable and enforced.

These conditions, however, rarely applied. Instead, with the extreme variability of

the tropical_ mixed forests, commercial yields from a fixed area annual coupe could

vary widely from area to area and from year to year. MbanWhile, the demand for the

prime timbers especially, was increasing in local markets in India, and in export

markets everywhere. Consequently, political and financial pressures for cutting to

match the market were at times quite intense. Forest departments came to be seen as

obstinate, insensitive and out of touch with reality in trying to maintain limits

Whieh they saw as essential for forest conservation and which, moreover, had been

endorsed by their governments.

Haw successful resistance to such pressures was, depended largely on the character

and standing of the heads of the forest departments and their senior officers.

Brandis was one of a number, who were quite outstanding in their ability to impose

new standards of performance and command the necessary support from above, his narre

is commemorated in the method of yield control that he devised for Teak in turma.

In the Brandis method of yield regulation, the nuMber of Teak trees above a specified

minimum exploitable size which could be cut was set as a function of the rate at

which smaller sized trees could replace the ones to be removed. It was a marked

improvement on simple area control and is a successful system as long as the demand

can be kept within these sustained yield limits, logging can be confined to the size

classes prescribed, and continuous regeneration assured.

-11-

applicable to all the o:::mrercial species. Camnnly, 100 to 120 years was adcpted as

a first approxiIration, givin;J 1/100 or 1/120 of the area of the managarcnt unit to be

cut CNer annually.

This might have been a m:;derately suo::essful initial system if:

a) The ccrrpositioo and size structure of the forest ha:l been reasonably

uniform CNer the rranagarcnt unit.

b) The rrarl<.ets had been relatively static.

c) The prescriptioos had been enforceable and enforced.

These conditioos, h~ver, rarely applied. Instead, with the extrere variability of

the tropical mixed forests, o:::mrercial yields fron a fixed area annual coope =..tld

vary widely fron area to area and fran year to year. ~ile, the derand for the

priJre tirrbers especially, was increasin;J in local rrarkets in Imia, and in export

rrarkets everywhere. Consequently, political and financial pressures for cuttin;J to

rratch the rrarket ;,ere at tiJres quite intense. Forest depart:rrents carre to be seen as

cbstinate, insensitive and cut of tcud! with reality in tryin;J to rraintain limits

v.hid! they saw as essential for forest conservation and v.hich, nl)reCNCr, ha:l been

en:lorrod by their gCNernrrents.

lhl successful resistance to such pressures was, depended largely on the character

and standin;J of the heads of the forest departrrents and their senior officers.

Brandis was one of a nurrber, v.ho ~re quite cutstandin;J in their ability to :irrpcse

new standards of perforrrance and carrrand the reccssary support iron abCNe, his narre

is oomellorated in the rrethcd of yield control that he devised for Teak in &lrma.

In the Brandis rrethcd of yield re;JUIation, the nurrt>er of Teak trees above a specified

minimJrn exploitable size v.hich =..tld be rut was set as a functioo of the rate at

v.hich s:re.11er sized trees =..tld replace the mes to be rerroved. It was a rrarked

irrprovarcnt m simple area control and is a success Eul system as 10n;J as the darand

can be kept within these sustained yield limits, lcggin;J can be confined to the size

classes prescribed, and oootinucus regeneratim assured.

- 12 -

This latter condition is crucial. Ultimately, the success of any management system

in which the harvest is made up of the removal of whole trees, depends on the success

with which regeneration proceeds. In the long run it could well have been the

weakest of the many weak links in the early management systems.

In India, the natural regeneration of Teak was often no major problem. Where it

failed or was inadequate, planting, for which techniques had been worked out early in

the 19th century, could be used to supplement any deficiency. In fact, so promising

were the early Teak plantings that conversion of some tropical mixed forests to Teak

plantations eventually became standard practice. Mth other species there was less

success and, in fact, less effort. Contributing to that were a number of ill-advised

attempts to apply the Brandis system to forest types, Which, unlike Teak, were

ill-adapted to its selection silvicultural basis (Jerram, 1935).

Research into silvicultural aspects of the management of the Dipterocarn forests also

began at a fairly early stage in the development of the respective forest services.

Formal ised experhments on growth and regeneration responses to stand treatments date

back to the early decades of this century. Mth statistical science then in its

infancy and not part of the normal forestry education, it is unlikely that these

early trials would have yielded anything more than quantified observations.

Moreover, taxonomical clarification was a prerequisite for silvicultural research and

practice in these complex ecosystems and accordingly took precedence on the

biological side. Even so most of the foresters of those days were acute observers

and keen experimenters. From their Observations and the results of their tests, a

working knowledge of tropical forest ecology was gradually accumulated. For some of

the important species of the times, that level of information was enough for

management to proceed with some confidence, and even allow one or two to be developed

as plantation species.

POST WORLD WAR II

However, most of these early systems collapsed at other points of weakness long

before the success or failure of the silvicultural aspects could show its effects.

The first event that triggered that collapse was the Pacific phase of World War II;

the second was the extent, nature and world-wide impact of the post-war recovery and

economic boom.

- 12 -

This latter carlition is crucial. Ultimately, the success of any rranagerrent system

in which the harvest is !T'ade up of the rffiOval of whole trees, depends on the success

with which regeneraticn proceeds. In the lo~ run it could well have been the

weakest of the rrany ~;eak links in the early rranagerrent systans.

In India, the natural regeneration of Teak \'IaS often ro !T'ajor problem. \'here it

failed or was inadequate, planti~, for which techniques hirl been w:lrked out early in

the 19th century, could be used to supplerrent any deficiency. In fact, se pranisi~

were the early Teak plantin::Js that conversion of sore tropical mixed forests to Teak

plantations eventually became standard practice. With other species there was less

success and, in fact, less effort. Contributi~ to that were a nurrber of ill-irlvised

atterrpts to apply the Brandis system to forest types, which, unlike Teak, were

ill-irlapted to its selection silvicultural basis (Jerrarn, 1935).

Research into silvicultural aspects of the !T'anagarent of the Dipterocarp forests alse

began at a fairly early stage in the development of the respective forest services.

Fomalised experirrents on grcMth and regeneraticn responses to stand treatrrents date

back to the early decades of this century. With statistical science then in its

infancy and rot part of the nomal forestry education, it is unlikely that these

early trials w::uld have yielded anythi~ rrore than quantified cbservations.

MJreOJer, taxorxrnical clariEicaticn was a prerequisite for silvicultural research and

practice in these =rpl.ex ecosystans and accordi~ly tack precedence on the

biological side. Even se !lOst of the foresters of those days were acute cbservers

and keen experirrenters. Fran their cbservaticns and the results of their tests, a

w:lrki~ kn:::INled;Je of tropical forest ecolcgy was grirlually acCLm.Jlated. For sore of

the inpJrtant species of the tirres, that level of infomation vas ernlgh for

rranagarent to proceed with sore confidence, and even allOH one or tw:J to be c;levelq:ed

as plantation species.

KSl' \'l)RLD WI\R II

H~ver, rrost of these early systans collapsed at other points of weakness lag

before the success or failure of the silvicultural aspects could sl1aN its effects.

The first event that triggered that collapse was the Pacific phase of Wbrld War 11;

the sx:oncl was the extent, nature and w:lrld-wide irrpact of the post-war recOJery and

econanic txxrn.

- 13 -

The colonial administrations in the South7Past Asia and Pacific, collapsed within the

first few months of 1942. This did not mean that forest administration and

management necessarily collapsed at the same time. On the contrary, with a

well-established tradition of forest conservation and management in Japan, the

Military Governments installed in these newly acquired territories, made same

provision for conservative utilisation of the forest resources. That phase did not,

however, last long. With the reversal in the direction of the war, the military

governments were socn forced into uncontrolled deforestation to meet the needs of

military engineering, and for fuel wood and for food production.

Thus the end of Itibrld War II saw an almost total loes of the research plots and

records and of the stands in which the management systems had been applied. A new

start, virtually from scratch, had to be made. However, it was well into the 1950's

before the forests were free enough of the post-war guerilla activities, for forest

management to recommence in earnest and generally. By then, the economic boom was

starting to move.

The Indian Subcontinent was not so directly affected by the war. Though Burmese

forests and forestry suffered much the sarro fate as the rest of South-East Asia, the

resumption of management after the war was not, however, so long-delayed, so that at

independence in 1948, the Burmese forest administration still had a sUbstantially

intact forest management system to operate.

In the rest of the Indian Subcontinent, the war was felt, as in the First Vbrldliar,

mainly through the mobilisation of the country's resources in support of the military

campaigns. On the whole, research and management records were kept up and management

control continued in place, if sometimes dangerously stretched. NO campletely new

start was, therefore, needed after the war and no great delay or difficulty was

experienced in the old system resuming its normal role. Even independence and

partition in 1947, brought no drastic break with tradition. The Indian Forest

Services thus entered the post-war period with a well establiShed forest estate not

irreparably damaged hy the demands of war, an °ongoing set of management systems and

procedures, suspended perhaps but not abandoned, and an institutional structure still

intact with a staff establishment trained to run it.

-13-

'Ihe colonial adninistraticns in the SOJth-E'ast Asia an::] Pacific, collapsed within tre

first ffM rronths of 1942. 'Ihis did not rean that forest administratioo an::]

rranagerrent necessarily collapsed at the saJre tiJre. On the cootraq, with a

~ll-established traditioo of forest ccnservatioo an::] Imna:]€!TEnt in Japan, th.e

llilitary CovernJrents installed in these nfMly aCX}Uired territories, rra:1e sare

provisioo for conservative utilisation of the forest rescurces. 'Ihat phase did not,

~ver, last lon;J. With the reversal in the direction of the war, the military

gcNernJrents ~re s:x:n forced into uncontroll'ld deforestation to rreet the needs of

military en;)ineerin;), and for fuel v.o.:d anU for foed prcductioo.

'Ihus the end of W:>rld War II saw an alrrcst total loss of the research plots an::]

records and of the stands in which the m:magerent systans had been awlied. A nfM

start, virtually fron scratch, had to be rrade. Ho.-.ever, it was ~ll into the 1950' s

before the forests ~re free erx:u;Jh of the rxst-war guerilla activities, for forest

rranagerrent to recxJillence in earnest and generally. By then, the econ:rnic b:xrn was

start in;) to trOVe.

'Ihe Indian Sutxx:ntinent was not so directly affected by tre war. 'Ihrugh furrrese

forests and forestq suffered IlUm the sarre fate as the rest of SOJth-East Asia, the

res~tion of rrancgarent after the war was not, ~ver, so l~elayed, so that at

independercc in 1948, the B.rrrrese forest administration still had a substantially

intact forest rranagerrent system to q;JCrate.

In tre rest of too Indian Subcontinent, tre war was felt, as in the First W:>rld War,

rrainly thrrugh the rrobilisation of tre cruntq's rescurces in supp::>rt of tre militaq

carpaigns. On the whole, research an::] rranagerrent records were kept up an::] rranagerrent

control continued in place, if saretiJres dangerously stretched. No cOlllletely nfM

start was, therefore, needed after the war an::] no great delay or diffirulty was

experienced in tre old syst61l resumin;) its norrral role. Even independercc an::]

partition in 1947, brwght no drastic break with tradition. 'Ihe Indian Forest

Services thus entered t.he rxst--war pericd with a ~ll established forest estate not

irreparably darreged by the demands of war, an on;Join;) set of rranagerrent systerrs an::]

prccedures, susperded perhaps but not abardoned, and an institutiooal structure still

intact with a staff establishJrent trained to run it.

- 14 -

However, social conditions to which these institutions were adopted were changing

quickly. The pcpulation was beginning to gro at a very fast rate, from a base whidh

was already pressing hard on the country 's resources. The industrial world was about

to take off on 25 years of expanding production and trade, with technological and

social developments, that had no historicel precedent. These conditions were

ccmpletely unforeseen and for a while under-estimated, then finally, just as the

phase was coming to an end, over-estimated.

The effects of both factors differed widely between developing countries and also

within them. Some of these differences depended on how and whence the impact from

the developed countries came. This was especially evident in the different

directions that forest management took in South and South-East Asia.

Several factors Shaped those directions. Amongst them were:

The extent to which agricultural and industrialisation prxJrcnh1es absorbed the

increasing population.

The way in Which difficulties in that respect were responded to.

The way in which increasing demand for tropical timbers was met.

How that response was related to meeting rising dcmestic demand for wood and

land.

The population of almost every country in the region doUbled within 30 years of the

end of the war. On the whole, neither agricultural reform and resettlement

programmes nor industrialisation were able to create farms and jobs to match that

rate of increase. In this respect, Malaysia had fewer difficulties than other

countries in the region. The official agricultural develcpment and resettlement

schemes everywhere, involved quite large scale transfers of forest land to

agriculture. To the extent that these and other developments failed to absorb all

the population increase, many of those who missed out were forced into illegal

clearing of forest land for sUbsistence. These involuntary shifting cultivators and

those for Whom Shifting cultivation was a traditional way of life, added further to

the rate of deforestation; such developments had not been taken into account in

ranagement planning.

- 14 -

~ver, scx::ial conditions to which these institutions ~re adq;>ted ~re chan:;Jirg

quickly. The p:pJlation was beginnirg to grtM at a very fast rate, fran a base which

\'BS already pressirg hard on the =try's re5O.lrces. The industrial w::>rld was al:x:ut

to take off on 25 years of expandirg prcduction and trade, with techrolcgical and

scx::ial developrents, that had no historical precedent. These conditions YKlre

cClllJletely unforeseen and for a while under--est:irrated, then finally, just as the

phase was cx:rnirg to an end, over--estillBted.

The effects of both factors differed widely between develqlirg cnmtries and also

within them. Sarc of these differen:;es d€pencled on ha¥ and when:;e the irrpact fron

the developed =tries carre. This was especially evident in the different

directions that forest ID3.nagerrent took in So.lth and So.lth--East Asia.

Several factors shaped those directions. l>m::>n;Jst them ~re:

a) The extent to which agricultural and industrialisatioo prcgranITes absorbed the

increasirg p:pJlation.

b) The way in \\hich difficulties in that respect Io.ere resp::rded to.

c) The way in which increasirg dE!Ml1d for trqJical tintJers was fret.

d) lbw that respoose was related to rroetirg risirg danestic deID3.nd for w::>od and

land.

The pqJUlation of alrrost every =try in the region dcubled within 30 years of the

end of the war. On the whole, neither agricultural reform and resettlment

prcgrarmes ror industrialisation Io.ere able to create farrrs and jcbs to rratch that

rate of increase. In this respect, Malaysia had felo.er difficulties than other

ccontries in the region. The official agricultural developrent and resettlerrent

scherres everywhere, involved quite large scale transfers of forest land to

agriculture. To the extent that these and other develqxrents failed to absorb all

the p:pJlation increase, ID3.ny of those who missed out Io.ere forced into illegal

clearirg of forest land for subsisten:;e. These involuntary shiftirg cultivators and

these for whan shiftirg cultivation was a traditional \'By of life, added further to

the rate of deforestation: such develqxrents had rot been taken into acccont in

ID3.nagerrent plannirg.

- 15 -

Either way the result was that the forest estates so painstakingly established in

colonial times had to give way. Naturally, the tosses through planned clearance bock

place in the more accessible forests on easy topography. These areas, equally

naturally, were those on which the early forest management systems had concentrated

and for which they had been devised. Thus in Malaysia, and to a lesser extent in

Indonesia and the Philippines, forests for which operational management systems had

been worked out and possibly applied, mostly disappeared.

Involuntary shifting cultivation tended on the other hand to be located in less

accessible forests where it was less easy to detect and prevent. Efforts to stop it

were pressed most strenuously in India, where defence of the forest estate became an

almost over-riding pre-occupation (Cuba, 1983). Eventually, however, the reality of

the poverty driven forces had to be accommodated, and community forestry programmes

developed as a partial solution.

In Malaysia Shifting cultivation, by those who did not traditionally practice it, did

not emerge as a major problem. Nevertheless, the traditional forms under shortening

fallow periods did lead to significant deforestation in the uplands, especially in

Sarawak. In the Philippines, it was hoped that the timber industry and reforestation

efforts would augment rural employment. As in India, however, these forestry

contributions to easing the rural poverty consequences of population growth are

principally plantation and agro-forestry based. As such, they are not within the

scope of this study, although they are amongst the most important outcomes of the

situation.

Deforestation arising ftom such drastic changes in the man/land ratio would alone

have forced departures from the forest management systems developed in the pre- and

iffrediate post-war years. For instance, by forcing the permanent resource base for

titber production out of the lowland forests of South-East Asia, it:

Deprived forest management of a great deal of its information base and

information gathering system;

Accelerated the introduction of more powerful, highlymeohanised logging

systems and the construction of much more complex and expensive road

networks for harvesting;

Thus, eventually raised the issue of conservation of land and water

resources in management planning and inplerrentation.

- 15 -

Either way the result was that the forest estates so painstakin;lly established in

colonial tines had to give way. Naturally, the losses through planned clearance tod<.

place in the ITOre accessible forests on easy top::graphy. 'These areas, equally

naturally, ~re those on which the early forest rnanagerrent systars had concentrated

and for which they had been devised. Thus in Malaysia, and to a lesser extent in

Indooesia and the Fhilippines, forests for which cperational rranagarent systerrs had

been worked rut and [XX3sibly applied, ITOstiy disar;peared.

Involuntary shiftin;l cultivation tended on the other hand to be located in less

accessible forests wI¥.lre it was less easy to detect and prevent. Efforts to step it

>.ere pressed ITOSt strenurusly in India, where defeoce of the forest estate becarre an

alJTOst over-ridin;l pro--occupation (Guba, 1983). Eventually, h~ver, the reality of

the poverty driven forces had to be acwtllwated, and camunity forestry prcgrarmes

developed as a partial solution.

In Malaysia shiftin;l cultivation, by those who did not traditionally practice it, did

not errerge as a Il\3.jor prc:blcm. Nevertheless, the traditional fOmB under shortenin;l

fallON pcricxls did lead to significant deforestation in the uplands, especially in

Sarawak. In the Fhilippines, it was hcped that the tint:er industry and reforestation

efforts would au;J[rent rural enployrrent. As in India, ~ver, these forestry

oootributions to easin;l the rural poverty consequences of pcpulation gro.vth are

principally plantatioo and cgro-forestry based. As such, they are not within the

sccpe of this study, al thcugh they are i'ITDI"qst the ITOSt irrportant out:ccrres of the

situation.

I:eforestation arisin;l frrxn such drastic ch3fXJes in the rran/land ratio would alone

have forced d~rtures from the forest rranagment systems develcped in the pro- and

irrrrediate post-war years. For instance, by forcin;l the pcrIl\3.nCnt resource base for

tinDer prcxluction rut of the lowla'ld forests of Scuth-East Asia, it:

a) I:eprived forest managenent of a great deal of its inforIl\3.tion base and

inforrration gatherin;l system;

b) Accelerated the intrcxluctioo of ITOre [X1n'erful, highly rrechanised lcggin;l

systars and the ooostructim of nuch ITOre cx:nplex and expensive roaj

networks for harvestin;l;

c) Thus, eventually raised the issue of oooscrvatioo of land and water

resources in rranagerrent plannin;l and i.rrplerrentation.

- 16 -

Deforestation was not the only post-war factor to disrupt forest management.

Reinforcing its effects and in a way transcending them, was the very great increase

in demand for industrial forest products that grew out of the economic recovery and

sUbsequent boom, and the changes in the pattern of that demand.

In the iffrediate post-war period, the demand was dictated mainly by the needs of

reconstruction. The emphasis was, as in pre-war times, in strong, durable species

for the rehabilitation of railways, bridges, wharves and civil engineering

infrastructure generally. The Malaysian systems of management based on regeneration

fellings of several forms were not greatly affected, since they had been developed

largely to cater for the supply of these species. Certainly the scale of the

operations was greater and the pace more intense, but on the whole it was "business,

almost as usual, but brisker". That phase did not last long. The demand for less

narrowly specialised timbers soon bagan to over-take it, as technological advances in

wood preservation and developments in concrete, metal and synthetics engineering,

eliminated the advantages of natural durability and made high wood density almost a

liability. At the sama time, other fuels were rapidly displacing wood in industrial

and domestic applications.

Export markets for Dipterocarp timbers for sawnwood and veneer had existed before the

war. Resumption of trade in them as soon as possible after the war was therefore

natural and the gradual increase in demand for them that came with economic recovery

in the traditional importing countries was accommodated without mudh strain on forest

management as it then was.

In Malaysia, the Malayan Uniform System evolved out of the regeneration improvement

felling procedures in response Lo the Shift in demand from the durable to the utility

Dipterocarps. In the Philippines, the change in the pattern of demand neither

prompted ron called for any marked change in the utilisation-dominated logger's

selection methods. Nor were the Indian systems of management greatly affected, since

the large domestic markets for timber and veneer had to a large degree become

accustomed to a fairly wide range of general purpose timbers as well as the

left-overs fram the more highly regarded export woods.

- 16 -

D9forestation was rot the only jX)St-\'.B.r factor to disrupt forest !1la.!lCgE!l"ent.

Reinforcirg its effects and in a way transoendirg than, was the very great increase

in d€mmd for industrial forest products that grew cut of the ecmanic recovery and

subsequent txxrn, and the charges in the pattern of that demand.

In the imrediate jX)St- \'.B.r pericd, the d€mmd was dictated ll\3.inly by the needs of

reconstruction. 1ha errphasis was, as in pre-\'.B.r ti.rres, in strong, durable species

for the rehabilitation of railways, bridges, wharves and civil ergineerirg

infrastructure generally. The Malaysian systems of !1la.!lCgE!l"ent based on regeneration

fellirgs of several forms were rot greatly affected, since they had been develqJed

laI:gely to cater for the supply of these species. Certainly the scale of tile

qJerations was greater and the pace llOre intense, rut on the whole it was "business,

alrrost as urual, but brisker". That phase did rot last long. The demand for less

narrc:::Mly specialised tirrbers soon began to over-take it, as technological advances in

w:xxl preservation and developrents in concrete, rretal and synthetics ergineerirg,

eliminated the advantages of natural durability and ll\3.de high w:xxl density alrrost a

liability. At the sarre ti.rre, other fuels \\Bre rapidly displacing w:xxl in industrial

and domestic applications.

Export ll\3.rkets for Dipterocarp tirrbers for sawnw:x:d and veneer had existed before the

war. ResU!!ption of trade in than as soon as possible after the l'iar was therefore

natural and the gradual increase in demand for than that cane with eccn::rnic recovery

in t.1le traditirnal :iJq:nrting ccuntries was ac=lItOOated withcut rruch strain on forest

ll\3.nagarent as it then was.

In Malaysia , the Malayan Uniform System evolved cut of the regeneration inprovernent

felling procedures in response to the shift in d€mmd fron the durable to the utility

Dipterocarps. In the fuilippines, the charge in the pattern of dell\3.nd neither

prarpted ror called for any ll\3.rked charge in the utilisatiorMhninated logger's

selection rrethcds. l'br \\Bre the Indian systems of mmagerrent greatly affected, since

the large d:rrestic =kets for tirrber and veneer had to a large degree be=re

aCCllstared to a fairly wide rarge of general plrjX)Se tirrbers as well as the

left-overs fron the rrore highly regarded export wocds.

- 17 -

But that confortable period of easily modified management did not last long. The

demand for tropical timbers soon exploded, as the developed countries moved into that

period of high and sustained economic growth which characterised the third quarter of

the 20th century. In fact, the grawth in demand by Japan was so fast and so great

that the path of forest development in much of Asia and the Pacific was dictated by

the Japanese log market. At the same time, domestic demand in the forested

develpping countries started to expand under various combinations of economic

development, increasing population and urbanisation.

The mass production scale of operations that developed with this rapidly expanding

lag market, virtually forced the adoption of high investment, mechanised logging

systems. The lowland Dipterocarp forests could be utilized by that type of operation

but the management systems developed for them did not guarantee regeneration under

these conditions. Management by the systematic release of regeneration and advance

grcwth is greatly complicated by the technical and economic requirements of capital

intensive logging. Revenue generation, which had always heen an important objective

in forest administration in the area, became the (laminating objective. Wiere that

happened, and that was aImost everywhere in the region, established practices and

policies of forest management were no longer applied.

There were, however, two significant exceptions: India and Peninsular Malaysia. Not

that forest management, in the establiShed form, prevailed. On the contrary, it

barely survived. But the causes of the collapse lay more in the internal demands of

agricultural expansion than in the external demands of the lag export market. In

Peninsular Malaysia the adjustment to the growing and changing market for woad

products was accommodated by the flow of logs faculthe planned and systematic

conversion of most of the lowland Dipterccarp forest to agriculture. The supply of

logs from land clearing was easily capable of meeting the demands of the forest

industries built on it and the growing export markets, while at the same time

satisfying the econcmdcs of large scale logging. The decreased use of the Malayan

Uniform System was the result of a drastic change in land use which almost campletely

eliminated the forest it was designed to perpetuate.

- 17 -

!}.jt that canfortable pericxl of easily m:xlified rranagerrent did not last loo;). The

damnd for tropical tiJTbers soon explcxled, as the develqJed <Xl.lTltries lTOI7ed into that

pericxl of high and sustained econcrnic growth which characterised the third quarter of

the 20th oentury. In fact, t.1)e groNth in demand by Japan was so fast and so great

that the path of forest develq:rrent in !!Uch of Asia and the Pacific was dictated by

the Japanese leg rmrket. At the sarre tirre, darestic damnd in the forested

develcping ca.mtries started to expand under various anbinations of econcrnic

develq:rrent, increasing [Xlp..llation and urbanisation.

The mass prcduction scale of operations that rlevelcped with this rapidly expanding

leg lll3.rket, virtually forced the adcption of high investnent, IroChanised lcgging

systans. The lCMland Diptercx:arp forests could be utilized by that type of operation

but the lll3.naQarent systans develcped for them did not guarantee regeneration under

these oonditions. Managarent by the systemtic release of regeneration and advance

groNth is greatly ccrrplicated by the technical and ecoo:::rnic requirements of capital

intensive legging. Feverue generatim, which had always been an inportant cbjective

in forest administratim in the area, becarre the daninating cbjective. \'here that ·

happened, and that was alnost everywhere in the region, established practioes and

r:olicies of forest rranagerrent were no longer awlied.

There were, ~ver, tWJ significant exoeptions: Irrlia and Peninsular ~1alaysia. N:lt

that forest rranagerrent, in the cstabliffied form, prevailed. en the contrary, it

barely survived. &It the causes of the collapse lay IlOre in the internal damnds of

agricultural expansim than in the external demrrls of the leg exp:>rt rmrket . . In

Peninsular ~aysia the adjustnent to the grCMing and changing lll3.rket for w:xxl

prcxlucts was acCXJLIlooated by the flCM of legs frcm the planned and systemtic

conversion of !lOSt of the lCMland Dipterccarp forest to agriculture. The SUWly of

legs fran land clearing was easily capable of rreeting the damnds of the forest

industries ruilt m it and the growing exp:>rt rmrkets, while at the sarre tirre

satisfying the econanics of large scale lcgging. The decreased use of the ~ayan

Uniform System was the result of a drastic change in land use which alI!OSt ccrrpletely

eliminated the forest it was designed to perpetuate.

In India the establiShed management systems came under pressures initiated by the

enormous increases in population. Land reform and industrialisation proceeded much

too slowly and unevenly for them to absorb more than a small fraction of the growing

population. Forestry administrations did not fully grasp and anticipate the

implication of population growth for their forests and management systems. The

retreat from established practices and policies in the face of the rising pressure

was reluctant and prolonged, but inevitable.

In a sense, therefore, the last quarter of the 20th century coincides with another

phase in the development of forest management in Asia. The management systems

evolved over the preceding half century or so, have been successful enough ta prove

the possibility of managing tropical forests as sustainable ecosystems under tiMber

production. Hewever, by the time that the technical soluticns were perfected, the

social systems for which they were appropriate were well on the way to being things

of the past.

In retrospect, it is easy to see that this was inevitable. Given the biological

limits to tree and forest growth, even the adjustment of an ongoing management system

to changing conditions cannot be anything but a slow process. The pattern of

adjusting forest menagement in response to changes as they cccur, which has

characterised the history of forest development in Asia, is a viable proposition only

in relatively stable eccnomic and social environments. That is hardly an accurate

description of the situation in Asia over the last 40 years or so, and this

limitation must also be kept in mind for the future.

With the permanent forest base for most of SoutheEast Asia being forced into the hill

Dipterocarp forests, more or less different systems of management are emerging. In

general, they seem to be converging on selection systems for natural management. But

even in that, reaction to problems that have overtaken the forestry administration

seems to be more prominent than anticipation of what that future is likely ta bring.

Promising, however, are the greater attenticn being given to the evolution of future

domestic and export markets for wood, and the fact that soma of the infrastructural

services are being taken more seriously into acapunt.

That anticipatory content and the incorporation of social aspects in forest

management plans, still needs strengthening. Yet if there is one thing that the

historical development of forest management in the region makes quite clear, it is

that institutions and planning systems must be based on the realities of the present

and future rather than anachronistic assumptions of the past.

- 18 -

In In::lia the established mmagerent systans carre under presSlres initiated by the

enorrrcos increases in p:::;pulation. Land reform and irdustrialisation proceeded rruch

too slawly and unevenly for them to absorb rrore than a mall fracti01 of the grcwirg

p::p..tlation. Forestry adninistrations did net fully grasp and anticipate the

irrplicatioo of p:::;pulation grcwth for their forests and mmagerrent systems. The

retreat fron established practices and rolicies in the face of the risirg pressure

was reluctant and prolorged, but inevitable.

In a sense, therefore, the last quarter of the 20th century coincides \~ith another

phase in the developrent of forest managerrent in Asia. The managerrent systans

evolved over the precedirg half century or so, have been Slcressful e\1Cll.r;Jh to prove

the [.OSsibility of rrenagirg trcpical forests as sustainable ecosystems under timJer

prcduction. Jb"ever, by the tine that the technical solutions \\ere perfected, the

sccial systans for which they \\ere appropriate v.ere v.ell 01 the way to beirg thirgs

of the past.

In retrospect, it is easy to sec that this was inevitable. Given the biolcgical

limits to tree and forest grcwth, even the adjust:rrent of an orgoirg rranagamnt system

to changirg conditions canrot be anythirg but a slaw process. The pattern of

adjustirg forest rranagerrent in resr:onsc to changes as they occur, which has

characterised the history of forest develq:rrent in Asia, is a viable prorosition only

in relatively stable econanic and sccial envircnrents. That is hardly an acaJrate

description of the situati01 in Asia over the last 40 years or so, and this

limitation !lUSt also be kept in min::l for the future.

With the pcrrranent forest base for rrost of Scuth-East Asia beirg forced into the hill

Dipterocarp forests, !TOre or less different systerrs of rranagerrent are ereDJirg. In

general, they seen to be (X)[lveDJirg 01 selecti01 systerrs for natural rranagerent. fut

even in that, reacti01 to prcblems that have overtaken the forestry administrati01

seems to be !TOre praninent than anticipatioo of what that future is likely to brirg.

Pranisirg, honIever, are the greater attention beirg given to the evolution of future

darestic and export rrarkets for \'.DCXl, and the fact that sore of the infrastructural

services are beirg taken rrore sericusly into acoc:unt.

That anticipatory content and the incorpJrati01 of sccial aspects in forest

mmagment plans, still needs strergthenirg. Yet if there is one thirg that the

historical developrent of forest rranagerrent in the regi01 makes quite clear, it is

that institutioos and planning systans mJSt be based on the realities of the present

and future rather than anachronistic ass..nnptions of the past.

-

- 19 -

CHAPTER III

I_OlEaTiMMELEIILMUMS IN THE TROPICAL MIXED FORESTS OF INDIA

_INTRODUCTION

The growing demand for goods and services in the context of a declining

resource base makes forest management extremely complex. This is particularly

so in the case of those developing countries in the tropics where land use

conflicts are very severe. On the one hand there is an urgent need to utilise

forest resources to promote economic development. At the same time it is also

necessary that the social and protective values of the forests are not under-

mined. An understanding of how existing forest management systems in India

are geared in such circumstances to fulfill their different objectives could

provide valuable information to other countries on their merits and demerits

and an indication of the future course of evolution.

On account of variation in climatic, edaphic and physiographic factors, Indian

forests present a wide spectrum of variability in terms of structure,

plisicepopy, floristics, etc. Man-forest interactions also differ considerably

and consequently the type of benefits and their quantum also vary, both in

space and time.. This chapter opens therefore with a brief account of the most

important mixed tropical forests in India and certain salient features of the

evolution of management systems now in vogue.

¡Plual_JITEs AND DISTRIMIDN

A forest type is a natural unit with more or less well defined

characteristics, especially as regards physiognomy, floristics, etc.

Despite the drawbacks of the type classification by Champion (1936) and

Champion and Seth (1968) (Puri, et 11, 1983), it continues to be the basis

for all forest management purposea Area under important type groups under

the broad category of tropical forests is given in table 1.

- 19 -

CHAPTER III

FOREST lJANAQEMENT SYSTEMS IN mE TROPICAL HIXE.D FORESTS OF INDIA

INTRODUCTION

The growing demand for goods and services in the context of a declining

resource base makes forest management extremely complex. This is particularly so in the case of those developing countries in the tropi cs w here land use co nflicts are very severe. On the one hand there is an urgent need to utilise forest resources to promo t e economic development. At the same time it is also

ne cessary that the social and protective values of the forests are not under­mined. An understanding of how existing for est management systems in India are geared in such circumstances to fulfill their different objectives could

provide valuable information to other countries on their merits and demerits and an indication of the future course of evolution.

On account of variation in climatic, edaphic and physiographic factors, Indian f orests present a wide spectrum of variability in terms of structure,

IflisiCWlOOlY, floristics, ete. Man-forest interactions also differ considerably and consequently the type of benefits and their quantum also vary, both in space and time.. This chapter opens therefore with a brief accou n t of the most i mportant mixed tropical forests in India and certain salient features of the

evolution of management systems now in vogue.

FOREST TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION

A fore:;t type is a natural unit with more or less well defined

characteristics, especially as regards physiognomy, floristics, ete. Despite the drawbacks of the type classification by Champion (1936) and

Champi:m and Seth (1968) (Puri, m; Jll, 1983), it continues to be the basis for all forest management purposes. Area under important type groups under the broad category of tropical forests is given in table 1.

Major Group Type Group

Tropical Forest

Moist Tropical Forests

Dry Tropical Forests

Source: Puri, et al (1983)

Tropical forests thus account for 86 percent of the total forest area in the

countryl. Of these wet evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist deciduous are the

most important as regards wood prodution and management of these has a long

history. Important characteristics of these forests which have a direct

bearing on forest management are discussed below.

Tropical Evergreen Forezts

Evergreen forests are found in the high rainfall zone (exceeding 2500

mm per annum) and are distributed in three widely separated regions

namely, (1) Western Ghats, (2) Andaman and Nicobar Islands and (3)North Eastern Region (See Fig. 1). Distribution of these forests in

these regions is given in table 1.

1Total forest area as per official records is 75.351 million hectares.

This represents the area that is legally categorised as forests and

includes totally barren areas also. Effective forest cover is

estimated as only 12 percent of the geographical area of the country.

Table 1

Area Under Tropical Forests

Total

- 20 -

Wet Evergreen

Semi Evergreen

Moist Deciduous

Littoral and Swamp

Dry Deciduous

Thorn Forests

Dry Evergreen

Area

(in million ha)

4.5031.845

23.3030.671

29.1545.2360.075

64.796

- 20 -

Table 1 Area Under Tropical Forests

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------Area

Hajor Group Type Group (in million ha)

Tropical Forest (1) Hoist Tropical Forests i. Wet Evergreen 4.503

11. Semi Evergreen 1.845 11i. Hoist Deciduous 23.303

Iv. Littoral and Swamp 0.671

(2) Dry Tropical Forests v. Dry Deciduous 29.154 vi. Thorn Forests 5.236

vii. Dry Evergreen 0.075

Total 64.796

Sour ce: Puri, et al (1983)

Tropical forests thus account for 86 percent of the total forest area in the country 1. Of these wet evergre.en, semi-evergreen, moist deciduous are the most important as regards wood prodution and management of these has a long history. Important characteristics of these forests., hich have a direct bearing on forest management are discussed below.

Tropical Eyergreen Forests

Evergreen forests are found in the high rainfall zone (exceeding 2500 mm per annum) and are distributed in three widely separated regions

namely, (1) Western Ghats, (2) Andaman and Nicobar Islands and (3)

North Eastern Region (See Fig. 1). Distribution of these forests in

these regions is given in table 1.

lTotal forest area as per official records is 75.351 million hectares. This represents the area that is legally categorised as forests and includes totally barren areas alSo. Effective forest cover is estimated as only 12 percent of the geographical area of the country.

Table ZDistribution of Evergreen Forests

Region States Area

(in mili, ha)

2. Andaman and Nicobar

Islands Islands

3. North Eastern Region Assam

Arunachal Pradesh 2.68

Nagaland

Manipur

Andaman and Nicobar 0.63

Total 4.50

1. Western Ghats Karnataka

Kerala

Tamil Nadu 1.19

Goa

Maharashtra

- 21 -

Table 2

Distribytion of Eyergreen Forests

Region

1. Western Ghats

2. Andaman and Nicobar

Islands

3. North Eastern Region

Total

States

Karna taka

Kerala

Tamil Nadu

Goa

Maharashtra

Andaman and Nicobar

Isl ands

Assam

Arunachal Pradesh

Nagaland

Mani pur

Area

(in mill. ha)

1. 19

0.63

2.68

4.5 0

- 22 -

In structure and phy.siognomy there is very little difference betweeh

forests in the different regions. Trees are generally arranged in

tiers with dominants in the top canopy attaining a height of over 40

meters. Tropical evergreen forsts are characterised by the presence of

a large number of species and gregariousness is more an exception than

the rule. Smooth bark, large buttresses, cauliflory, etc. are some of

the notable features of the trees. On account of the multi-tiered

arrangement, light availability near the ground level is poor,

permitting little or sparse undergrowth.

The tropical wet evergreen forests in India are categorised into two

sub-groups, southern and northera The former consists of forests in

the Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Islands while the latter is

found in the North Eastern Region (Champion and Seth 1968).. Important

climatic climax types under the southern sub group are as follows:

Southern Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest*

Champion and Seth (1968) distinguish the following climatic climax

types:

The Giant Evergreen Forest is the most luxuriant of the sub-types and

occurs on deep alluvial soil with good moisture availability.

Important species found inthese forests are Dipterocarpus alatus, P.

grandiflorus, graeilisa Calophyllum soulattri. Artocarpus chanla§_h_a4.

Sideroxylong longepetiolatum, Amoora wallichii, Planchoni,a la.nde.manica,

Endospermum chinesis. etc.

The composition of the Andaman tropical evergreen forest is very

similar to that of the giant evergreens except that it is less

luxuriant. In addition to Dipterocarpus spp, Artocarpus chaplasha,

Caloehyllum _soulattri, Sideroxylon longeo0olatum. Myristica

andam4nica,, Planchonia and amanica are the important species. On

account of inaccessibility and absence of habitation, forests in the

Islands remained in a pristine condition till the latter half of the

19th century. Even now, the biotic pressure is negligible in

comparison with the mainland. There are about 200 species of trees of

which only 30 are commercially valuable (Bathew, 1983).

1. Giant Evergreen Forests Andaman and

2. Andamans Tropical Evergreen Forests Nicobar Islands

3. Southern Hill Top Evergreen Forests Western Ghats

4. West Coast Tropical Evergreen Forests

- 22 -

In structure and physiognomy there is very little difference between

forests in the different regions. Trees are generally arranged in tiers with dominants in the top canopy attaining a height of over 40 meters. Tropical evergreen forsts are characterised by the presence of a large rrumber of species and gregp.riousness is IIDre an exception than

the IUle. Sm:x:rth bark, large buttresses, cauliflory, etc. are some of the notable features of the trees. On accO\mt of the multi- tiered arrangement, light availability near the groillld level is poor, permitting little or sparse undergrowt~

The tropical wet evergreen forests in India are categorised into two sub-groups, southern and norther~ The former consists of forests in the Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Isl ands while the latter is

found in the North Eastern Region (Champion and Seth 1968).. Important climatic climax types under the southern sub group are as follows:

Southern Tropical Wet Eyergreen Forests

Champion and Seth (1968) distinguish the following climatic climax types:

1. Giant Evergreen Forests Andaman and

2. Andamans Tropical Evergreen Forests Nicobar Islands

3. Southern Hill Top Evergreen Forests Western Ghats 4. West Coast Tropical Evergreen Forests n n

The Giant Evergreen Forest is the most luxuriant of the sub-types and occurs on deep alluvial soil with good moisture availability. Important species found inthese forests are DipterocarDus alatys, ~ grandiflorys, ~ graCilis, Calophyllum soulattri, Artocarous chapl~ Sideroxylong longepetiolatum, Amoora wallichii, Planchonia landamanica, Endospermum chinesis, ete.

The composi tion of the Andaman tropical evergreen forest is very similar to that of the giant evergreens except that it is less

luxuriant. In add! tion to Dioterocarpus.rum.... Artocarpus chaplasha. Calophyllum soulattri, Sideroxylon longepeiolatum, Myristica

andamanica, Planchonia Allil amanica are the important species. On account of inaccessibility and absence of habitation, forests in the

Islands remained in a pristine condition till the latter half of the 19th century. Even now, the biotic pressure is negligible in comparison with the mainland. There are about 200 species of trees of

which only 30 are commercially valuable (Bathew, 1983).

- 23 -

The West Coast Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests occur over the entire

length of the Western Ghats from North Canara in Karnataka to Kerala

and extends to portions of Tamil Nadu in the south and east. Dominant

species in the top canopy are Dipterocarma indicus, Vateria indica,

Acrocarpus fraxinifolius,, Caloohyllum spp. Saaleata exarillata. Hopea

parviflora. Mesua nagassarium, and Dichopsis elliptica. Although

gregariousness is an exception, associations are recognised on the

basis of dominant trees in the top canopy.

Several edaphic subtypes of the evergreen forests have been described

(Champion and Seth, 1968) and their occurrence is primarily guided by

soil characteristics which influence moisture availability. Reed and

cane brakes occurring in wet pockets are important edaphic forms.

Although their contribution towards wood production is very low, they

supply valuable raw material to both traditional and modern industries

(Nair, 1985). An interesting edaphic subtype is the Andaman Moist

Deciduous forest occurring on freely draining slopes in the Islands.

Species composition of this is given later.

Northern Trooleal Evergreen Foreste

This type occurs in the North Eastern Region and three sub-types,

namely, (1) Upper Assam Evergreen Forest, (2) Cachar Tropical

Evergreen Forest and (3) Assam Valley Evergreen Forest, are

identified (Champion and Seth, 1968). On account of shifting

cultivation and other biotic factors the latter two-types are in a

highly degraded condition. Upper Assam forests occur in Arunachal

Pradesh (Tirap and Lohit divisions), Assam (Dibrugarh, Doomdooma

and Digboi divisions) and Nagaland (Mon division). Lmportant

species in these forests are Dioterocarpus rmacrocarous. Shorea

assamica. kaag.,3 nagassarlum, Terminalia myriooaroa._Etaate

Yealearensis, Hopea spp. etc. One of the distinguishing

characteristics of the Upper Assam forests is the gregarious

occurence of Dieteruarous maorooareu (Nollong) and Shorea

ausuLtçsq (Makai) which together often account for about 80 percent

of trees in the top canopy.

Semi-evergreen forests occur in the transitional zone between evergreen

and moist deciduous forests where the annual precipitation varies from

2000 Lo 2500 mm. Like the evergreen foresta, these also have a

multistoreyed structure. The top canopy comprises of a mixture of

deciduous and evergreen species while the understorey is almost

entirely constituted by evergreens. Here also, two subgroups, southern

and northern, are distinguished. Some of the climax formations under

- 23 -

The West Coast Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests occur over the entire

length of the Western Ghats from Nortb Canara in Karnataka to Kerala and extends to pfilrtions of Tamil Nadu in tbe soutb and east. Dominant species in tbe top canopy are Dipterocarpus indicus. vate ria indica. Acrocarpus fraxin1folius •• Calopbyllum sp~ Cullenia exarillata. Hopea

paryiflora. Hesya nagassariym. and Dicbopsis elUptica. Altbougb gregariousness is an exception, associations are recognised on tbe basis of dominant trees in tbe top canopy.

Several edaphic subtypes of tbe evergreen forests bave been described (Cbampion and Setb, 1968) and tbeir occurrence is primarily guided by

soil cbaracteristics whicb influence moisture availability. Reed and cane brakes occurring in wet pockets are important edapbic forms. Although tbeir contribution towards wood production is very low, tbey supply valuable raw material to botb traditional and modern industries

(Nail", 1985). An interesting edaphic subtype is tbe Andaman Hoist Deciduous forest occurring on freely draining slopes in tbe Islands.

Species composition of this is given later.

Rortbern %toplnaJ Iyergreen Forests

This type occurs in tbe Nortb Eastern Region and tbree sub-types,

namely, (1) Upper Assam Evergreen Forest, (2) Ca char Tropical Evergreen Forest and (3) Assam Valley Evergreen Forest, are identified (Cbampion and Setb, 1968). On account of shifting cultivation and otber biotic factors tbe latter two · types are in a highly degraded condi tion. Upper Assam forests occur in Arunacbal Pradesh (Tirap and Lobit divisions), Assam (Dibrugarh, Doomdooma

and Digboi divisions) and Nagaland (Hon division). Important speCies in tbese forests are Dipterocarpus macrocarpus, Shorea assamica . Hesua nagassarium. Terminalia myriocarpa. Pboebe

goalparensis. Hopea spp, ete. One of tbe distinguishing characteristics of the Upper Assam forests is the gregarious occurence of Dipterocarpus macrocarpus (Hollong) and Sborea assamica (Hakai) which togetber often account for about 80 percent of trees in the top canopy.

Segi-Eyergreen Forests

Semi-evergreen forests occur in tbe transitional zone between evergreen

and moist deciduous forests wbere tbe annual preCipitation varies from 2000 to 2500 mm. Like tbe evergreen forests, these also bave a mul tistoreyed structure. Tbe top canopy comprises of a mixture of deciduous and evergreen species wbile tbe understorey is al most entirely constituted by evergreens. Here also, two subgroups, soutbern

and northern, are distinguisbed. Some of tbe climax formations under

DISTRIBUTION OF EVERCiREEN FORESTS IN INDIA

.c---rd--.\,r . N.

(....._ .,,A.1.

1;01'. J

700 "k s.(1/4V1

SA..e.v

( -1

ZA,-.5

f.-3150 .../...,./-

r** 150

P-- *L.....riirs

(')1-_,_

?soloo '?\

C

<1 /so

i \

(---) Rainfall in cm, 'Co

10070o

24

.;00

loo

Ise

Tropical wet evergreen forestN.; semi evergreen -

2so

Oo

- 24 -

F DISTRIBUTION OF EVER(jREEN FORESTS IN INDIA

c:::> RQinfoll.in cm. ;::::::::: Tropicol wet evergreen forest "~,~ semi evergreen

• • •

"

•

•

- 25 -

the southern subgroup are (1) Andaman semi-evergreen forest and (2)

West Coast semi-evergreen forest. West coast secondary semi-evergreen

dipterocarp forest is an important seral sub-type occurring in the

Western Ghata

In Andamans the semi-evergreen forest occurs in the valleys on well

drained alluvial soil. Commercially important species are

Dipterocarous alatus, IL pilosus, Ptervgota alata, Pterocymbium

tinctorium. Termiulia orocera, Albizia chinesist Albi74.1L lebbek,

Pterocarpus dalbergioides. Lagerstroemia hypoleuoa, etc. In the

Western Ghats semi-evergreen forests are found in Kerala, Karnataka,

Goa and Maharashtra. Important species are Haldina cordifolia,

falululluy tom_taLuLIIL Hocea Parviflora2 Spondias mangifera,

Tetram_a/es nudiflorat Termtnalia panicuiata and Vitex altissimma.Bambusa arundinacea is the most important bamboo species. Reed brakes

(Ochlandra s pp.) are also found in moist areas, especially along water

courses.

The Northern tropical semi-evergreen forests occur in the North Eastern

Region and extend to the moist regions in Bengal and Orissa. In

comparison with the Southern form, the flora is poor and less diverse.

Important climax types are (1) Assam Valley semi-evergreen forest, (2)

Cachar semi-evergreen forest and (3) Orissa semi-evergreen forest.

Several seral and edaphic formations are also distinguished and the

ecological status of these forests differs considerably. Important

species in the northern sub-group are Phoeba goal-parensis. Amocra

wallichii, Dysoxylqm sPP., Chukrasia tabularis, Artocarou* chaplasha,

Mesua nagaissarium. Michelia chamoaka, etc.

Considering the small area of the semi-evergreen forests, they are

usually grouped for management purposes with evergreen or moist

deciduous foresta

Moist Deciduous Forests

Next to the dry deciduous forests, this is the most widely distributed

type and plays an important role in the production of wood and other

products. Moist deciduous forest occurs in regions where rainfall is

in the range of 1500 mm to 2000 mm (See Fig. 2). Typically it is a

closed forest with the top canopy comprising mostly deciduous species,

while understorey is usually formed by evergreen species. Three

subgroups, namely (1) Andaman moist deciduous, (2) South Indian moist

deciduous and (3) North Indian moist deciduous, have been identified.

Within each category several climax and seral forms are distinguished.

- 25 -

the southern subgroup are (1) Andaman semi-evergreen forest and (2)

West Coast semi-evergreen forest. West coast secondary semi-evergreen

dipterocarp forest is an important seral sub-type occurring in the Western Ghats.

In Andamans the semi-evergreen forest occurs in the> valleys on well drained alluvial soil. Commercially important speCies are Dipterocarpus &latus, ~ pilosus. Pterygota alata, Pterocymbiym tinctorium. Terminalia procera. Albizia chinesis, Albizja lebbek,

Pterocarpus dalber;giojdes, Lagerstroemia hypoleuca,etc. In the Western Ghats semi-evergreen forests are found in Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra. Important species are Haldina cordifolia. Calophyll Ul~ tomentosum. Hopea parviflora, Spondias mangifera.

Tetramales nudiflora, Terminalia paniculata and Yitex altissim~. Bambusa arundinacea is the most important bamboo speCies. Reed brakes (Ochlandra spp.) are also found in moist areas, especially along water

courses.

The Northern tropical semi-evergreen forests occur in the North Eastern Region and extend to the moist regions in Bengal and Orissa. In comparison with the Southern form, the flora is poor and less diverse. Important climax types are (1) Assam Valley semi-evergreen forest, (2) Ca char semi-evergreen forest and (3) Orissa semi-evergreen forest.

Several seral and edaphic formations are also distinguished and the ecological status of these forests differs considerably. Important

speCies in the northern sub-group are Phoeba goal-parensis. Amoora wallichil, DysoxylJ!JD s pp., Chukrasia tabularis; Artocarpus chapl asha. Mesua nagassarium. Michelia champaka, et~

Cousidering the small area of the semi-evergreen forests, they are usually grouped for management purposes with evergreen or moist de ci duous forests.

Hoist Deciduous Forests

Next to the dry deciduous forests, this is the most widely distributed type and plays an important role in the production of wood and other

products. Moist deciduous forest occurs in regions whel'e rainfall is in the range of 1500 mm to 2000 mm (See Fig. 2). Typically it is a closed forest with the top canopy comprising mostly deciduous species,

while understor ey is usually formed by evergreen species. Three

subgroups, namely (1) Andaman moist deCiduous, (2) South Indian moist deciduous and (3) North Indian moist deciduous, have been identified. Within each category several climax and seral forms are distinguished.

20025V

c=:) Rainfall in cmloo

)00

150

26

Fig.,2.0ISTRIBUTION OF MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS IN INDIA

.?"

150

loo

150

Tropical moist deciduous forest

200

250

- 26 -

F DISTRIBUTION OF MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS IN INDIA

1<;0

= Rainfall in cm

-=t ~'it Tropica l moist deciduous forest • •

-27 -

Important species in the Andan sub group are Pterocarpus

dalbergioides Terminalia 1,131.213,L Dann., T. procera. Canarium

euphyllum, Pterooymbiumjanctorium. BomIa insignis, Tetrameles

nud¡flora DiosPyros Ilarlafttal.a, etc. Champion and Seth (1968) point

out that this is a stable pre-climaX formation occurring on easily

drained soils where water stress develops during summer months.

The southern moist deciduous forest is found in the states of Kerala,

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.

Teak is the most important species and depending upon its presence and

dominance this subgroup is divided into moist teak bearing forests and

mixed forests2. In addition to teak, important species in the Southern

moist deciduous forests are Terminalia tomentosa, Grewia tiliaefolia,

Lazerstroemia gleroearpa, Xylia xylocarpa. J.ir.gj latifolia. jJaldina

eordifolia and Pterocarou. _MaLsuoium. The most common bamboo in the

moist localities in the south (Kerala and Karnataka) is Bambusa

arundinaceawhile Dendrocalamus strictus occurs in drier regions.

On the basis of presence or absence of Sal, the northern moist

deciduous forests are divided into sal forests and mixed foreste3.

The former is characterised by the gregarious occurrence of Shorea

robusta (Sal) which sometimes accounts for about 80 percent of the

trees. Sal forests occur all along the sub Himalayan belt, from

Himachal Pradesh to Assam, in the Gangetic plains, Chotanagpur plateau,

Orissa coast, Andhra pradesh nd parts of. Madhya pradesh.

Characteristic species are Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentosa, T.

bellirica, Hald¡na cordifolia, Madhuca indica, Schleichera trijuga.

Ougeniaooienesio, and Mangifera indica.De.n_d_r_oçalarLius strictuQ is

the most common bamboo. Composition of the mixed type is very similar

to the sal forests except that sal is scarce or totally absent.

Although floristically the moist deciduous forests are less diverse than

and inferior to evergreen forests, they are extremely valuable

comercially. Almost all the species are utilised either as timber or

firewood. These forests form the most important source of saw logs.

2Based on rainfall, teak bearing forests are further subdivided as (i)

very moist teak forest, (ii) moist teak forest and (iii) slightly moist

teak forests, the last one merging with the dry deciduous formatiom

3Important climax formations distinguished are (i) very moist sal (ii)

moist sal and (iii) moist mixed foresta. Under each category several

sub types are recognised.

- 27 -

Important species in the Andaman sub group are Pterocarpus

dalbergioides. Termjnalia bialata.,. ..I. manii, :r. procera. Canarium

euohyllum, Pterocymbium tinctorium, .fuwJ~ insignis, Tetramel es nudiflora. Diospyros marmorata, ete: Champion and Seth (1968) point out that this is a stable pre-climax formation occurring on easily drained soils where water stress develops during summer months.

The southern moi,,·t, dEecdclu(>us forest is found in the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.

Teak is the most important species and depending upon its presence and dominance this subgroup is divided into moist teak bearing forests and mixed forests2• In addition to teak, important species in the Southern moist deciduous forests are Terminalia tomentosa, Grewia tiliaefolia, Lagerstroemiil l!1i...~(>carpa~ Xylia xylocarpa, Dalbergia latifolia, Hal dina cordifolia and Pterocarpus J1\arsupium. The most common bamboo in the moist 10ca11 ties in the south (Kerala and Karnataka) is Bambusa

arundinacea while Dendrocalamus strictus occurs in drier regions.

On the basis of presence or absence of Sal, the northern moist deciduous forests are divided into sal forests and mixed forests3• The former is characterised by the gregarious occurrence of Shore a

robysta (Sal) which sometimes accounts for about 80 percent of the trees. Sal forests occur all along the sub Rimal ayan bel t, from Himacbal Pradesh to Assam, in the Gangetic plains, Chotanagpur plateau, Orissa coast, Andhra pradesh and parts of · Madbya prades~ Cbaracteristic species are Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentosa, ..I. belliri ca, Haldina cordifolia. Madhuca ~k Schleichera tri luga, Ougenia oOjenesis, and Maogifera indica. Dendrocalamus strictus is the most common bamboo. Composition of the mixed type is very similar

to tbe sal forests except that sal is scarce or totally absent.

Al though floristically the moist deciduous forests are less diverse than

and inferior to evergreen forest9, they are extremely valuable

comercially. Almost all the species are utilised either as timber or . firewood. These forests form the most impor tant source of saw logs.

2Based on rainfall, teak bearing forests are further subdivided as (i)

very moist teak forest, (11) moist teak forest and (11i) slightly moist

teak forests, the last one merging with the dry deciduous formatio~

3Important climax formations distinguished are (i) very moist sal (11) moist sal and (11i) moist mixed forests.· Under each category several sub types are recognised.

- 28 -

Dry Deciduous Forests

Dry deciduous forests occur in the rainfall zone of 1000 to 1500 mm

with a long dry season extending over 6 months.. These forests are

found in the Deccan plateau, the Narmada and Tapti valleys and extends

to the Gangetic plains (See Fig. 3.). Typically this contains fewer

species than the moist deciduous type and almost all species are

deciduous. Two subgroups, southern and northern are distinguished

under this type. Three important climax types under the southern

subgroup are (1) teak forests (2) red sander forests and (3) mixed

forests. The most common species in the southern types are Teetona

grand¡ss AnogQiuus latifolia, Diossyros_meUrDxylon. Boswellia

*errata, Emblicq officinales, Acacia leucovhloea. Bridelia retusa,

IljAlLtd_a tinctoria, Pterocarpus marsupiuw, etc.. Apart from teak, some

of the valuable species like Santalum album and Pterocarpus santalinus

are found in these forests. The most common bamboo is Dendrocalamus

strictus.

The northern subgroup is divided into sal bearing forests and mixed

forests depending upon the presence or absence of sal (Shorea robusta).

Sal is. of inferior quality and the chief associates are Anogeissus

jatifolia, Buchhania lanzan, Termir'mlia Iomentosa officinalesand Lannea coromandalica. In the mixed type species composition is

essentially the same, except that sal is absent. As in the case of

other forest types several sub types and seral forms have been

distinguished, based on floristics and locality factors..

Most of these forests are subjected to severe biotic interferences,

particularly fire and grazing. Productivity of these forests is low,

but removals far exceed it, causing degradatiom Firewood is probably

the most important product from these forests. In addition, a large

quantity of bamboo is also obtainecL Other valuable products include

tendu leaves (Diossyros melanoxylon), sandal wood, red sanders, etc.

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM$

Forests can produce a variety of goods and services, singly or in

combination, depending upon the type and intensity of management to which

they are subjected to. Forest management involves the organised application

of any particular silvicultural procedure to regulate and control yield and

to ensure restocking of harvested areas to achieve pre-determined

objectives. Management is thus an interaction between societal and forest

characteristics as depicted in Fig. 4.

- 28 -

Dry deciduous forests occur in the rainfall zone of 1000 to 1500 mm wi th a long dry season extending over 6 months. . These forests are found in the Deccan plateau, the Narmada and Tapti valleys and extends to the Gangetic plains (See Fig. 3.). Typically this contains fewer speCies than the moist deciduous type and almost all species are deciduous. Two subgroups, southern and northern are distinguished under this type. Three impor tant climax .types under the southern subgroup are (1) teak forests (2) red sander forests and (3) mixed forests. The most common species in the southern types are Tectona

grandis, AnoeeJ~~ latifolia, Diospyros ~~~r»~1h Boswellia serrata, Emblica officinales, Acacia leucophloea, Bridelia retusa, WrithUa tinctor:ia.,. Pterocarpus marsupium, ete. . Apart from teak, some of the valuable species like Santalum album and Pterocarpus santalinus are found in these forests. The most common bam boo is Dendrocalamus strictus.

The northern subgroup is divided into sal bearing forests and mixed

forests depending upon the presence or absence of sal ( Shorea robusta). Sal is of inferior quality and the chief associates are A. nogeissus

latifolia. Buchnania lanzan, .I.ermin3,lia tomentosa, Embl1ca offiCi nales

and Lannea coromandalica. In the mixed type species com position is essentially the same, except that sal is absent. As in the case of

other forest types several sub types and seral forms have been distinguished, based on floristics and locality factors. .

Most of these forests are subjected to severe biotic interferences, particularly fire and grazin& Productivity of these forests is low, but removals far exceed it, causing degradation. Firewood is probably the most important product from these forests. In addi tion, a large quanti ty of bamboo is also obtained. Other valuable products include tendu leaves (Diospyros melanoxylon), sandal wood, red sanders, ete.

MARAGEKE!fT SYSIEHS

Forests can produce a variety of goods and services, singly or in combination, depending upon the type and intensity of management to which they are subjecte,d to. Forest management involves the organised application of any particular silvicul tural procedure to 'regulate and control yield and to ensure restocking of harvested areas to achieve pre-determined objectives. Management is thus , an interaction between societal and forest

characteristics as depicted in Fi& 4.

- 2 9 -

Fig4.1 DISTRIBUTION OF DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS IN INDIA

- 29 -

Figd. DISTRIBUTION Of DRY DECIDUOUS F.ORESTS IN INDIA

. 250

,

c:::::> Rainfall in till '

~ Tropical dry deciduous foresl ••

- 30 -

The forest characteristics include species composition, accessibility, and

synecology and autecology of species, wtdle societal factors that influence

management are pattern of ownership, objectives of the owner and the socio-

economic environment in which the owner has to manage the property. The

pattern of ownership of forests in India is given in Table 3.

Fig. 4. Forest - Society Interacti00

Society

Forest

characteristics

Societalcharacteris tics

Influences

Forests

Influences

Goods & Services

- 30 -

The forest characteristics include species composi tion, accessi bility, and synecology and autecology of species, while societal factors that influence management are pattern of ownership, objectives of the owner and the socio­economic environment in which the owner has to manage the property. The pattern of ownership of forests in India is given in Table 3.

Socie ty

Fig. 4 . Forest - Society Interaction

"",,---

In ut s

Influences

Fo r es t characteristics

Societal charac teris tics ---:;..

Influences

Goods & Services

For e s t s

Type

- 31 -

Table 3

Arnership of Forests

Percentage of

total area

Government 95. 8

Corporate 2.6

Private 1.6

------------------- ----- -------------

About 52.2 percent of the total forest area is constituted as reserved

forests under the Indian Forest Act and here most of the rights have been

settled/abolished4. Protected forests account for about 31 percent and

these are burdened with rights. Often dual control exists in these forests

in which land is under the control of the revenue department while

protection of tree growth is the responsibility of the forest departmenL

The balance, 16.8 percent, is unclassed forests. Management is effective

only in the case of reserved forests which are worked systematically on the

basis of regular working plans. About 66 percent of the forest area is now

covered by working plans or working schemes (Central Forestry Commission,

1980). In the initial stages, regulating the otherwise uncontrolled

felling was the main objective of the working plans/schemes and apart from

isolated efforts, very little attention was paid to regeneration Working

plans are usually prepared for a division and areas identified for a

specific set of treatment's under a given silvicultural system are included

In a working circle. Important silvicultural systems applied to different

forest types are indicated below.

LIThis does not imply that biotic disturbances are absent in these foresta

In the North Eastern Hill region, even reserved forests are subjected to

shifting cultivation

-------- --------- ------------

Type

Government Corporate Private

- 31 -

Table 3

Ownershi p of Forests

Percentage of total area

95.8 2.6 1.6

About 52.2 percent of the total forest area is constituted as reserved

forests under the Indian Forest Act and here most of the rights have been settled/abol1shed4• Protected forests account for about 31 percent and these are burdened with rights. Often · dual control exists in these forests

in which land is under the control of the revenue department while protection of tree growth is the responsibility of the forest departmen~ The balance, 16. 8 percent, is unclassed forests. Management is effective only in the case of reserved forests which are worked systematically on the baSis of regular t;orking plans. About 66 percent of the forest area is now covered by working plans or working schemes (Central Forestry Commission, 1980). In the ini ti al stages, regul ati ng the otherw ise uncontrolled felling was the main objective of the working plans/schemes and apart from

isolated efforts, very little attention was paid to regeneratiOn. Working plans are usually prepared for a division and areas identified for a specific set of treatment·s under a given silvicultural system are included

in a working circle. Important silvicultural systems applied to different forest types are indicated below.

4This does not imply that biotic disturbances are absent in these forests. In the North Eastern Hill region, even reserved forests are spbjected to

shifting cultivation.

- 32 -

Silvicultura]. Systems

True natural management involves practically no human intervention at

the stages of regeneration and growth. When removal is limited to

increment, and sufficient time is allowed for natural recovery, a

natural management in that pure sense may be possibi e. With increasing

intensity of removal substantial inputs of labour and other resources

become necessary to maintain productivity. At what stage management

ceases to be natural is, however difficult to determine. For the

present study management is considered natural as long as there is

complete reliance on natural regeneration, both seedling and coppice

for restocking felled areas.

The main components of a silvicultural system applied to natural

stands are (i) harvesting the tree growth that already exists, (2)

regeneration of felled areas and (3) tending the regeneration till

maturity to fulfill pre-determinEd objectives. A system is

distinguished on the basis of the combination and nature of operations

The major silviculture systems developed from this basis and applied to

the Indian forests are given together with their important

characteristics in Table 11. (See Prakash & Khanna, 1979).

Adoption of the silvicultural system involves therefore the application

of certain inputs to the forests at the stages of harvesting,

regeneration and tending leading to the generation of specific goods

and services. Over time, however, changes are brought to systems in

carried out during harvesting, regeneration and tending as given below.

1. Harvesting 1.1 Selective felling

1.2 Clear felling

Selective felling in a

specified area adopting

a felling cycle.

i. Clear felling of an area

spread over a number

of years

Clearfelling of an area

in one operation

2. Regeneration 2.1 Natural Seedling or Coppice

2.2 Artificial

3. Tending 3.1 Low intensity

3.2 High intensity

- 32 -

Silyicultural Systems

True natural management invol ves practically no human intervention at the stages of regeneration and grow tb. When removal is limi ted to

1ncrement, and sufficient time is allowed for natural recovery, a natural management in that pure sense may be possible. With increasing intensity of removal substantial inputs of labour and other resources become n8cessary to maintain productivity. At what stage management ceases to be na tur al is, however difficul t to determine. For the present study management is considered natural as long as there is complete reliance on natural regeneration, both seedling and coppice for restocking felled area~

The main components of a s11 vicul tural system applied to na tural stands are (i) harvesting the tree growth that already exists, (2) regeneration of felled areas and (3) tending the regeneration till

maturity to fulfil! pre-determi ned objectives. A system is distinguished on the basis of the combination and nature of operations carried out during harvesting, regeneration and tending as given below.

1. Harvesting 1.1 Selective felling

1.2 Clear felling

2. Regeneration 2.1 Natural 2.2 Artificial

3. Tending 3.1 Low 1 n tens1 ty

3.2 High i ntensi ty

Selective felling in a specified area adopting a felling cycle.

i. Clear felling of an area spread over a num bel' of years

11. Cl earfelling of an ar ea 1n one operation

Seedling or Coppice

The major silviculture systems developed from this basis and applied to the Indian forests are given together with their important characteristics in Table 4. (See Prakash & Khanna, 1979).

Adoption of the sil vlcul tur al system lnvol ves therefore the appli ca ti on of certain inputs to the forests at the stages of harvestlne;, .regeneration and tending leading to the generation of specific goods and service~ Over time, however, changes are brought to systems in

1. Selection

system and

selection-cum-

improvement

felling

2. Shelterwood

Systems

Uniform

System

Irregular

shelter-wood

system

Selective removal

of valuable

species

Complete felling

spread over the

regeneration

period

Complete felling

of trees above a

specified girth

spread over the

regeneration

period

Table 4

Silvicultural Syeteme Applied to Indian Foreste

Natural-malnly

seedling origin

Natural-mainly

seedling origin

Natural-seedling

origin.

Trees

below exploit-

able girth

retained as

advance growth

Limited to

the establish-

ment stage,

neglected

Intensive

tending

Tending and

other cultural

operations

Evergreen and semi-

evergreen, moist

deciduous and dry

deciduous forests

Moist deciduous

forests where regen-

eration of valuable

species is adequate

Evergreen and moist

deciduous forests

where regeneration

can be established

with considerable

effort

Silvi cultural

System Characteristics

Type of forest to

System

Harvesting

Regeneration

Tending

which applied

Tab

le

4

Sil

yic

ult

ura

l S

yst

ems

Ap

pli

ed

to

Ind

ian

Fo

rest

s

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

---

Sll

vic

ult

ura

l S

yste

m

Har

ves

tin

g S

yste

m C

hara

cte

rist

ics

Reg

ener

atio

n

Ten

din

g

Typ

e o

f fo

rest

to

wh

ich

ap

pli

ed

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

_._-

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

---

1.

Sele

cti

on

sy

stem

an

d

sel e

ctio

n-c

um

­im

prov

emen

t fe

llin

g

2.

Sh

el te

rwoo

d S

yst

ems

i.

Uni

form

S

yste

m

11

. Ir

reg

ula

r

shel t

er-w

oo

d

syst

em

Sele

cti

ve

rem

oval

o

f v

alu

ab

le

specie

s

Com

plet

e fe

llin

g

spre

ad

ov

er

the

reg

en

era

tio

n

per

iod

Com

plet

e fe

llin

g

of

trees

abo

ve

a sp

ecif

ied

gir

th

spre

ad

ov

er

the

reg

en

era

tio

n

per

iod

Nat

ura

l-m

ai n

ly

seed

lin

g o

rig

in

Nat

ura

l-m

ain

ly

seed

lin

g o

rig

in

Natu

ral-

seed

lin

g

ori

gin

. T

rees

be

low

ex

plo

it-

ab

le g

irth

re

tain

ed

as

adv

ance

g

row

th

Lim

ited

to

th

e est

ab

lish

­

men

t st

ag

e,

neg

lect

ed

Inte

nsi

ve

ten

din

g

Ten

din

g a

nd

oth

er

cuI tu

ral

op

era

tio

ns

Ev

erg

reen

an

d se

mi­

ever

gre

en,

mo

ist

dec

idu

ou

s an

d d

ry

dec

idu

ou

s fo

rest

s

Mo

ist

dec

idu

ou

s fo

rest

s w

here

re

gen

-era

tio

n o

f v

alu

ab

le

specie

s is

ad

equ

ate

Ev

erg

reen

an

d m

ois

t

dec

idu

ou

s fo

rest

s w

here

re

gen

era

tio

n

can

be

est

ab

lish

ed

w

ith

co

nsi

dera

ble

eff

ort

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

-----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

--

..., ...,

(Cont'd)

Silvicultural

System Characteristics

Type of forest to

System

Harvesting

Regeneration

Tending

which applied

3.Clearfelling

Complete removal

Natural

Intensive

Moist deciduous

system

of standing

(seedling)

tending and

forests where

growth in one

thinning

natural regener-

operation

ation is very profuse

4. Coppice

Systems

i.

Simple

Complete felling

Natural-coppice

Tending

Dry deciduous

coppice

immediately

forests to produce

after felling

fuelwood and small

and thinning

timber

Moist and dry decid-

uous forests where

natural regeneration

is unsatisfactory or

where a change in

crop composition is

desired

Artificial

IT

.T.a

ble-

.ll

(Co

nt'

d)

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

---

S11

vi c

ul tu

ral

Sys

tem

S

yste

m

Ch

ara

cte

rist

ics

Har

ves

tin

g

Reg

ener

atio

n

Ten

ding

T

ype

of

fore

st

to

w hi

ch

app

lied

~---

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

--.-

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

3.

Cl e

arf

ell

ing

C

ompl

ete

rem

oval

N

atu

ral

Inte

nsi

ve

Moi

st

dec

idu

ou

s sy

stem

o

f st

and

ing

( s

eed

lin

g)

ten

din

g a

nd

fore

sts

whe

re

grow

th i

n o

ne

thin

nin

g

nat

ura

l re

gen

er-

oper

at.i

on

ati

on

is

very

p

rofu

se

Art

ific

ial

n M

oist

an

d dr

y d

ecid

-uo

us

fore

sts

whe

re

nat

ura

l re

gen

erat

ion

is

u

nsa

tisf

acto

ry

or

whe

re

a ch

ange

in

cr

op

com

posi

tion

is

des

ired

4.

Cop

pice

S

yste

ms

i.

Sim

ple

Com

plet

e fe

llin

g

Nat

ura

l-co

pp

ice

Ten

ding

D

ry

dec

idu

ou

s co

pp

ice

imm

edia

tely

fo

rest

s to

pr

oduc

e aft

er

fell

ing

fu

elw

ood

and

smal

l an

d t h

i nni

ng

tim

ber

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

---

w

".

Coppice Systems Cont.

Coppice with

standards

Coppice

with reserves

Ref:

CJ15

(Cont,d)

Complete felling

retaining speci-

fied number of

standards

Reservation by

area, species

and diameter

limits.

Felling

the rest

Natural-mainly

coppice

Natural-mainly

coppice

i?

------ ---------------- ------ --_-_-_-_-_-_-_-__

Dry deciduous

forests to produce

fuelwood and small

timber and to

improve site

conditions

Silvicultural

System

Type of forest to

which applied

System Characteristics

Harvesting

Regeneration

Tending

rs39

l'ab

l e--.

!l (C

on t

' d)

~-----------------------------------------------------

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

-S

l1 v

i cu

I tu

ral

Sys

tem

S

yste

m C

hara

cte

rist

ics

Har

ves

tin

g

Reg

ener

atio

n

Ten

ding

T

ype

of

fore

st

to

. w

hich

ap

pli

ed

----~----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Cop

pice

Sys

tem

s C

ont.

ii.

Cop

pice

wit

h

stan

dar

ds

11

i.

Cop

pice

w

ith

re

serv

es

Com

plet

e fe

llin

g

reta

inin

g s

peci­

fied

nu

mbe

r o

f st

and

ard

s

Res

erv

atio

n b

y ar

ea,

specie

s an

d d

iam

eter

li

mit

s.

Fell

ing

th

e re

st

Nat

ura

l-m

ain

ly

cop

pic

e

Nat

ura

l-m

ain

ly

cop

pic

e

n n

n

Dry

d

ecid

uo

us

fore

sts

to

pro

du

ce

fuel

woo

d an

d ·s

mal

l ti

mb

er

and

to

impr

ove

si t

e

con

di t

ion

s

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

---

Ref

: C

J15

w

en

Period Factors Influencing

Forestry

Prior to 1. Demand limited to high

1900 quality timber for

railway sleepers,

construction etc.

Poorly developed

accessibility

Demand for fuel

Need to increase

land revenue

1900-1910 Increasing demand

for sawn wood

1920-1940 High demand for wood for

defence and railways due

to war. Setting up of

industries. Improved

accessibility

1920-1940 Initially high demand

continued, but later

slumped due to recession

1940-1950 High demand due to war.

Expansion of wood-based

industries. Improved

accessibility shortage

of food; land reform

acts

1950-1960 Growth of wood based

industries. Development

of agriculture

- 36 -

Table 5

Igys_l_o_pagem_eat_tn India

Consequences

Adoption of selective felling. Limited

extent regenerated artificially. This

is mostly limited to teak.

Coppice system.

Transfer of forest land for agriculture,

especially where it cannot produce good

quality timber

Accessibility was improved to tap more

areas under selective felling

In many areas under selective felling,

systems of concentrated regeneration

were attempted. Adoption of uniform

system for Sal. But prescriptions were

often set aside to meet war demand

Adoption of intensive working methods.

But slump in demand led to non-observance

of working plan prescriptions.

Non-compliance of working plan prescriptions

and large scale exploitation of easily

accessible areas. Deforestation for

expansion of agriculture. Vesting of

extensive jamindari forests burdened

with rights with government

Exploitation of forests to meet industrial

requirements. Improvement of accessibili4%

Consolidation of vested forests. Deforest-

ation for expansion of agriculture

- 36 -

Table 5

Development of Forest Management in India

------------------------------------------------------------------------------Period

Prior to 1900

Factors Influencing Forestry

1. Demand limited to high quality timber for railway sleepers, construction etc. Poorly developed accessi bil i ty

2. Demand for fuel

3. Need to increase land revenue

1900-1910 Increasing demand for sawn wood

1920-1940 High demand for wood for defence and railways due to war. Setting up of industries. Improved accessibility

1920-1940 Initially high demand continued, but later slumped due to recession

.1940-1950 High demand due to war. Expansion of wood-based industries. Im proved accessibility shortage of food; land reform acts

1950-1960 Growth of wood based industries. Development of agri cuI ture

Conseq uences

Adoption of selective f elling. extent .regenera ted ar tifi ci ally. is mostly I imi ted to t eak.

Coppice system.

Limited This

Transfer of forest l and for agriculturp., espeCially where it cannot produce good quali ty timber

Accessibility was impr oved to tap more areas under selective fel ling

In many areas under s el ective felling, systems of concentrated regeneration were attempted. Adoption of uniform system for Sal. But prescripti ons were often set aside to meet war demand

Adoption of intensive wor king methods. 9ut slump in demand led t o non-observance of working pI an prescri ptions.

Non-com pliance of working plan prescriptions and large scale exploitation of easily accessible areas. Deforestation for expansion of agriculture . Vesting of extens ive jamindari fore sts burdened with rights with gover nment

ExplOitation of forests to meet industrial reqUirements. Improvement of accessibility. Consolidation of vested forests. Deforest­ation for expansion of agriculture

1960-70 Growth of th pulp and

paper industry and other

wood based industries.

Degradation of forests

1 970

onwards

- 37 -

Expansion of the plantation programme,

especially by clearfelling natural forests.

Large scale introduction of exotics.

Afforestation and rehabilitation programmes.

Farm forestry

Rapid growth of wood-based Setting up of forest development corporations

industries - Emphasis on to undertake large scale man-made forestry

industrial orientation of programme by clearfelling the mixed forests.

forestry. Increasing rural Social forestry programme including farm

energy crisis forestry

1960~O

l~O

onw ards

- 37 -

Growth of the pul p and paper industry and other wood based industries. Degradation of forests

Rapid growth of wood-based industries - Emphasis on industrial ori en tation of

Expansion of the plantation programme, especially by clearfelling natural forest~ Large scale introduction of exotics. Afforestation and rehabilitation programme~

-Farm forestry

Setting up of forest development corporations to undertake large scale man-made forestry programme by clearfelling the mixed forest~

forestry. Increasi ng rural Social forestry programme including farm energy crisis forestry

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

- 38 -

response to the changes in societal and forest characteristics. Thus,

especially with increasing demand, improved accessibility etc.,

silvicultural systems have undergone changes as indicated in Figure 5.

Development of agriculture, industry and the changing priorities of

government have also greatly influenced forest management and for a

large country like India, it is extremely difficult to compress the

complex history into a general pattern. Table 5 gives the broad

trend in the development of forestry in India.

No reliable data are available on the area under different

silvicultural systems in different forest types and for the country as

a whole. Areas under different systems in selected states are given in

table 6, and from this an indication of the relative importance of the

system can be gained.

lahLeaL.Area Under Different Silvioultural Systems

(Area in Sq. Km.)

Selection Shelterwood Clear- Coppice

and sele- felling

ction cum Indian and Simple Coppice Coppice

State improve- Uniform irregular othersl coppice with with

ment shelter- stds reserve

Bihar 2620 5650 . 4320 .. 21720 ..

U.P.2 5800 5760 0 9 9040 41603 1910 .0

Orissa 20000 NA 0. NA NA 5000 0 0

Tamil Nadu 190 .. NA 15603 .0 ..Maharashtra 18290 3990 0 0 1480 .. I, 0 13610

Kerala 920 NIL 0 0 1470 3803 0 0 0 0

Assam NA4 .. 650 350 NA .. ..

doio

1 Includes area under rehabilitation and afforestation programmes also.

Details of area taken up under clear felling and planting are not available

separately.

2 Includes details pertaining to the coniferous forests also.

3 In all states eucalypt plantations are managed under simple coppice system.

This is also included here.

4NA r. Information not available.

State

- 38 -

response to the changes in societal and forest characteristics. Thus, especially with increasing demand, improved accessibility etc.,

silvicultural systems have undergone changes as indicated in Figure 5.

Development of agriculture, industry and the changing priorities of

government have also greatly influenced forest management and for a large country like India, it is extremely difficult to compress the

complex history into a general pattern. Table 5 gives the .broad trend in the development of forestry in Indi;;l.

No reliable data are available on the area under different silvicultural systems in different forest types and for the country as

a whole. Areas under different systems in selected states are given in table 6, and from this an indication of the relative importance of the system can be gained.

Table 6 Area Under Different Silyicultural Systems

(Area in Sq. Km.)

Selection Shel terwood Clear- Coppice and sele- ----------------- felling -----------------------ction cum Indian and Simple Coppice Coppice

improve- Uniform irregular others 1 coppice with with ment shel ter- stds reserve

------------------------------------------------------------------------------Bihar 2620 5650 4320 21720 U. p.2 5600 5760 9040 41603 1910 Orissa 20000 NA NA NA 5000

Tamil Nadu 190 NA 15603

Maharashtra 16290 3990 1460 .. 13610 Kerala 920 NIL 1470 3603 .. Assam NA4 650 350 NA

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 Includes area under rehabilitation and afforestation programmes also. Details of area taken up under clear felling and planting are not available separately.

2 Includes details pertaining to the coniferous forests also.

3 In all states eucalypt plantations are managed under simple coppice system.

This is also included here.

4NA = Information not available.

Fig. 5. Evolution of Management Systems in TropicalMixed Forests

_

- SelectiveFelling

e

'UniformShleterwood

= IrregularIShicterwood

LO

-SelectiveFelling

o

39 -

SelectiveFelling

--Coppice withStandards

Simple Coppice

o

!ED

iCoppice-_with Reserves

o

High.demand for fuelwood and small timber, existence oftraditional rights to forest produce

Natural regeneration of valuable species feasible

Failure or inadequate natural regeneration and forestdeterioration

Need to change crop composition in favour of speciesin high demand.

Moist Deciduous Dry DeciduousForests

Wet EvergreenForesta Forests

Clearfelling and Artificial Regeneration

rIndicates - Part of the area remain in the same system

1, Intensive exploitation not feasible due to accessibility,demand or labour constraints

Fig.

- ,39 -

5. Evolution of Management Systems in Tropical Mixed Forests

Wet Evergreen Forests

Moist Deciduous Forests

Dry Deciduous Forests

- . - " -F'' '-,,' --,' , ,

":- -----..;--... --...... --r-::,. -__ ---: ,.

- - , : - Selective - -Selective

Felling Selective

Fe 11 ing Felling

~ -, - , , , - -,

- -, -- --- - Uniform Shletenlo

I ~ I

,

j

od

Simple Coppice

fj:;;;," oi Ue I stan.uardS I

1(0 ~

KD I

1 I ft=;-~S'~~-I

. ' ... ... --I" '- -, -- -' I ---- ':C~:o P P i ce i

:. .... , lth Re serveS! L-.:.... . • !

I

~ i

k';:) J~

,---_.­I

- ( r r ~g ular

~ Sh leterwood

Cl e ar[elling and Artificial Regenerat ion

Ind icates Part of the area rem.:lin in the Same system

1. Intensive exploitation not feasible due to accessibi lit y, demand or labour cons tra ints

2. High'demand for fuelwood and small timber, existence of traditional ri ghts to forest produce

3. Natural regeneration of valuable speci es feasible

4. Failure or inadequate natural regeneration and forest deterioration

5. Need to cpange ' ~rop composition in favour of specles in high demand.

- 40 -

In most states it can be seen that, selection or selection-cum-improvement

felling and coppice with standards continue to be the most important

management systems.

CONCLUSION:

Diversity of the vegetation coupled with the complexity of socio-economic

conditiOns have led to the evolution of a wide spectrum of management

systems However, what is actually practised seldom fits into the

.description usually found in silviculture text books and often represents a

compromise between conflicting factors. Growing demand for timber and

firewood have brought changes in systems over time. Important features of

different systems in vogue now are described in the ensuing sections.

SMECTION SYSTEM

The selection system practised in India involves the selective felling of

exploitable trees from a given forest area at periodic intervals. It was

one of the earliest systems to be applied to the forests and regulating the

felling was the main objective. Areas worked under the system are included

in the selection (or selection-cum-improvement felling) working circle or

the hill working circle. In the case of economically important species

distributed widely, working circles which overlap with areas worked under

other systems are constituted.

Choice of Svstein

Selective felling is adopted in the tropical mixed forests of India under

the following conditions:

Low proportion of valuable species: Despite the large number of trees

per unit area, the high species diversity necessitates the tapping of a

large area to ensure availability of wood to meet specific end uses.

This becomes uneconomical except in the case of highly valuable

species.

Lack of information on end uses: Properties of a large number of

species in the mixed foresta are as yet unknown and thus even if

extraction is feasible, they cannot be marketed easily. For example,

there are more than 100 known tree species in the evergreen fore.sts of

Western Ghats, but only about 40 are commercially exploited.

Poor accessibility: This restricts the utilisation of forest,

favouring less concentrated working. A large quantity of timber and

firewood available cannot be transported economically and as a

consequence extraction is limited to logs or sawnwood whose value/bulk

ratio is high..

- 40 -

In most s tates it can be seen that, selection or selection-cum-improvement felling and coppice with standards continue to be the most important management sy stems .

CONCLUSION :

Diversi ty of the vegetation coupled with the complexity of socio-economic condi tidns have led to the evolution of a wide s pectrum of management

systems. However, what is actually practised sel dom fits into the .description usually found in silviculture t ex t books and often represents a

Compromise between conflicting factors. Growing demand for timber and fireliOod have brought changes in systems over time. Important featur es of different systems ·in vogue now are described i n the ensuing sections.

SELECTlOO SYSTEM

The selection system practised in Indi a involves t he selective fel l i ng of exploitable trees from a given forest area at periodic intervals. I t was one of the earliest systems to be applied to the forests and regul ating the felling was the main objective. Areas worked under the system are i ncluded in the selection (or selection-cum-impr ovement felling) working circle or the hill working circle. In the case of economi cally important species

distributed widely, working circles which overl ap with areas worked unde r other systems are constituted.

Choice of System

Selective felling is adopted in the tropi cal mixed forests of India unde r the following co·ndi tions :

i) Low proportion of valuable species : Despite the large number of t rees per uni t area, the high species diversity necessitates the tapping of a

l a rge area to ensure availability of wood to meet specific end uses. This becomes uneconomical except i n t he case of highly valuable species.

ii) Lack of information on end uses : Pr operties of a large number of species i n the mixed forests are as ye t unknown and thus even i f extraction is feaSible, they cannot be marke ted easily. For exampl e, ther e are more than 100 known tree species in the evergreen f orests of Western Ghats, but only about 40 a r e · commercially exploi ted.

iii) Poor accessibility: This restricts t he utilisation of fores t , favouring less concentrated working. A large quanti ty of timber and f i rewood available cannot be t r ansported economically and as a consequence ext· ... action is limited to l ogs or sawnwood whose value/bulk ra tio is high.

iv) Environmental protection: The system is also adopted where concentrated

fellings are inappropriate due to their adverse environmental impacts.

In hilly areas, low intensity selective felling ensures an acceptable

trade off between protective and productive functions of forests.

Application:

Exploitation of timber from most of the mixed forests in India commenced

with selective felling. While in some areas this has been replaced by

systems involving more concentrated fellings, in larger areas selective

felling is in vogue even now. This is the most widely adopted

silvicultural system in India. Table 7 gives the type of forests and

states where selective felling is practised (FRI & Colleges, 1961).

Details of application of the system, especially yield regulation and

prescriptions related to felling and regeneration, are given below.

Table 7

Selective Felling in India

Forest Type

Evergreen forests

Moist deciduous

Dry deciduous

forests

- 41 -

Species Selectively Removed

Mostly plywood and matchwood species.

Hardwood species are sometimes converted

to sleepers depending upon demand.

Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentosa,

Acilma cordifolia, Lagerstroemia

microcarpa, Tectona grandis, Bamboo

rIgatalul altui

State

Kerala

Karnataka

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

Bihar, Orissa

Maharashtra

Andhra Pradesh

Assam

Tamil Nadu

and Karnataka

Bamboo All states

Boswellia serrata Bihar

Uttar Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

Acacia catechu Bihar

Uttar Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

- 41 -

iv) Environmental protection: The system is also adopted where concentrated fellings are inappropriate due to their adverse environmental impacts. In hilly areas, low intensity selective felling ensures an acceptable "trade off between protective and productive functions of forests.

Application:

Exploi tation of timber from most of the mixed forests in India commenced with selective felling. While in some areas this has been replaced by systems involving more concentrated fellings, in larger areas selective felling is in vogue even now. This is the most widely adopted silvicultural system in India. Table 7 gives the type of forests and states where selective felling is practised (FRI & Colleges, 1961).

Details of application of the system, especially yield regulation and prescriptions related to felli ng and regeneration, are given below.

Table 7 Selective Felling in India

Forest Type Species Selectively Removed State

--------------------------------------------------~-------------~------------Evergreen forests

Moist deciduous

Dry deciduous forests

Mostly plywood and matchwood species. Hardwood species are sometimes converted to sleepers depending upon demand.

Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentosa, Adina cordifolia. Lagerstroemia microcarpa. Tectona grandis, Bamboo

Santalum album

Bamboo

Boswellia serrata

Acacia catechu

Kerala Karnataka Tamil Nadu

"Ut tar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Bihar, Orissa Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Assam

Tami! Nadu and Karnataka

All states

Bihar Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh

Bi har Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh

- 42 -

Selective felling was in vogue in the evergreen forests of Western

Ghats right from the beginning of this century. Extraction was limited

to species suitable for railway sleepers (eg. Hopea narviflora, Mesua

nagassarium) and ship masts (notably Calophyllum spp.). During the

first world war boom, accessibility'was improved and in some areas

attempts were made to introduce systems of concentrated felling

(Champion and Osmaston, 1962). Failure of regeneration and more

particularly the slump in demand during the interwar recession led to

abandonment of such trials. Growth of the plywood industry during the

second world war period and the increasing demand for railway sleepers

led to the large scale adoption of selective felling in the evergreen

forests of Western Ghats. At present evergreen forests of the Western

Ghats are primarily managed to supply veneer logs and railway sleepers.

Intensity of management is closely linked to the growth of the plywood

industry5.

Objectives of Management:

The three most commonly stated objectives of management for

evergreen forests under the selection system are:

maintenance of tree cover to protect the soil and to regulate

water yield in catenments

b) increasing the supply of wood and other products and

0 consistent with the above objectives realising the maximum

revenue.

Selective removal is considered the most appropriate alternative

to fulfill the above objectives under the constraints of poor

accessibility and low density of utilisable species. Adoption of

low intensity selective felling is primarily determined by

economic constraints and is not always an outcome of integrating

environmental considerations6.

5The Kerala-Karnataka region accounts for 19.5 percent of the

installed capacity of the plywood industry in the country and most

of their requirements of veneer /ogs are met from the evergreen

forests (Sivananda and Nagaraju, 1983).

6Th1s is evident from the fact that improved accessibility leads toa change in the system of working in favour of more intensive

systems (see FAO, 1984) especially when there is no immediate and

apparent adverse effeCts.

- 42 -

Selective felling was in vogue in the evergreen forests of Western

Ghats right from the beginning of this century. Extraction was limited to species suitable for railway sleepers (eg. Hopea paryiflora. Mesua nagassarium) and ship masts (notably Calopbyllum spp.). During the first world war boom, accessibility 'was improved and in some areas ,attempts were made to introduce systems of concentrated felling (Champion and Osmaston, 1962). Failure of regeneration and more particularly the slump in demarld during the interwar recession led to abandonment of such trials. Growth of the plywood industry during the

second world war period and the increasing demand for railway sleepers led to the large scale adoption of selective felling in the evergreen forests of Western Ghats. At present evergreen forests of the Western Ghats are primarily managed to supply veneer logs and railway , sleepers.

Intensity of management is closely linked to the growth of the plywood industry5.

Objectives of Management:

The three most commonly stated objectives of management for evergreen forests under the selection system are:

a) ' maintenance of tree cover to protect the soil and to regulate water yield in catchments

b) increasing the supply of wood and other products and

c) consistent with the above objectives realising the maximum revenue.

Selecti ve removal is considered the most appropriate al terna ti ve to fulfill the above objectives under the constraints of poor

accessibility and low density 'of utilisable species. Adoption of low intensity selective felling is primarily determined by economic constraints and is not always an outcome of integrating environmental considerations6•

5The Kerala-Karna taka region accounts for 19.5 percent of the installed capacity of the plywood industry in the country and most of their requirements of veneer logs are met from the evergreen forests (Sivananda and Nagaraju, 1983).

6This is evident from the fact that improved accessibility leads to a change in the system of working in favour of more intensive systems (see FAO, 1984) especially when there is no immediate and apparent adverse effects.

- 43 -

Yield fiegulation

Under the polycyclic selection system the same area is visited at

periodic intervals and trees reaching specified exploitable girth

are removed. Factors such as the time taken for trees in the pre-

exploitable class to reach the exploitable class, condition of the

crop, especially proportion of mature and over mature trees and

infrastru.ctural facilities are considered in determining the

felling cycle. Where there is a preponderance of harvestable

trees, a shorter cycle is preferred to enable their speedy

removal. A shorter cycle will, however, enhance the annual area

required and involved considerable investment on infrastructure so

that this tends to have an overwhelming influence on the cutting

cycle. Felling cycles adopted in different forest divisions in

the Western Ghat region vary from 15 to 145 years (see Table 8).

Removal from the annual coupe is further subjected to a girth

limit check. Exploitable girth is influenced by the nature of

demand, the species and the size class distribution of trees. In

unworked stands where there is a preponderance of large trees the

girth limit is fixed high. Industries respond through

technological changes and this often leads to a reduction in the

girth limit, especially when an area has to be worked repeatedly.

Girth limits for working the evergreen forests in Western Ghats

vary between species, felling cycle and locality and range from

120 cm to 210 cm.

A further check is exercised on harvesting by prescribing an upper

limit for the number of trees that can be removed from the

exploitable class. Smythies safe guarding formula is sometimes

used for this7.

7Exploitable number is determined as a percentage of trees in the

harvestable class as:

Y = X x 100. where I number of trees in theI + .X exploitable class

X = f/t (II - 2 of II)

f felling cycle

t = time taken for class II

trees to reach class I

Z = mortality percent

Reliable data are not available on t and Z and consequently

approximations are resorted to.

- 43 -

Yield Regulation

Under the polycyclic selection systf;lm the same area is visited at periodic intervals and trees reaching specified exploitable girth are removed. Factors such as the time taken for trees in the pre­exploitable class to reach the exploitable class, condition of the crop, especially proportion of mature and over mature trees and infrastructural facilities are considered in determining the felling cycle. Where there is a preponderance of harvestable trees, a shorter cycle is preferred to enable their speedy removal. A shorter cycle will, however, enhance the annual, area required and involved considerable investment on infrastructure so that this tends to have an overwhelming influence on the cutting

cycle. Felling cycles adopted in different forest divisions in the Western Ghat region vary from 15 to 45 years (see Table 8).

Removal from the annual coupe is further subjected to a girth

limit check. Exploitable girth is influenced by the nature of demand, the species and the size class distribution of trees. In unworked stands where there is a preponderance of large trees the girth limi t is fixed high. Industries respond through technological changes and this often leads to a reduction in the girth limit, especially when an area has to be worked repeatedly. Girth limits for working the evergreen forests in Western Ghats vary between species, felling cycle and locality and range from

120 cm to 210 cm.

A further check is exercised on harvesting by prescribing an upper limit for the number of trees that can be removed from the

exploitable class. Smythies safe guarding formula is sometimes used for this7.

7Exploitable number is determined as a percentage of trees in the harvestable class as:

y = X x 100. where I = number of trees in the I + .x exploitable class

X = fIt (II - 2 of II)

f = felling cycle t = time taken for class II

trees to reach class I

Z = mortality percent

Reliable data are not available on t and Z and consequently approximations are resorted to.

- 44 -

Table 8 gives the felling cycle, exploitable girth and number of

trees that can be harvested for some divisions in the states of

Kerala and Karnataka.

Some of the important felling rules followed in Kerala and

Karnataka are given below:

to ensure that felling is not concentrated in pockets it is

prescribed that a minimum distance of 20 metres should be

kept between twO marked trees;

climber cutting is prescribed at the time of marking to

minimise damage during felling;

to prevent soil erosion;no felling is to be carried out for a

width of 20 metres on either side of water courses

marking is to be carried out in such a way as not to cause

any lasting gaps in the canopy and

only dead and dying trees are to be marked on steep slopes.

Table 8

Prescribtion for Selective Felling

Forest Division

Felling Exploitable Number

Cycle Girth Removable/

(in years) (in cm. gbh.) ha

*Recently in Karnataka, the number of exploitable trees has been

reduced to 2 per hectare in response to the growing pressure

from environmental groups.

Coorg (Karnataka)* 45 210 17

Sirsi " 40 183 20

Honnawar " 30 183 NA

Hassan et 30 180 7 to 11

Wynad (Kerala) 15 120-180 20

Nilambur " 20 150-200 10

Ranni " 15 180 20

- 44 -

Table 8 gives the felling cycle, exploitable girth and number of trees that can be harvested for some divisions in the states of Kerala and Karna taka.

Some of the important felling rules followed in Kerala and Karnataka are given below:

1. to ensure that felling is not concentrated in pockets it is prescribed that a minimum distance of 20 metres should be kept between two marked trees;

ii. climber cutting is prescribed at the time of marking to minimise damage during felling;

iii. to prevent soil erosion;no felling is to be carried out for a width of 20 metres on ei ther side of water courses

iv. marking is to be carried out in such a way as not to cause any lasting gaps in the canopy and

v. only dead and dying trees are to be marked on steep slopes.

Tabl e 8 Prescription for Selective Felling

Forest Division

Coorg (Karnataka)-Sirsi " Honnawar " Hassan " Wynad (Kerala) Nilambur " Ranni "

Felling Cycle

(in years)

45 40 30 30 15 20 15

Exploi table Girth

(in cm. gbh.)

210 183 183 180

120-180 150-200

180

Number Removable/

ha

17 20 NA

7 to 11 20 10 20

-Recently in Karnataka, the number of exploitable trees has been reduced to 2 per hectare in response to the growing pressure from environmental groups.

- 45 -

Timber extraction is carried out either by industries (especially

plywood and match units) to whom an annual quota of timber is allotted

or by the forest department who usually get the work done through the

agency of contractors. The system of giving long term lease is not in

vogue.

Regeneration

There is complete reliance on natural regeneration. It is assumed

that selective removal improves light conditions and thereby

facilitates the establishment of regeneration and the growth of

trees in the pre-exploitable class to the exploitble class.

Important prescriptions aimed to promote natural regeneration are

as follows:

All broken and completely damaged trees are to be cut back,

A regeneration map is to be prepared for each annual coupe

and treatments appropriate to the status of regeneration are

to be carried out. Most working plans prescribe gap planting

in area deficient in natural regeneration. Nursery raised

seedlings of Vateria indica, Dinterocarpus indicus. Dichonsja

ellinticum, Artocarpus hirsutus, Dysoxylon malabaricum etc.

are to be planted and are to be tended during the first three

years.

If required, thinning has to be carried out to relieve

congestion in patches of pole crop.

These prescriptions are seldom adhered to. Gap planting, strip

planting, etc. undertaken under different schemes cover only a

very small proportion of the area felled annually. Although only

a few trees are felled, damage to other standing trees is very

high8. Drastic change in light and moisture conditions encourage

the growth of weeds, especially primary colonisers, impeding the

establishment and growth of regeneration (Rai, 1979).

Prescriptions are neglected due to technical, institutional and

financial constraints (FAO, 1984).

8Even if only 10 trees/hectare are felled, sometimes this results

in opening the aanopy to the extent of 50 percent

- 45 -

Timber extract ion is ca rried out either by industries (especially

Plywood and match units) to whom an annual quota of timber is allotted or by the forest department who usually get the work done through the agency of contractors. The system of giving long term lease is not in vogue.

Regeneration

There is complete reliance on na tural regeneration. It is assumed that selective removal improves light conditions and thereby facilitates the establishment of regeneration and the growth of trees in the pre-exploi table class to the exploitble class. Important prescriptions aimed to promote natural regeneration are as follows:

i. All broken and completely damaged trees are to be cut back,

ii. A regeneration map is to be prepared for each annual coupe

and treatments appropriate to the status of regeneration are to be carried out. Most working plans prescribe gap planting in area deficient in natural regeneration. Nursery raised seedlings of Vateria indica. Dipterocarpus indicus. Dichopsis ellipticum, Artocarpus hirsutus. Dysoxylon malabaricum etc. are to be planted and are to be tended during the first three years.

ii1. If required, thinning has to be carried out to relieve congestion in patches of pole crop.

These prescriptions are seldom adhered to. Gap planting, strip planting, etc. undertaken under different schemes cover only a very small proportion of the area felled annually. Although only a few trees are felled, da~~ge to other standing trees is very

highS. Dr astic change in light and moi s ture conditions encourage the growth of weeds, especially primary colOnisers, impeding the establishment and growth of regeneration (Rai, 1979). Prescriptions are neglected due to technical, institutional and

financial constraints (FAO, 1984) .

8Even if only 10 trees/hectare are felled, sometimes this results in opening the canopy to the extent of 50 percent

- 46 -

Selective felling with sufficiently long felling cycles on

moderate slopes seldom causes any soil erosion if felling rules

are strictly adhered to and sufficient care is taken in laying out

roads, extraction paths, etc. However, in practice such

prescriptions are not always implemented. Logging contractors

(employed both by industries and forest department) are primarily

interested in profit maximisation, to the neglect of silvicultural

prescriptions9. Surface run off and soil erosion tend to be

very higil during and immediately after harvesting. Very often,

logging operations extend for two to three years due to sequential

working by different agencies/industries and this aggravates the

problem.

Selective felling does help to enhance wood supply in the short

run. Feasibility of long run sustained supply of wood and other

products depends on the intensity of exploitation and success of

regeneration. Very few forests have been worked continuously over

a number of cycles to the same prescription. Between successive

cycles, yield is maintained by (1) reducing the felling cycle, (2)

reducing the girth limit and (3) removing the species not

extracted during the previous cycle. In the absence of

regeneration, selective felling at short intervals leads to

degradation, seriously affecting wood production in the long run.

The relevance of selective felling has been examined on the

implicit assumption that the objectives of management plans truly

represent the societal objectives. This assumption may not be

always valid. Most often, selective felling is a passing phase

and is soon replaced by alternative systems or alternative land

uses.

9A change in the agency for logging seldom improves the situatiomWorkers employed for different operations lack sufficient

training. Payment to them is made on piece rate basis and out-

turn becomes the primary concern rather than adherence to

silvicultural prescriptions.

- 46 -

Selective felling with sufficiently long felling cycles on moderate slopes seldom causes any soil erosion if felling rules are strictlY adhered to and sufficient care is taken in laying out roads, extraction paths, etc. However, in practice such prescriptions are not always implemented. Logging contractors (employed both by industries imd forest department) are primarily interested in profit maximisation, to the neglect of silvicultural

prescriptions9• Surface run off and soil erosion tend to be very high during and immediately after harvesting. Very often,

logging operations 'extend for two to three years due to sequential working by different agencies/industries and this aggravates the problem.

Selective felling does help to enhance wood supply in the short run. Feasibility of long run sustained supply of wood and other products depends on the intensity of explOitation and success of regeneration. Very few forests have been worked continuously over a number of cycles to the same prescription. Between successive cycles, yield is maintained by (1) r ,educing the felling cycle, (2)

reducing the girth limit and (3) removing the species not extracted during the previous cycle. In the absence of

regeneration, selective felling at short intervals leads to degradati on, seriously affecting wood production in the long run.

The relevance of selective felling has been examined on the implicit assumption that the objectives of management plans truly

represent the societal objectives. This assumption may not be always valid. Most often, selective felling is a passing phase

and is soon replaced by alternative systems or alternative land uses.

9 A change in the agency for logging seldom improves the si tua tion. Workers employed for , different operations lack sufficient training. Payment to them is made on piece rate basis and out­turn becomes the primary concern rather than adherence to

sil vi cuI tural prescriptions.

In Hoist Deciduous Forests

Although the systero of clear felling and artificial regeneration in the

moist deciduous forest dates from the 1850's, this was on a small scale

and selective removal continued to be the main system applied to both

teak and sal forests. Systems of concentrated felling were introduced

in some of these forests during the first quarter of this century,

primarily in response to the increasing demand for construction timber,

railway sleepers, etc. This was, however, restricted to easily

accessible areas and where natural regeneration cuuld be relied upon

for restocking. In the course of time improved accessibility enabled

the extension of those systems and selective felling was mostly adopted

in less accessible areas. The need to ensure the protection of steep

slopes coupled with techno-economic corstraints in undertaking

intensive working have led to the continuation of the system in many

areas. Table 9 gives examples of divisions where selective felling is

still in vogue.

Table 9

Selective Felling in Moist ,DeciduoLs2 Forest:3

Uttar Pradesh

Bihar

Orissa

State

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Andhra Pradesh

- 47 -

Division Species

Dehr Dun

Haldwani Mainly Sal

Ramnagar

Sa r anda Sal

Chambaran

Palmau Sal and other

species

Kalahandi Sal and other

Angul associates

Rairakhol etc.

Bastar Teak and Sal

South Chanda Teak

Adilabad Teak

Ballampalli

- 47 -

In Hoist Deciduous Forests

Al though the system of clear felling and artificial regeneration in the moist deciduous forest dates from the 1850's, this was on a small scale and. selective removal continued to be the main system applied to both

teak and sal forests. Systems of concentrated felling were introduced

in some of these forests during the first quarter of this century ,

primarily in response to the increasing demand for construction timber,

railway sleepers, etc. This was, however, restricted to easily

accessible areas and where natural regeneration cuuld be relied upon

for restocking. In the course of time improved access! bility enabled the extension of those systems and selective felling was mostly adopted

in less accessi ble areas. The need to ensure the protection of steep

slopes coupled wi th techno-economic constraints in undertaking

intensive working have led to the continuation of the system in many

areas. Table 9 gives examples of divisions where selective felling is

still in vogue.

Table 9

Selective Felling in Moist Deciduous Forests

State

Uttar Pradesh

Bihar

Orissa

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Andhra Pradesh

Division

Dehr Dun

Haldwani

Ramnagar

Saranda

Chambaran

Palmau

Kalahandi

Angul

Rairakhol etc.

Bastar

South Chanda

Adilabad

Ballampalli

Species

Mainly Sal

Sal

Sal and 0 th er species

Sal and other

associates

Teak a nd Sal

Teak

Teak

---------------------------------------------------------------------

- 48 -

Objectives of Management

Since the conditions under which selective felling is undertaken

in moist deciduous forests are identical to that of evergreen

forests, the objectives of management are more or less the same.

Some of the most commonly stated objectives are:

to protect the hill slopes from erosion and-conserve

moisture to regulate water supply;

to improve the condition of the crop by encouraging

regeneration of valuable species (eg. sal, teak, etc.) and

consistent with the above to obtain the maximum sustained

yield of timber (see, Singh, 1979; Maleta, 1976).

Priority given to wood production and revenue maximisation in

selection felling is dependent on the overall contribution of

selection felling areas to the total wood production and revenue

from the sector. When these objectives can be fulfilled from

areas managed under more intensive systems, the protective

function geta priority.

Yield Regulation and Felling

Here also, yield is regulated by area followed by a girth limit

check. Sometimes a further check is exercised by fixing the

number of trees that can be removed from the exploitable class

either arbitrarily or by using Smythie's safeguarding formula.

Felling cycle, exploitable girth and the number of trees harvested

per hectare for a few divisions in different states are given in

Tabl e 10.

To ensure protection of slopes from erosion, working plans

prescribe certain criteria for silvicultural availabiltiy of trees

such as:

no tree will be marked near the edge of steep slopes,

precipitous areas and on erodible and unstable hill sides;

marking should not he carried out for a width of 20 metres

on either side of water courses; and

felling of trees should not create permanent gaps in the

canopy.

- 48 -

Objectives or Management

Since the condi tions under which selective felling is undertaken in moist deciduous forests are identical to that of evergreen forests, the objectives of management are more or less the same. Some of the most commonly stated objectives are:

i) to protect the hill slopes from erosion and ·conserve moisture to regulate water supply;

ii) to improve the condition of the crop by encouraging regeneration of valuable species (eg. sal, teak, etc.) and

iii) consistent with the above to obtain the maximum sustained yield of timber (see, Singh, 1979; Maleta, 1976).

Priority given to wood production and revenue maximisation in selection felling is dependent on the overall contribution of

selection felling areas to the total wood production and revenue from the secto~ When these objectives can be fulfilled from

areas managed under more intensive systems, the protective functiol! gets priority.

Yield Regulation and Felling

Here also, yield is regulated by area followed by a girth limit chec~ Sometimes a further check is exercised by fi xing the

number of trees that can be removed from the exploi table class ei ther arbitrarily or by using Smythie's safeguarding formula. Felling cycle, exploitable girth and the number of trees harvested per hectare for a few divisions in different states are given in

. Table 10.

To ensure protection of slopes from erosion, working plans

prescribe certain cri teria for silvicultural availabil tiy of trees such as:

i) no tree will be marked near the edge of steep slopes, precipitous areas and on erodible and unstable hill sides;

ii) marking should not be carried out for a width of 20 metres on either side of water courses ; and

iii) felling of trees should not create permanent gaps in t he canopy.

- 49 -

A set of subsidiary silvicultural operations is prescribed and

thiS includes the cutting back of damaged stems, selective weeding

to free seedlings and climber cutting. In poorly stocked areas,

particularly blanks, artificial regeneration is also recommended.

Tabje 10

Moist Deciduous Forests - Selective Felling Parameters

Dehra Dun 10 Shorea robusta 120 1 tree out

(Uttar Pradesh) Dalbergia sissoo 150 of 6 explo-

Terminalia tomentosa 120 itable trees

Acacia catechu 120

Haldwani 10 Shorea robusta 150 Not fixed

(Uttar Pradesh) Bombax ceiba 180

Aucia catechu 120

Adilabad 20 Tectona grandis 120

(Andra Pradcesh) Terminalia 120

Pterocarnus marsupium 105

South Chanda 20 Tectona grandis 120

(Maharashtra) Others 135

Bhandara .20 Tectona grandis 120-

(Maharashtra) 135

Kalahandi 20 Shorea robusta 105-

(Orissa) 150

Saranda 20 Shorea robusta 135- 1 in 3 to

(Bihar) 150 be felled

Felling

Division cycle Exploitable girth Selection

(yrs) (in ams at bh.) number

for different species

- 49 -

A 'set of subsidiary silvicultural operations is prescribed and

this includes the cutting back of damaged stems, selective weeding to free seedlings and climber cutting. In poorly stocked areas, Particularly blanks, arti .ficial regeneration is also recommended. ,

Table 10

Moist Deciduous Forests ~ Selective Felling Parameters

Division Felling cycle (yrs)

Exploitable girth (in ems at bh.)

for different species

Selection number

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dehra Dun (Uttar Pradesh)

Hal dw ani (Ut tar Pradesh)

Adilabad (Andra Pradcesh)

South Chanda (Maharashtra)

Bhandara (Maharashtra)

Kalahandi (Orissa)

Saranda (Bihar)

10

10

20

20

. 20

20

20

Shorea robusta Dalbergia sissoo Terminalia tomentosa Acacia catechu

Shorea robusta Bombax ceiba Acacia catechu

Tectona grandis Terminalia tomentosa Pterocarpus marsupium

Tectona grandis Others

Tectona grandis

Shore a robusta

Shorea robusta

120

150 120 120

150 180

120

120

120 105

120 135

120-

135

105-

150

135-150

1 tree out of 6 explo­itable trees

Not fixed

n

n

n

n

1 in 3 to be felled

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

- 50 -

Critical Evaluation

Implementation of various prescriptions, however, tends to be

rather tardy. Whether felling will be actually undertaken or not

depends on the importance of the area in relation to the overall

sectoral objectives, particularly, wood production and revenue

realisation. Cost of selection working is very high and is a

major factor that influences the intensity of felling and other

operations. The following extreme situations are met with.

I) Yield from selective felling does not significantly enhance income

and wood output. This is particularly the case when the same

product can be obtained more economically from other forests

worked under more intensive systems. Often it may not be possible

to get contractors to work such areas. In such situations

selective felling may not be taken up at all or carried out only

in comparatively easily accessible areas (eg. selection coupes in

Saranda Division in Bihar).

ii) The other extreme situation involves intensive working of easily

accessible areas ignoring selection principles. Ultimately the

area may be completely transferred to other working circles for

intensive working10.

There are no instances where selective felling has been employed

to realise a sustained yield from moist deciduous forests.

Regeneration of valuable species is poor and gaps created during

felling seldom get regenerated. Fire is a major factor impeding

regeneration. Gap planting is technically feasible, but

institutional and financial constraints prevent its widespread

adoption.. Probably it is cheaper to undertake intensive

regeneration operations under systems of concentrated working. On

the whole the system as applied to moist deciduous forests is a

passing phase.

10In many divisions forests originally worked under selective

felling have been included under Shelterwood Working Circle or

Plantation Working Circle (eg. Chanda in Maharashtra and Wynad in

Kerala).

- 50 -

Critical Evaluation

Implementation of various prescriptions, however, tends to be rather tardy. Whether felling will be actually undertaken or not depends on the importance of the area in relation to the overall

sectoral objectives, particularly, wood production and revenue realisation. Cost of selection working is very high and is a

major factor that :influencES the intensity of felling and other operations. The following extreme situations are met with.

i) Yield from selective felling does not significantly enhance income and wood output. This is particularly the case when the same product can be obtained more economically from other forests worked under more intensive systems. Often it may not be possible to get contractors to work such areas. In such situations selective felling may not be taken up at all or carried out only in comparatively easily accessible areas (eg. selection coupes in Saranda Division in Bihar).

ii) The other extreme si tua tion invol ves intensive working of easily accessible areas ignoring selection principles. Ultimately the

area may be completely transferred to other working circles for,

intensive working 10.

There are no instances where selective felling has been employed to realise a sustained yield from moist deciduous forests. Regeneration of valuable species is poor and gaps created during felling seldom get regenerated. Fire is, a major factor impeding regeneration. Gap planting is technically feasible, but

institutional and financial constraints prevent its widespread adoption. Probably it is cheaper to undertake intensive regeneration operations under systems of concentrated working. On the whole the system as applied to moist deciduous forests is a passing phase.

lOIn many divisions forests originally worked under selective felling have been included under Shel terwood Working Circle or Plantation Working Circle (eg. Chanda in Maharashtra and Wynad in Kerala) .

- 51 -

JaLEXtraPliQA of Bamboos

Traditionally bamboo is used for a variety of household and

agricultural purposes and is regarded as a poor mants timber. Also it

finds extensive use in cottage industries like mat and basket weaving.

Bamboo is one of the most important cellulosic materials and accounts

for about 65 percent of fibrous raw material used by the paper

industry. Annual output of bamboo is estimated as about 3.23 million

tonnes of which about 2 million tonnes are used by the pulp and paper

industry (Varmah and Bahadur, 1980). Primarily it occurs in the moist

and dry deciduous forests. Bambusa arundinacea and Dendrocalamus

atrictus are the most important species. Cephalostachyium pergracile.

Dendrocalamus hamiltonii and OchlandrA spp. are also important locally.

Until the pulp and paper industry began to use bamboo as a raw

material, it was considered as a minor forest product and worked under

the minor forest product working circle. Management was limited to

regulating the felling. In regeneration areas, bamboo was treated as a

weed and was removed regularly to facilitate the growth of favoured

species like teak and sal. This being the case, some of Uae pulp and

paper units could get long term concessions for collection of bamboos

at nominal prices. The system of management adopted for bamboo working

is known as culm selection-cum-clump improvement (Krishnaswamy, 1957).

Objectives of ManagemenI

Regulating felling is still the foremost objective of bamboo

management. Working plans do however prescribe other objectives

also, such as improvement and augmentation of growing stock

through appropriate silvicultural treatments.

YielALBegulation and FelliDg

All bamboo areas intended for working are included in a working

circle, which most often overlaps with other working circles. The

felling cycle adopted varies from 3 to 4 years and based on this

yield is regulated by area. Important rules prescribed to prevent

overfelling are given below:

i) No working is permitted from April to October".

11Culms grow during June to August and this prescription is aimed

to prevent damage to the growing culms.

- 51 -

In Extraction or Bamboos

Traditionally bamboo is used for a variety of household and agricultural purposes and is regarded as a poor man's timber. Also it finds extensive use in cottage industries like mat and basket weaving. Bamboo is one of the most important cellulosic materials and accounts for about 65 percent of fibrous raw material used by the paper industry. Annual output of bamboo is estimated as about 3.23 million tonnes of which about 2 million tonnes are used by tne pulp and paper industry (Varmah and Bahadur, 1980). Primarily it occurs in the moist and dry deciduous forests. Bambusa arundinacea and Dendrocalamus atrj ctus are the most important species. Cephalostachyium pergracil e, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii and Qchlandra sp~ are also important locally.

Until the pulp and paper industry began to use bamboo as a raw material, it was considered as a minor forest product and worked under the minor forest product working circle. Management was limi ted to regulating the felling. In regeneration areas, bamboo was treated as a weed and was removed regularly to facili tate the growth of favoured

species like teak and sal. This being the case, some of the pulp and paper units could get long term concessions for collection of bamboos

at nominal prices. The system of management adopted for bamboo working Is "known as culm selection-cum-clump improvement (Krishnaswamy, 1957).

Objectives or KanaMment

Regulating felling is still the foremost objective of bamboo management. Working plans do however prescribe other objectives also, such as improvement and augmentation of growing stock through appropriate sil vicul tural treatments.

Yield RegulatiOn and Felling

All bamboo areas intended for working are included in a working circle, which most often overlaps with other working circles. The felling cycle adopted varies from 3 to 4 years and based on this

yield is regulated by area. Important rules prescribed to prevent

overfelling are given below:

i) No working is permitted from April to October11 •

l1ClIlms grow during June to August and this prescription is aimed to prevent damage to the growing culms.

- 52-

In each clump all new culms (less than one year old) and 6 to

8 mature culm (over 1 year old) should be retained.

Clumps containing less than 8 culms should not be worked.

Cutting should be carried out between 15 to 45 cm above

ground, leaving one internode.

y) In the case of flowered clumps, complete felling is permitted

only after seeding is completed.

In some states bamboo forests have been leased out to pulp and

paper units and extraction is undertaken by the lessees through

contractors. The scattered nature of the work renders effective

supervision difficult and felling rules are often violated.

Bamboo clumps located in easily accessiblle areas are often clear

felled, while those in inaccessible locations are not worked at

all. This coupled with fire, grazing and such other biotic

factors, has led to the decline of bamboo resources in most

states. Yields from successive felling have shown a declining

trend12. . A felling cycle - of 3 to 4 years is too short to

enable the clump to recover from felling damage (Prasad and

Gadgil, 1981). Bamboo plantations have been raised in some states

in response to the growing industrial and other demand.

In Extraction of Sandal

-Sandal (.antalum lrnì) is primarily found in the dry deciduous forests

of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is one of the oldest known sources of

perfume material and was declared a royal tree long before the concept

of reservation of forests came into practice. Oil extracted from the

heartwood is an important ingredient in the manufacture of perfumes,

medicines and toilet soaps. Sandalwood forms an important source of

revenue to the Karnataka and Tamil Nadu forest departments.

Yield Regulation and Felling

Yield is regulated by area. A felling cycle of 6 years was being

followed earlier in most divisions. On account of the high

mortality due to spike diseases, this has been reduced to 3 years

(Joseph, 1970). Within the annual coupe, removal is limited to

dead trees only.

12Yield per hectare on a three year work.:ng cycle varies from 2 to

5 tonnes.

- 52 -

11) In each clump all new culms (less than one year old) and 6 to

8 mature culm (over 1 year old) should be retained.

111) Clumps containing less than 8 culms should not be worked.

1v) Cutting should be carried out between 15 to 45 cm above ground, leaving one internode.

v) In the case of flowered clumps, complete felling is permitted only after seed1ng is completed.

In some states bamboo forests have been leased out to pulp and paper units and extraction is undertaken by the lessees through

contractors. The scattered nature of the work renders effective supervision difficult and felling rules are often violated. Bamboo clumps located in easily acce:>siblle areas are often clear felled, while those in inaccessible locations are not worked at all. This coupled with fire, grazing and such other biotic factors, has led to the dec11ne of bamboo resources in most states. Yields from successive felling have shown a declining trend12• A felling cycle - of 3 to 4 years is too short to enable the clump to recover from felling damage (Prasad and

Gadgil, 1981). Bamboo plantations have been raised in some states in response to the growing industrial and other demand.

In Extraction of Sandal

' Sandal (Santalum album) is primarily found in the dry deciduous forests of Karnataka and Tami! Nadu. It is one of the oldest known sources of

perfume material and was declared a royal tree long before the concept of reservation of forests came into practice. Oil extracted from the heartwood is an important ingredient in the manufacture of perfumes, medicines and toilet soaps. Sandalwood forms an important source of revenue to the Karna taka and Tamil Nadu forest departments.

Yield Regulation and Felling

Yield is regulated by area. A felling cycle of 6 years was being followed earlier in most divisions. On account of the high

mortality due to spike diseases, this has been reduced to 3 years (Jose ph, 1970). Wi thin the annual coupe, removal is Hmi ted to dead trees only.

12Yield per hectare on a three year wor~ng cycle varies from 2 to

5 tonnes.

- 53 -

Extraction is carried out departmentally. Trees are uprooted,

billeted and after rough cleaning, transported to forest

department depots. After removal of sapwood, heartwood is

classified on the basis of the size and portion of the tree from

where it is obtained13. Disposal is through open auctions

held at periodic intevals.

Regeneration

Natural regeneration occurs profuse3.y, but, establishment is poor

on account of fire and grazing. The spike disease is a major

threat and no remedial measures have yet been identified. The

disease is spreading rapidly even to areas which were thought to

be free from it. Unscientific extraction and illicit removal have

also contributed to the depletion of sandalwood especially in

states like Karnataka14. The technique of artificial

regeneration has been more or less perfected and the total area

under sandal wood plantations in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala

is about 31160 hectares. Unless spike disease is controlled, the

sandal resource will soon be more or less completely depeleted.

In Extraction of other Species

Khair (Acacia eatechu) and Salai (Boswellia serrata) are two important

species selectively extracted from the dry deciduous forests. Khair

occurs as a seral formation on the river banks (Champion and Seth,

1968) in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Gujarat. The

heartwood of Khair is used for the extraction of Catechin (Katha) and

Catechu tannic acid (Cutch). Catechu is an important commercial

product used in dyeing and as a preservative agent and its chief

industrial use is for dyeing cotton and silk and for calico printing.

Katha is an indispensable ingredient in the preparation of chewing pan.

It has a number of medicinal properties and is used as an astringent

and digestive (FRI & Colleges, 1 972).

All Khair areas are included under the Khair overlapping working

circle. Yield is regulated in the first instance by area. A felling

cycle of 20 to 30 years is adopted. A further check is exercised by

prescribing a girth limit, which varies from 35 to 45 cms. No

silviculture], operations are carried out to encourage natural

regeneration.

13About 18 classes have been recognised in trade. Oil content of

the roots is very high and consequently they fetch a very high '

price.

litIn some avisions the growing stock has come down by 50 percent

during the last three decades (Adkoli, 1977).

- 53 -

Extraction is carried out departmentally. Trees are uprooted,

billeted and after rough cl eaning, transported to forest department depots. After removal of sapwood, heartwood is classified on the basis of the size and portion of the tree from where it is obtained13. Disposal is through open auctions

held at periodic intevals.

Regeneration

Na tural regeneration occurs profusely, but, establishment is poor on account of fire and gr azing. The spike disease is a major threat and no remedial measures have yet been identified. The

disease is spreading rapidly even to areas which were thought to be free from it. Unscientific ext raction and illici t removal have also contributed to the depletion of sandalwood especially in

states like Karnataka 14• The technique of artificial regeneration has been more or less perfected and the total area

under zandal wood plantations in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala is about 3460 hectares. Unless spike disease is controlled, the sandal resource will soon be more or less completely depeleted.

In Extraction of other Species

Khair (Acacia catechu) and Salai (Boswellia serrata) are two important species selectivel y extracted from the dry deciduous forests. Khair occurs as a seral formation on the river banks (Champion and Seth, 1968) in Uttar Pradesh, Biha r, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Gujara~ The heartwood of Khair is used for the extraction of Catechin (Katha) and Catechu tannic acid (Cut ch). Catechu is an important commercial product used in qyeing and as a preservative agent and its chief industrial use is for dyeing cotton and silk and for calico printing. Katha is an indispensable ingredient in the preparation of chewing pan. It has a number of medicinal properties and is used as an astringent

and digestive (FRI & Colleges, 1972).

All Khair areas are included under the Khair overlapping working

circle. Yield is regulated in the first instance by area. A felling cycle of 20 to 30 years is adopted. A further check is exercised by

prescribing a girth limit, which varies from 35 to 45 cms. No silvicultural operations are carried out to encourage natural regeneration.

13About 18 classes have been recognised in trade. the roots is very high and consequently they fetch price.

Oil content of a very high

14In some -'1visions the growing stock has come down by 50 percent during the last three decades (Adkoii, 1977).

- 54 -

Salai (Boswellia serrata) is used primarily for the production of

packing cases. It is also used as cellulosic raw material in the pulp

and paper industry. Forests with salai are included under the salai

overlapping working circle. As in the case of other species, yield is

regulated by area following a felling cycle of 20 to 30 years.

Selection girth is fixed at 90 to 105 ems. Regeneration is entirely

left, to nature.

Selective felling as a method of working mixed forests has mainly evolved

in response to the urban and industrial demand for selected species.

Extraction of commercially utilisable/valuable species is the primary

objective. Two broad types of selective felling can be identified namely,

(1) that undertaken in the initial stages and which will be replaced in a

planned manner by more intensive systems in response to techno-economic

changes and (2) that attempted as a regular method of working. In the

first case improved accessibility and better utilisation of species lead to

a more or less planned shift in the management system. The second type of

selective felling also tends to change, largely due to unanticipated

dysgenic effects. When natural regeneration is insufficient and removal

exceeds increment, degradation sets in. Data on growing stock, increment,

removal, regeneration, etc., although essential to regulate yield are not

readily available and the process of degradation is often imperceptible.

Two alternatives available are (1) to exclude the area from the purview of

timber production forestry or (2) to introduce intensive management systems

like clear felling and planting. With the growing pressure on land, the

second alternative has been adopted in many areas.

Selective felling is generally species-oriented and thus completely

neglects the complex ecological status of the forests. This has been one

of the main factors contributing to the failure of regeneration. The

future of natural management of the mixed forests generally in the context

of failure of natural regeneration is discussed in the concluding section.

- 54 -

Salai (Boswellia serrata) is used primarily for the production of packing cases. It is also used as cellulosic raw material in the pulp and paper industry. Forests with salai are included under the salai overlapping working circle. As ·in the case of other species, yield is regulated by area following a felling cycle of 20 to 30 years. Selection girth is fixed at 90 to 105 cms. Regeneration is entirely left to nature.

. CONCLUSIQB

Selective felling as a method of working mixed forests has mainly evolved in response to the urban and industrial demand for selected speCies. Extraction of commercially utilisable/valuable species is the primary objective. Two broad types of selective felling can be identified namely, (1) that undertaken in the initial stages and which will be replaced in a

planned manner by more intensive systems in response to techno-economic changes and (2) that attempted as a regular method of working. In the first case improved accessibility and better utilisation of species lead to a more or less planned shift in the management system. The second type of selective felling also tends to change, largely due to unanticipated

dysgenic effects. When natural regeneration is insufficient and removal exceeds increment, degradation sets in. Data on growing stock, increment, removal, regenel'ation, etc., although essential to regulate yield are not readily available and the process of degradation is often imperceptible. Two alternatives available are (1) to exclude the area from the purview of timber production forestry or (2) to introduce intensive management systems like clear felling and planting. With the growing pressure on land, the second alternative has been adopted in many areas.

Selective felling is generally species-oriented and thus completely neglects the complex ecological status of the forests. This has been one of the main factors contributing to the failure of regeneration. The

future of natural management of the mixed forests generally in the context of failure of na tural regeneration is discussed in the concluding section.

- 55 -

SHK.TERWOOD SYSTEMS

Failure of regeneration coupled with the need for intensive exploi tation of

valuable forests led to the search for an alternative management system.

Success with the she-lterwood system in Europe led to its introduction to India

during the first quarter of this century.

The period commencing from 1 910 is in fact one in which remarkable changes

occurred in silviculture and management. Knowledge of the silvicultural

practices in Europe was primarily responsible for this (Troup, 1916).

Stebbing summarises the changes as follows "Having passed the whole of his

service in managing forest areas under the so called Selection System by the

equally so called Improvement fellings, which, as is now very thoroughly

realised, did little more than remove the marketable individuals of a few

species from the mixed crop - to such a man, the mere mention of the fact that

areas are managed under concentrated regeneration fellings, by taungya or

otherwise; under the uniform or shelterwood conpartment system either by

natural regeneration or by artificial work; or by combinations of this method

with strips or groups; under coppice or coppice with standard would convey

little. With the fixed ideas engendered during a life's work carried out on

the one basis it would prove difficult to visualise the present great advance,

to appreciate that at the present day w-ork on as high a plane as anything on

the continent of Europe is to be seen in India" (Stebbing, 1926, p.1110).

Stebbing however hastens to qualify that these methods have been applied to a

very small proportion of the forest area.

Under the shelterwood systems, felling of the overwood is regulated to provide

favourable conditions for recruitment and establishment of regeneration. A

number of variants under the broad category of the shelterwood system exist.

The two most commonly adopted in India are:

The Indian irregular shelterwood system and

The Uniform System

Their salient features are discussed below.

Indian Irregular Shelterwood System

Due to difficulties in getting regeneration, fellings are carried out

irregularly under the floating periodic block system. Uncertainty of

regeneration has necessitated the retention of trees below a specified

girth as part of future crop. The crop so produced is irregular and in

many respects the system is very similar to the selective felling system.

Table 11 gives the regions/localities where the Indian Irregular

Shelterwood System is practised now.

- 55 -

SHELTERWOOD SYSTEMS

Failure of regeneration coupled with the need forlntensive exploitation of valuable forests led to the search for an alternative management system.

Success wi th the shel terwood system in Europe led to its introduction to India during the first quarter of this century.

The period commencing from 1910 is in fact one in which remarkable changes occurred in silviculture and management. Knowledge of the silvicultural practices in Europe was primarily responsible for this (Troup, 1916). Stebbing summarises the changes as follows "Having passed the whole of his service in managing ,forest areas under the ~ called Selection System by the equally so called Improvement fellings, which, as is now very thoroughly

realised, did little more than remove the marketable individuals of a few species from the mixed crop - to such a man, the mere mention of the fact tha t areas are managed under concentrated regeneration fellings, by taungya or otherwise; under the uniform or 'shelterwoodconpa.rtment system either by

natural regeneration or by artificial work; or b)- combinations of this method , with strips or groups; under coppice or coppice with standard would convey little. With the fixed ideas engendered during a life's work carried out on ' the one basis it would prove difficult to visualise the present great advance, to appreciate that at the present day work on as high a plane as anything on the continent of Europe is to be seen in India" (Stebbing, 1926, p.410). Stebbing however hastens to qualify that these methods have been , applied to a very small proportion of the forest are~

Under the shel terwood systems, felling of the overwood is regulated to provide favourable conditions for recruitment and establishment of regeneration. A number of variants under the broad category of the shelterwood system exist. The two most commonly adopted in India are:

1) The Indian irregular shel terwood system and 2) The Uniform System

The! I' salient fea tures are discussed below.

Indian Irregular Shelterwood System

Due to difficulties in getting regeneration, fellings are carried out irregularly under the floating periodic block system. Uncertainty of regeneration has necessitated the retention of trees below a specified girth as part of future cro~ The crop so produced is irregular and in

. many respects the system is very similar to the selective felling system. Table 11 gives the regions/localities where the Indian Irregular

Shelterwood System is practised now .

_La bl e 11

AlpPlication of Indian_ Irregular Shelterwood System

Forest Type Region/Locality

----------------------------------------- -------------------------

Tropical evergreen forest Andaman Islands, Assam and

Arunachal Pradesh

Moist deciduouS forest Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun,

Ramnagar, Ealdwani) Andamans

The Andaman Islands

In the Andaman Islands timber extraction commenced in 1857 when the

first settlement was established. Initially meeting the wood

req,uirements of the settlement was the primary concern of forest

exploitation. For a very long time the demand was limited to three

sfecies, namely padauk (Pterocarous daDerg.oides) gurjan

(Dinterocarous spp.) and white chuglam (Ierm nalia manii). Selective

felling was in vogue Lill the 1950s. Although the technique of

regeneration under the Andaman canopy lifting shelterwood system - a

variant of the Indian irregular shelterw000d system - was perfected

about two decades back, it could not, for a variety of reasons be put

into practice. Growth of the plywood industry, enhanced utilisation of

species not in favour for a long time and improved accessibility have

now facilitated the adoption of the Andaman canopy lifting system.

This system is applied to both the evergreen and moist deciduous

forests. Plywood and match industries form the most important wood

based industries in the islands15. Although there is large scale

migration, settlements are primarily confined to the South Andamans and

on the whole the forests are not subjected to severe biotic pressures

as in the mainland. Demand from the plywood industry seems to be the

most important factor influencing forest management in the islands.

15Total quantity of timber extracted in the Islands during 1982-83 was'about 143000 of which about 78000 m was utilised by the plywood and

match industries (Forest Dept" 1983).

- 56 -

Table 11

Application of r"di'llL Irregular Shelterwood system

--------------------------------_ .. _-----... _ ... ---...... -------------------Regi on/Lccali ty

-------------------------------------------------------------------Tropical evergreen forest

Moist deciduou's forest

Andaman Islands, Assam and &"unachal Pradesh

Ottar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Ramcagar, Hdmlani) Andamans

---------------------------------------------------------------~----

The Andaman Islands

In the Andaman Islands timber extraction com",enced in 1857 when the first set.tlement was established. Initially meeting the wood requirements of the settlement was the pl'imary concern of forest exploi tatioo. For a very long time the demand wa.s limited to three speCies, namely padauk (Pterocarous daDergioides) gurj an (Dipterocarous spp.) and whi te chuglam (Terminalia manU). Selective

felling was in vogue till the 19505. AI though the technique of regeneration under the Andaman canopy lifting shelterwood system - a variant of the Indian irregular shel terwoood system - was perfected about two decades back, it could not, for a variety of reasons be put into practi Ca. Grow th of the plywood industry, enhanced utilisa tion of speCies not in favour for a long time and improved accessibility have now facilitated the adoption of the Andaman canopy lifting system. This system is applied to both the evergreen and moist deciduous forests. Plywood and matcll industries form the most important wood based industries in the islands 15• AI though there is large scale migration, settlements are primarily confined to the South Andamans and on the whole the forests are not subjected to severe biotic pressures as in the mainland. Demand from the plywood industry seems to be the most important factor influenoing forest management in the is:ands •

. 15Total quanti ty of timber extra.ctad in the Islands during 1982-83 was about 143000 of :lhich about 78000 m was utilised by the plywood and · match industries (Forest Dept., 1983).

- 57 -

lagIALIgEN1Ation and Felling

Important objectives of managment are (i) conversion of the

irregular forest into a normal forest and (ii) realisation of the

ma)d.mum yield of timber (Sharma, 1979). A rotation of 100 years

is prescribed, but the area of annual coupe is worked out using a

conversion period of 75 years to ensure that mature and overmature

trees are removed quickly. The system of floating periodic blocks

is adopted. Area identified for harvesting and regeneration

during the tenure of a working plan is allottted to P'B I. PB I

usually comprises of areas which contain advance growth and mature

and overmature trees. Here the working plan period is taken as

the regeneration period16. All the other areas are grouped as PB

unallotted.

Yield is regulated by a combination of area, volume and number.

Working in a year is confined to the annual coupe. The total

volume of trees in the exploitable class is estimated by carrying

out a 10 percent partial enumeration. Taking into account market

demand, exploitable girth is fixed as follows.

Commercial Hardwoods - 150 cm

Sof twood - 120 cm

2. Non-commercial - 180 cm

From the total volume estimated, annual availability is

calculated. A further check is exercised by limiting extraction

to 15 trees per hectare. To ensure that removal does not exceed

the prescribed volume, the cumulative volume is worked out as the

marking progresses and as soon as the prescribed yield or area is

reached marking is stopped. Importa.nt marking rules prescribed

for working PB 1 areas are as follows.

trees marked for felling should as far as possible be evenly

spaced;

no felling should be carried out on steep slopes if sufficient

advance growth is not available;

1 6Area to be allotted to PB I is directly proportional to the plan period

and is derived as A x P where A = total area allotted to the circle,

P = plan period and C = conversion period (75 years).

- 5 7 -

Yield Regulation and Felling

Important objectives of managment are (i) conversion of the irregular forest into a normal forest and (ii) realisation of the maximum yield of timber (Sharma, 1979). A rotation of 100 years is prescribed, but the area of annual coupe is worked out using a conversion period of 75 years to ensure that mature and overmature trees are removed quickly. The system of floating periodic blocks is adopted. Area identified for harvesting and regeneration during the tenure of a working plan is allottted to PlB I. PB I usually comprises of areas which contain advance grow th and mature and overmature trees. Here the working plan period is taken as

the regeneration period16• All the other areas are grouped as PB

unallotted.

Yield is regulated by a combination of area, volume and number. Working in a year is confined to the annual coupe. The total volume of trees in the exploitable class is estimated by carrying

out a 1 0 p~rcent partial enumeration. Taking into account market demand, exploitable girth is fixed as .follows.

1.

2.

Commercial Hardwoods Softwood

Non-commercial

150 cm 120 cm 180 cm

From the total volume estimated, annual availability is calculated. A further check is exercised by limiting extraction to 15 trees per hectare. To ensure that removal does not exceed the prescribed VOlume, the cumulative volume is worked out as the marking progresses and as soon as the prescribed yield or area is reached mar king is stopped. Important marking rules prescribed for worki ng PB I areas a r e as follow s.

i) trees marked for felling should as far as possible be evenly spaced ;

ii) no felling should be carried out on steep slopes if sufficient advance growth is not available;

16Area to be allotted to PB I is directly proportional to the plan period and is derived as A x P where A = total area allotted to the circle,

C P = plan period and C = conversion period (75 years).

- 58 -

no tree occurring in blanks with deficient regeneration

should be felled;

where regeneration is insufficient, at least 10 sound healthy

trees of commercial species will be retained per hectare as

seed trees; and

no felling will be carried out for a width of 40 metres on

either side of large streams.

Rules for felling are, however, not always adhered to, both in the

coupes worked departmentally and by lessees directly17. Felling

damage is high and the whole ca.nopy gets opened. Soil in the

islands is extremely fragile and consequently erosion is a serious

probl em.

Regeneration

Natural regeneration is generally satisfactory and a series of

operations, spread over the first three years immediately

following harvesting is carried out to facilitate establishment.

All sound trees of commercial species below the prescribed

exploitable girth are retained as advance growth and will form

part of future crop. The main operations carried out are given in

table 12.

17All the four major industrial units in the Islands have obtained

long term harvesting leases extending over 10 years.

- 58 -

iii) no tree occurring in blanks with deficient regeneration

should be felled;

iv) where regeneration is insufficient, at least 10 sound heal thy trees of commercial species will be retained per hectare as

seed trees; and

v) no felling will be carried out for a width of 40 metres on

ei ther side of large streams.

Rules for felling are, however, not always adhered to, both in the coupes worked departmentally and by lessees directly 17. Felling damage is high and the whole canopy gets opened. Soil in the

Islands is extremely fragile and consequently erosion is a serious problem.

Regeneration

Natural regeneration is generally satisfactory and a series of operations, spread over the first three years immediately

following harvesting is carried out to facilitate establishment. All sound trees of commercial species below the prescribed

exploi table girth are retained as advance grow th and will form

part of future crop. The main operations carried out are given in table 12.

17 All the four major industrial units in the Islands have obtained long term ~arvesting leases extending over 10 years.

- 59 -

Table 12

_Andaman Canopy Lifting S'ystem - Regeneration Operations

Year Month Operations

1 March - April (1) Completion of timber extraction

October (2) Brushwood cutting (3) Felling of under-

growth and poles up to a height of 10 metres

Girdling of trees between 10 to 20 metres

2 April - May (1) Broadcast sowing of seeds of commercial

species if natural seeding is considered

inadequate

(2) Weeding

September (3) Climber cutting and weeding

(4) Girdling of understorey trees to permit

more light

3 March - April (1) Weeding

September (2) Final felling and girdlin,g of unwanted

trees

Weeding

Natural regeneration of Dipterocarpus spp. is found to be

satisfactory. Although timber extraction leaves the canopy more

or less completely open, weed growth is not very dense as in other

evergreen forest regions in the country18. If weed growth is kept

under check during the first one or two years, the light demanding

species especially Dipterocarous spp. are able to grow

sufficiently tall to establish.

Light crown thinnings have been prescribed at the 6th, 15th, 30th

and 50th years. In an uneven aged crop comprising adva.nce growth

of young saplings and poles, thinning becomes an extremely

complicated operation and generally tends to be neglected.

18The dense forest cover does not permit the growth of weeds.

Absence of biotic pressures and the ecological conditions peculiar

to the islands are important factors responsible for poor weed growth.

- 59 -

Table 12

Andaman Canopy Lifting System - Regeneration Operations

Year Month Operations

------------------------------------------------------------------------------1

2

3

March - April October

April - May

September

March - April September

(1) Completion of timber extraction (2) Brushwood cutting (3) Felling of under­growth and poles up to a height of 10 metres (4) Girdling of trees between 10 to 20 metres

(1) Broadcast sowing of seeds of commercial species if natural seeding is considered inadequate (2) Weeding

(3) Climber cutting and weeding (4) Girdling of under storey trees to permit more light

(1) Weeding (2) Final felling and girdling of unwanted trees (3) Weeding

Natural regeneration of Dipf;erocarpus spp. is found to be satisfactory. Although timber extraction leaves the canopy more or less completely open, weed grow th is not very dense as in other evergreen forest regions in the country18. If weed growth is kept under check during the first one or two years, the light demanding species especially Dipterocarpus spp. are able to grow sufficiently tall to establish.

Light crown thinnings have been prescribed at the 6th, 15th, 30th and 50th years. In an uneven aged crop comprising advance growth .of young saplings and poles, thinning becomes an extremely complicated operation and generally tends to be neglecte~

18The dense forest cover does not permit the growth of weeds. Absence of biotic pressures and the ecological conditions peculiar

to the islands are important factors responsible for poor weed growth.

- 60 -

Evaluation

Growing industrial demand is the main factor influencing the

management of the forests in the Andaman Islands. Nothing can be

said about the sustainability of wood production under the present

system of management as no area has yet been worked for the second

cycle. However, it is pointed out the yield is expected to

decline during the second cycle and may be far less than that

obtained during the initial phase of conversion.

No attempt has yet been made to assess the environmental effects

of heavy fellings in the evergreen forests. As noted the soil is

extremely fragile and highly erodible. The change in composition

and its long term impacts have also yet to be studied.

In essence, the Andaman canopy lifting system is an intensive

selective felling and the canopy gets opened up completely. The

intensity and scale of fellings have increased during the last few

decades, but regeneration operations have not changed since they

were perfected in the 1930's. The question whether the present

management system will be able to fulfill the multifarious

objectives is difficult to answer.

Assam and Arunchal Pradesh

In the North Eastern region (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,

Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Mizoram) reserved forests account for a

very small proportion of the total forest area. Most of the forest is

under tribal control and subject to shifting cultivation.

The Upper Assam forests were initially utilised for production of

railwa,y sleepers and have been under systematic management since the

1930s. With the growth of plywood industry in the region19, management

is primarily directed at meeting the raw material requirements of the

industry (KFRI, 1978). For management purposes the Upper Assam

divisions20 have been constituted into two working circles, namely (1)

Hollong - Makai regeneration Working Circle and (2) Hollong plantation

working circle. The former consists of good unworked evergreen forests

and is managed partly under the irregular shelterwood system and partly

under selective felling. The most important objective of management of

forests included under the Hollong - Makai regeneration working circle

is to supply veneer logs to the plywood industry.

19Assam accounts for about 55 percent of the installed capacity of

plywood industry in the country,

20Important forest divisions aare Digboi, Doom dooma and Dibrugarh.

- 60 -

. Evaluation

Growing industrial demand is the main factor influencing the management of the forests in the Andaman Islands. Nothing can be

said about the sustainabllity of wood production under the present system of management as no area has yet been worked for the second cycle. However, it is pointed out the yield is expected to decline during the second cycle and may be far less than that obtained during the initial phase of conversion.

No attempt has yet been made to assess the environmental effects of heavy fellings in the evergreen forests. As noted the soil is extremely fragile and highly erodi ble. The change in composi tion

and its long te rm impacts have also yet to be studied.

In essence, the Andaman canopy lifting system is an intensive selective felling and the canopy gets opened up completely. The intensity and scale of fellings have increased during the last few decades, but regeneration operations have not changed since they were perfected in the 1930's. The question whether the present management system will be able to fulfill the mul tifarious

objectives is difficult to answer.

Assaa and ArUnchal fradesh

In the North Eastern region (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mao1pur, Tripura and Mizoram) reserved forests account for a very small proportion of the total forest area. Most of the forest is under tri bal control and subject to shifting cul tiva tion.

The Upper Assam forests were initially utilised for production of railway sleepers and have been under systematic management since the

1930s. With the growth of plywood industry in the region19, management is primarily directed at meeting the raw material requirements of the industry (KFRI, 1978). For management purposes the Upper Assam divisions20 have been constituted into two working circles, namely (1)

Hollong - Makai regeneration Working Circle and (2) Hollong plantation working circle. The former consists of good unworked evergreen forests

and is managed partly under the irregular shel terw ood system and partly under selective felling. The most important objective of management of forests included under the Hollong - Makai regeneration liorking circle is to supply veneer logs to the plywood industry.

19Assam accounts for about 55 percent of the installed capacity of plywood industry in the country,

20Important forest divisions aare Digboi, Doom dooma and Dibrugarh.

Yield Regulation and Fellings

In the current working plan (Das, 1974) the rotation has been

reduced from 120 years to 84 years while the regeneration period

haz been .reduced from 20 to 12 years. Each felling series is

divided into "PB allotted", comprising the area taken up for

felling and regeneration during the plan period and "PB

unallotted". PB allotted consists of areas with advance growth

and mature and overmature trees.

Yield is prescribed for the whole felling series and is obtained

from (1) PB I areas by way of regeneration fellings and (2) PB

unallotted areas through selective fellings on a cycle of 12

years. In both cases yield is regulated firstly by area and

secondly by a girth limit check. In FB I areas the girth limit

adopted is 150 cms and all trees below this are retained as

advance growth and form part of the future crop. In the PB

unallotted a girth limit of 300 cm is followed. However, it is

stipulated that if trees above 300 cm are not available, the girth

limit can be lowered to 270 cm. Thus the shelterwood regeneration

felling is limited to PB I areas and about 65 percent of the

prescribed yield is obtained by selective felling in unallotted

areas.

To facilitate regeneration in FB I areas felling is aarried out in

three stages as follows:

1. Initial Stage (i) Removal of all trees above the

exploitable diameter. If advance growth

is absent stems above 180 cm girth are

retained per hectare as mother trees.

(ii) Removal of underwcod leaving sufficient

number of trees to keep down weed

growth.

2. Intermediate

- 61 -

Periodic removal of underwood and

overwood as initial stage regeneration

becomes established.

21The area of annual coupe in FB I areas is Digboi division is 340

hectares, while that worked annually under selective felling is

about 2120 hectares.

- 61 -

Yield Regulation and Fell1ngs

In the current working plan (Das, 1974) the rotation has been reduced from 120 years to 84 years while the regeneration period has been ,reduced from 20 to 12 years. Each felling series is divided into "PB allotted", comprising the area taken up for CeI li ng and regeneration' during the plan period and ·PB

unallotted". PB allotted consists of areas with advance growth and mature and overmature trees.

Yield is prescribed for the whole felling series and is obtained Crom (1) PB I areas by way of regeneration fellings and (2) PB

unallotted areas through selective fell1ngs on a cycle of 12 years. ' In both cases yield is regulated firstly by area and secondly by a girth limit check. In PB I areas the girth limit adopted is 150 cms and all trees below this are retained as

advance growth and form part of the future crop. In the PB unal l otted a girth limit of 300 cm is followed. However, it is s tipulated that if trees above 300 cm are not available, the girth limit can be lowered to 270 cm. Thus the shel terwood regeneration CeIling is limited to PB I areas and about 65 percent of the prescribed yield is obtained by selective felling in unallotted

a reas.

To facilitate regeneration in PB I areas felling is carried out in three stages as follows:

1 • Initi al Stage

2. Intermediate

(i) Removal of all trees above the exploi table diameter. If advance growth

is absent stems above 180 cm girth are retained per hectare as mother trees.

(ii) Removal of und,erwood leaving sufficient number of trees to keep down weed

gr owth.

Periodic removal of underwood and overwood as initial stage regeneration

becomes established .

21 The area of annual coupe in PB I areas is Digboi division is 340 hectares, while that worked annually under selective felling i s about 2120 hectares.

3. Final Stage Removal of underwood and overwood except

those retained as part of the future

crop.

- 62 -

For the purpose of felling, PB coupes are categorised as well

stocked,medium stocked and poorly stocked22 and felling is

prescribed to be carried out in such a way as not to create a

permanent gap in the canopy. Profuse weed growth, especially of

Bichania. sp. is a serious problem in the Upper Assam regiom

Drastic openings are soon covered by weed growth, totally

smothering regeneration.,

Iggeneration

In PB I areas there is complete reliance on natural. regeneration.

Further, all Hollong and Makai trees below 150 cm girth are

retained as advance grow th. Prescriptions aimed to promote

regeneration are given below:

All marked trees not felled during main fellings are felled

or girdled;

Damaged seedlings are coppiced;

Advance growth will be freed and thinning will be carried out

in congested groups of poles;

Weeding and climber cuttings are to be carried out for three

consecutive years after main fellings. After the third year

weeding will be done every alternate year and climber cutting

once in three years till the 9th year.

Where regeneration is deficient artificial planting should be

done in strips by transplanting seedlings of 60 cm and up at

a spacing of 50 x 50 cm.

22This grouping is based on the sto(!king of large trees above

150cm gbh, If there are 15 or more large trees the area is

considered as well stocked. If it is less than 8 it is

understocked. Medium stocked includes ¿reas with 815 large trees

per acre.

3. Final Stage

- 62 -

Removal of underwood and overwood except those retained as part of the future crop.

For the purpose of felling, PB ' I coupes are ca tegorised as well stocked, medium stocked and poorly stocked22 and felling is prescribed to be carried out in such a way as not to create a

permanent gap in the canopy. Profuse weed growth, especially of Michania- sp. is a serious problem in the Upper Assam region. Drastic openings are soon covered by weed growth, totally smothering regeneratiOn.

Regeneration

In PB I areas there is complete reliance on na tural regeneration. Further, all Hollong and Makai trees below 150 cm girth are retained as advance grow th. Prescriptions aimed to promote regener-ation are given below:

i) All marked trees not felled during main fellings are felled or girdled;

ii) Damaged seedlings are coppiced;

iU) Advance growth will be freed and thinning will be carried out in congested groups of poles;

iv) Weeding and climber cuttings are to be carried out for three consecutive years after main fellings. After the third year

weeding will be done every alternate year and climber cutting once in three years till the 9th year. •

v) Where regeneration is deficient artificial planting should be done in strips by transplanting seedlings of 60 cm and up at a spacing of 50 x 50 cm.

22This grouping is based on the stocking of large trees above 150cm gbh. If there are 15 or more large trees the area is considered as well stocked. If it is less than 8 it is understocked. Medium stocked includes areas with 8-15 large trees per acre.

- 63 -

Failure of regeneration in areas worked previously has

necessitated artificial regeneration. Degraded forests and blanks

have been constituted into a Hollong Plantation Working Circle

with the objective of converting these into plantations of hollong

and makai on a rotation of 145 years23. PB I areas are

olearfelled, retaining as advanced growth all hollong and makai

trees below 100 cm girth and all miscellaneous species below 140 cm

girth and sowing is done in lines at 5 metres apart in worked

soil. As in the case of PB unallotted in the regeneration working

circle, PB unallotted in the plantation working circle is also

subjected to a selective felling on a 15 year cycle.

Evaluation

Management of the Upper Assam evergreen forests is primarily

dictated by the growing demand from the plywood industry.

Rotation, regeneration period, exploitable girth, etc. have been

revised periodically to enhance immediate wood supply.

Implementation of regeneration prescriptions has been far from

satisfactory. Consequently, most of the forests in the region are

in a depleted condition and increasingly the plywood industry has

to rely upon resources available from states like Arunachal

Pradesh and Nagaland.

Dr as ti c opening of the canopy under th e irregular sh el te ood

system has not facilitated the establishment of regeneration.

Although the predominance of hollong and makai in the top canopy

is highly conducive for profuse seeding, establishment is hampered

by weed growth. Failure of natural regeneration has necessitated

the adoption of artificial regeneration. The purpose of

introducing shelterwood system seems to have been not fulfilled.

23In his plan for Digboi division Das allocated to Hollong

Plantation Working Circle an area of 200714 hectares. That

allotted to Hollong Makai regenertion circle is 32765 hectares.

24For example in Arunachal Pradesh the total forest area is

estimated as 51 500 km2. But the area under reserved forest is

only 8070 km2. In Nagaland reserved forests account for only 12

percent of the total forest area.

- 63 -

Failure of regeneration in areas worked previously has

necessitated artificial regeneration. Degraded forests and blanks

have been constituted into a Hollong Plantation Working Circle

with the objective of converting these into plantations of hollong

and makai on a rotation of 45 years23 ' PB I areas are clearfelled, retaining as advanced grow th all hollong and makai trees below 100 cm girth and all miscellaneous species below 40 cm

girth and sowing is done in lines at 5 metres apart in worked

soil. As in the case of PB unallotted in the regeneration working

circle, PB unallotted in the plantation working circle is also

subjected to a selective felling on a 15 year cycle.

EvaluatioQ

Management of the Upper Assam evergreen forests is primarily

dictated by the growing demand from the plywood industry.

Rota ti on, regenerati on period, exploi table gi rth, etc. have been

revised periodically to enhance immediate wood supply.

Implementation of regeneration prescriptions has been far from

satisfactory. Consequently, most of the forests in the region are

in a depleted condition and increasingly the plywood industry has

to rely upon resources available from states like Arunachal

Pradesh and Nagaland.

Drastic opening of the canopy under the irregular shel terwood

system has not facili tated the establishment of regeneration.

Al though the predominance of hollong and makai in the top canopy is highly conducive for profuse seeding, establishment is hampered

by weed growth. Failure of natural regeneration has necessitated

the adoption of artificial regeneration. The purpose of

introducing shelterwood system seems to have been not fulfilled.

23In his plan for Digboi division Das allocated to Hollong

Plantation Working Circle an area of 20074 hectares. That

allotted to Hollong Makai regenertion circle is 32765 hectares.

24For example in Arunachal Pradesh the total forest area is estimated as 51500 km2• But the area under reserved forest is

only 8070 km2• In Nagaland reserved forests account for only 12 percent of the total forest area.

- 64 -

Forest management in other North Eastern states, especially

Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Meghalaya is more complicated.

Most of the forests are under tribal ownership and the extent of

reserved forest is very low224. Shifting cultivation is rampant

and consequently forests are in a highly degraded condition.

Rapid growth of the plywood industry coupled with depletion of

forests in Assam has necessitated the tapping of forests in these

states. No scientific management exists in areas outside the

reserved forests. There is considerable unauthorised fellii _;,

under the pretext of shifting cultivation, and most of the veneer

logs are purchased by plywood units in Assam.

Sal Forests of Uttar Pradesh

The irregular shelterwood system is followed in Sal forests in Ramnagar

and Haldwani divisions and to some extent in Dehra Dun division also25.

Due to difficulties in getting regeneration, uniform openings cannot be

made and often large trees are retained as part of future crop. In

Dehra Dun the rotation followed is 120 years with a regeneration period

of 20 years, while in Ramnagar and Haldwani divisions it is 150 years

and 30 years respectively. In the latter divisions floating periodic

blocks are adopted in view of the uncertainty regarding establishment

of regeneration. In Dehra Dun periodic blocks were fixed; but with

failure of regeneration, it has become necesary to adopt a floating

periodic block system.

Yield Regulation

For the purpose of yield regulation, PB I area is divided into (i)

areas with woody but unestablished regeneration and (ii) areas

with deficient regeneration. Yield is prescribed only with

respect to areas belonging to the first category and is regulated

by a combination of area and volume checks. Annual volume yield

is established as:

Y 7. V + (I x 0,5) where Y annual yield

V Volume of growing stock above 120 cm girth

P = Regeneration period

I ::: Increment put .on during P

As in the case of Upper Assam forests, a selective felling is

carried out in the PB unallotted in Haldwani and Ramnagar

divisions.

- 64 -

Forest management in other North Eastern states, especially

Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Meghalaya is more complicate~

Most of the forests are under tribal ownership and the extent of

reserved forest is very 10w 24. Shifting cuI tivation is rampant and conseq uently forests are in a highly degraded condi tion.

Rapid growth of the plywood industry coupled with depletion of

forests in Assam has necessitated the tapping of forests in these

states. No scientific management exists in areas outside the

reserved forests. There is considerable unauthorised fellil .>, under the pretext of shifting cultivation, and most of the veneer

logs are purchased by plywood units in Assam.

Sal Forests of Ottar Pradesh

The irregul ar shelterwood system is followed in Sal forests in Ramnagar

and Haldwani divisions and to some extent in Dehra Dun division als025.

Due to difficul ties in getting regeneration, uniform openings cannot be

made and often large trees are retained as part of future crop. In

Dehra Dun the rotation followed is 120 years with a regeneration period

of 20 years, while in Ramnagar and Haldwani divisions it is 150 years

and 30 years respectively. In the latter divisions floating periodic

blocks are adopted in view of the uncertainty regarding establishment

of regeneration. In Dehra Dun periodiC blocks were fixed; but with

failure of regeneration, it has become necesary to adopt a floating

periodic block system.

Yield Regulation

For the purpose of yield regulation, PB I area is divided into (i)

areas with woody but unestablished regeneration and (ii) areas

with deficient regeneration. Yield is prescribed only with

respect to areas belonging to the first category and is regulated

by a combination of area and volume checks. Annual volume yield

is established as:

y = V ± (I X Q.5) where Y = annual yield P V Volume of growing stock above 120 =

P = Regeneration period

I = Increment put ·on during P

As in the case of Upper Assam forests, a selective felling is carried out in the PB unallotted in Haldwani and Ramnagar

divisions.

cm girth

- 65 -

25The system followed in the case of Dehra Dun is described as

conversion to uniform system in the working plan. But strictly

speaking, what is followed is Irregular Shelterwood System (Singh,

1979).

..B.ggeneratioU

A set of rules for felling and regeneration is prescribed

depending upon the status of regeneration. Where regeneration is

deficient, only dead, dry and diseased trees in the canopy are to

be removed. Where regeneration is present, but not established,

more light will be permitted by removing the under storey trees.

Complete overwood will be removed in areas where regeneration is

well established. In Ramnagar and Haldwani divisions all healthy

and well grown sal trees up to 120 cm girth are retained as part

of the future crop.

In category (ii) areas the main objective is to induce natural

regeneration through intensive cultural operations. Canopy

manipulation involves the removal of all dead, dry and diseased

trees and felling of mature and overmature trees is carried out

where canopy is very dense. Shrub cutting, burning, soil working,

fencing, etc. are some of the important operations for getting Ag

novo regeneration. Since the introduction of the shelterwood

system, forest managers have been making earnest efforts to

regenerate the felled areas, and the techniques for de novo

regeneration have almost reached a stage just short of planting.

However, in most of the areas regeneration continues to be an

intractable problem (Sen, 1965; Anon, 1967; Srivastava, 1969).

Consequently, planting of nursery grown seedlings or sowing is

being resorted to.

Evalu.ation

No doubt the irregular shelterwood system has played an important

role in enhancing wood production in the short run. However, its

long term sustainability is undermined due to failure of natural

regeneration. Regeneration of species like sal has been one of

the major focus of research in Indian forestry, but so far no

reliable techniques have been developed. Thus, like the selective

felling system, the irregular shelterwood system also seems to be

destined to be replaced. In the case of the former, regeneration

was almost neglected, while in the case of latter, efforts were

made, but did not succeed.

- 65 -

25.The system f'ollowed in the case of' Dehra Dun is described as

conversion to unif'orm system in the working plan. But strictly speaking, what is f'ollowed is Irregular Shel terwood System (Singh,

1979) •

Regeneration

A set of' rules for felling and regeneration is prescribed depending upon the status of regeneration. Where regeneration is

def'icient, only dead, dry and diseased trees in the canopy are to be removed. Where regeneration is present, but not established, more light will be permitted by removing the under storey trees. Complete overwood will be removed in areas where regeneration is

well established. In Ramnagar and Haldwani divisions all healthy and well grown sal trees up to 120 cm girth are retained as part of' the future crop.

In category (11) areas the main objective is to induce natural regeneration through intensive cultural operations. Canopy manipulation involves the removal of all dead, dry and diseased trees and felling of' mature and overmature trees is carried out

where canopy is very dense. Shrub cutting, burning, soil· working, f'encing, etc. are some of the important operations for getting ~

ll!U:Q. regeneration. Since the introduction of the shel terwood system, f'orest managers have been making earnest efforts to regenerate the f'elled areas, and the techniques for ~ llQYQ

regeneration have almost reached a stage just short of' planting. However, in most of the areas regeneration continues to be an

intractable problem (Sen, 1965; Anon, 1967; Srivastava, 1969). Consequently, planting of' nursery grown seedlings or sowing is being resorted to.

EvaluatioQ

No doubt the irregular shel terwood system has played an important role in enhancing wood production in the short run. However, its long term sustainabili ty is undermined due to f'ailure of na tural regeneration. Regeneration of' species like sal has been one of' the maj or focus of research in Indian forestry, but so far no reliable techniques have been developed. Thus, like the selective f'el l i ng system, the irregular shelterwood system also seems to be des t ined to be replaced. In the case of the f'ormer, regeneration

was almost neglected, while in the case of latter, ef'forts were made, but did not succeed.

- 66 -

Uniform Syntpm.

The Uniform System is adopted in the moist deciduous forests with a

preponderance of high value species like teak an sal. Management of these

forests is geared to meet the national and regional demand, especially for

defence, railways, general construction, etc. Application of the system

involves the creation of uniform openings in successive felllngs and is

usually followed where regeneration is satisfactory. Often all overwood is

removed in one clearfelling operation and the area gets restocked by

natural regeneration. The true uniform system in which successive fellings

are carried over a number of years and regeneration is gradually nurtured

to the established stage is not in vogue in any of the mixed tropical

forests in India. What working plans describe as uniform systems are in

fact close to the clearfelling system in most respects. Table 13 gives

examples of the so called uniform system.

14121.e 13

Practice of Uniform System in India

1.31 1s1 itg atj a It clia

Yield regulated by area with a volume check. Rotation, regeneration

period, etc. adopted for the two principal species in different divisions

are given in table 14.

State Division Species

Uttar Pradesh Dehra Dun Sal

Bihar Saranda Sal

Madhya pradesh Raipur Sal

Hoshangabad Teak

Mahar ash tr a Allappalli Teak

- 66 -

UQifOnB System .

The Uniform System is adopted in the moist deciduous forests with a preponderance of high value species like teak ana sal. Management of these

forests is geared to meet the na tional and regional demand, especially for defence, railways, general construction, etc. Application of · the system

involves the creation of uniform openings in successive fellings and is usually followed where regeneration is satisfactory. Often all overwood is removed in one clearfelling operation and the area gets restocked by natural regeneration. The true uniform system in which successive fellings are carried over a number of years and regeneration is gradually nurtured

to the established stage is not in vogue in any of the mixed tropical forests in India. ·What working plans describe as uniform systems are in fact close to the clearfelling system in most respects. Table 13 gives examples of the so called uniform system.

Table 13

Practice of Uniform System in India

State Division Species

Ut tar Pradesh Dehra Dun Sal Bihar Saranda Sal Madhya pradesh Raipur Sal

Hoshangabad Teak Maharashtra Allappalli Teak

Yield ReguI aUo1;l

Yield regulated by area with a volume check. Rotation, regeneration period, etc. adopted for the two principal species in different divisions are g1 ven in tabl e 14.

- 6 7 -

Table 14

Uniform System - Rotation and Regeneration Period

The system of fixed periodic blocks is followed and areas earmarked for

felling and regeneration are included in PB L In addition to area check a

volume check is also exercised for yield regulation. In Saranda, yield is

prescribed in volume units and marking for felling is stopped as soon as

the prescribed area of volume is reached.

Regeneration

In sal forests worked under uniform system, there is complete reliance on

natural regeneration. Intensity of felling in the overwood depends on the

status of regeneration. Where regeneration is abundant, existing growth is

completely removed (eg. Saranda). However, groups of poles are often

retained as future crop26. In South Raipur (Madhya Pradesh) the annual

coupe is thoroughly perambulated and a regeneration map is prepared. Where

established regeneration is present, clearfelling is carried out, while in

areas where regeneration has not established, some of the suppressed and

dominated trees are retained to control weed growth. Steep slopes and

eroded areas are not clearfelled. To promote regeneration a number of

subsidiary silvicultural operations are prescribed. This includes

cleaning, climber cutting and thinning.

26In Dehra Dun all trees up to 90 cm girth are retained as advance growth.

Division Species Rotation

(in years)

Regeneration

period (in years)

Saranda Sal 120 20

Dehara Dun ,Sal 120 20

Raipur . Sal 180 20

Hoshangabad Teak 120 20

Betul Teak 100 20

Allappalli Teak 100 20

Division

Saranda

Dehara Dun

RaipW'

Hoshangabad

Betul

Allappalli

- 67 -

Table 14

Uniform System - Rotgtion and Regeneration Period

Species

Sal

Sal

Sal

Teak

Teak

Teak

Rotation (in years)

120

120

180

120

100

100

Regeneration period (in years)

20 20

20 20

20

20

The system of fixed periodic blocks ·is followed and areas earmarked for

felling and regeneration are included in PE L In addi tion to area check a

volume check is also exercised for yield regulation. In Saranda, yield is

prescribed in volume units and ·marking for felling is stopped as soon as

the prescribed area of volume is reached.

RegeneratiOQ

In sal fores ts worked under uniform system, there is complete reliance on

natural regeneration. IntenSity of felling in the overwood depends on the status of regeneration. Where regeneration is abundant, existing grow th is

completely removed (eg. Saranda). However, groups of poles are often

retained as future crop26. In South RaipW' (Madhya Pradesh ) the annual

coupe is thoroughly perambulated and a regeneration map is prepared. Where

established regeneration is present, clearfelling is carried out, while in

areas where regeneration has not established, some of the suppressed and

dominated trees are retained to control weed growth. Steep slopes and

eroded areas are not clearfelled. To promote regeneration a number of

subsidiary sil vicul tural operations are prescribed. This includes

cleaning, climber cutting and thinning.

26 In Dehra Dun all trees up to 90 cm girth are retained as advance growth.

- 68 -

Silvicultural treatments are prescribed for other periodic blocks also.

Treatments in unconverted areas aim at encouraging regeneration and often a

light crown thinning is prescribed. In regenerated blocks weeding,

thinning and tending are prescribed. In Saranda climber cutting is done

for the first five years after the main felling. At the 5th year a

preliminary thinning is carried out during which all injured, unhealthy and

malformed stems are cut back. At the 10th year a systematic thinning is

carried out to a spacing of 2.4 x 2.4 m. The second thinning i. carried

out at the 20th year and subsequent thinnings are carried out at 20 year

cycles.

In teak areas there is much less dependence on natural regeneration (Dubey,

1967). Where it occurs, advance growth is retained. In other areas

artificial regeneration through stump planting is the standard technique

and the overwood is clearfelled in one operation.

igvaluation

The so called uniform system has been consistently applied to some of the

good teak and sal forests in the country managed to produce large sized

timber. Since the process of conversion to a normal forest has not yet

been completed, no indication can be given on the outcome of past

management. The system may continue to be adopted where natural

regeneration is abundant, and pressure from alternative uses is negligible.

Where natural regeneration is difficult, artificial regeneration becomes

essential. High investment necessary for artificial regeneration compels a

reduction of rotation. This seems to be the case in most of the teak

areas. In sal areas the more profitable teak is being planted.

Cot/elusion

Shelterwood systems have been introduced primarily in the valuable

evergreen and moist deciduous forest and the main objective of management

continues to be the production of large sized timber. Both irregular

shelterwood and uniform systems are oriented towards one or a few species.

Where the system has been in vogue for a long time and regeneration is not

a problem, there is unlikely to be any change. In the case of evergreen

forests in the North Eastern Region and Andamans, management is primarily

aimed to supply veneer logs so that developments in the plywood industry

have a direct bearing on management_ Rapid development of the industry in

the Assam region has led to instability in management due to frequent

changes in rotation, negeneration period, etc. and it is evident that the

system is not capable of fulfilling the protection and production

objectives.

- 68 -

Sllvicultural treatments are prescribed for other periodic blocks also.

Treatments in unconverted areas aim at encouraging regeneration and often a light crown thinning is prescribed. In regenerated blocks weeding, thinning and tending are prescribed. 11) Saranda climber cutting is done for the first five years after the main felling. At the 5th year a

preliminary thinning is carried out during which all injured, unhealthy and malformed stems are cut back. At the 10th year a systematic thinning is

carried out to a spacing of 2.4 x 2.4 m. The second thinning i~ carried out at the 20th year and subsequent thinnings are carried out at 20 year cycles.

In teak areas there is much less dependence on natural regeneration (Dubey, 1967). Where it occurs, advance growth is retained. In other areas artificial regeneration through stump planting is the standard technique and the overwood is clearfelled in one operatio~

Eyaluation

The so called uniform system has been consistently applied to some of the

good teak and sal forests in the country managed to produce large sized timber. Since the process of conversion to a normal forest has not yet been completed, no indication can be given on the outcome of past

management. The system may continue to be adopted where natural regeneration is abundant, and pressure from alternative uses is negligible.

Where natural regeneration is difficult, artificial regeneration becomes essential. High investment necessary for artificial regeneration compels a reduction of rotatio~ This seems to be the case in most of the teak areas. In sal areas the more profitable teak is being planted.

Conclusion

Shel terwood systems have been introduced primarily in the valuable evergreen and moist deciduous forest and the main objective of management continues to be the production of laz:ge sized timber. Both irregular

shel terwood and uniform systems are oriented towards one or a few species. Where the system has been in vogue for a long time and regeneration is not a problem, there is unlikely to be any change. In the case of evergreen forests in the North Eastern Region and Andamans, management is primarily aimed to supply veneer logs so that developments in the plywood industry have a direct bearing on management. Rapid development of the industry in the Assam region has led to instabili ty in management due to frequent

changes in rotation, regeneration period, etc. and it is evident that the system is not capable of fulfilling the protection and production objectives •.

- 69 -

In the case of sal, the end product is not specifically aimed at a

particular industry, and substitutes are available. Consequently increase

in demand has not led to an appreciable change in the management. These

forests are also not subjected to serious biotic. pressures and as long as

natural regeneration is satisfactory, there will not be any serious

compulsion to switch over to other systems.

Teak forests managed under uniform system face slightly different

conditions. Here natural regeneration is patchy and uncertain. Rather

than manipulating felling to promote natural regeneration, it is much

easier to resort to artificial regeneration. Thus in most teak areas

natural regeneration is not being relied upon. With the increasing

possibility of getting good prices for smell sized logs and the need to

take economic feasibility into account, the rotation for teak has been

reduced considerably.

MEELO SYSTEMS

Management under coppiee systems also relies upon natural regeneration.

However, unlike other systems where regeneration is primarily of seed origin,

coppice systems, as the name indicates depend on shoots emerging from the cut

stumps. Variants of the system are widely applied, especially to the dry

deciduous forests and plantations of species like eucalypt.

Applisation of Coppice Sy_seteeqs:

Conditions under which coppice systems are adopted are as follows:

When the objective of management is production of firewood and

small timber coppice systems are more appropriate.

Coppicing ability is another important consideration in adopting

the system and it cannot be followed in the case of species, which

are poor coppicers. With increasing age, coppicing ability

declines and this necessitates the adopting of a shorter rotation

One of the main advantages of coppice systems is the low

investment requirements. Returns are generally quicker than highforest systems and this seems to be an important reason for their

widespread application.

The systems are highly flexible and a number of objectives can be

incorporated. Thus, production of large sized timber can be

achieved by retaining standards and soil and water conservation

objectives can be fulfilled by reservation of areas and

reservation of trees.

- 69 -

In the case of sal, the end product is not specifically aimed at a

particular industry, and substi tutes are av.ailable. Consequently increase in demand has not led to an appreciable change in the management. These forests are also not subjected to serious biotic pressures and as long as natural regeneration is satisfactory, there will not be any serious compulsion to switch over to either systems.

Teak forests managed under uniform system face slightly different conditions. Here natural regeneration is patchy and uncertain. Rath er than manipulating felling to promote natural regeneration, it is much easier to resort to artificial regeneratiOn. Thus in most teak areas natural regeneration is not being relied upon. With the increasing possibili ty of getting good prices for small sized logs and the need to take economic feasibility into account, the rotation for teak has been reduced considerably.

COPPICE SYSTEMS

Management under coppice systems also relies upon natural regeneration. However, unlike other systems where regeneration is primarily of seed origin; coppice systems, as the name indicates depend on shoots emerging from the cut stumps. Variants of the system are widely applied, especially to the dry

deciduous forests and plantations of species like eucalypt.

Application of C9Ppice Systems:

Condi tions under which coppice systems are adopted are as follow s:

i) When the objective of management is produ·ction of firewood and small timber coppice systems are more appropriate.

ii) Coppicing ability is another important consideration in adopting the system and it cannot be followed in the case of speCies, which are poor coppicers. With increasing age, coppicing abili ty declines and this necessi tates the adopting of a shorter rotation.

i11) One of the main advantages of coppice systems is the low

investment requirements. Returns are generally quicker than high forest systems and this seems to be an important reason for their widespread appli ca ti on.

iv) The systems are highly flexible and a number of objectives can be incorporated. Thus, production of large sized timber can be

achieved by retaining standards and soil and water conservation objectives can be fulfilled by reservation of areas and reservation of trees.

Ulnae COpptoe Systems

The system is being followed in the dry deciduous forests of Tamil Nadu

which are worked primarily for production of firewood. Alzo simple coppice.

system is adopted in the case of eucalypt plantations throughout the

country for the first three rotations after artificial regeneration.,

- 70 -

Important variants and their application are given in table 15.

Table 1'5

Application of Coppice Systeaa

System Forest Type States

1. Simple Coppice Dry deciduous forests Tamil Nadu

Eucalypt plantations All States

2. Coppice with standard Dry deciduous forests

and moist deciduous

forests

Bihar, Orissa,

Andhra Pradesh,

Madhya Pradesh,

Uttar Pradesh

3. Coppice with reserves Dry deciduous forests Madhya Pradesh,

Maharashtra,

Uttar Pradesh,

Orissa

- 70 -

Important variants and their application are-given in table 15.

Table 15 Appl1 ca ti QILQf. Coppi ce Systems

----~-------------------------------------------------------------------------System Forest Type States

----------~-------------------------------------------------------------------1. Simple Coppice Dry deciduous forests Tami! Nadu

Eucalypt plantations All States

2. Coppice with standard Dry deciduous forests Bihar, Orissa, and moist deciduous Andhra Pradesh, forests Madhya Pradesh,

Ottar Pradesh

3. Coppice with reserves Dry deciduous forests Madhya Pradesh, Maharash tr a, Ottar Pradesh, Oris sa

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

rumple Copo1ce Syste.ws

The system is being followed in the dry deCiduous forests of Tamil Nadu which are worked primarily for production of firewood. Also simple coppice _

system is adopted in the case of eucalypt plantations throughout the country for the first three rotations after artificial regeneration.

- 71 -

Yield Regulation

Yield is regulated by area. Usually the rotation followed varies from 30

to 40 years for fuel working. After demarcating the annual coupes, the

entire tree growth is felled either departmentally or by purchasers.

Felling operations should be completed before the commencement of the

growing season. After felling the area is closed to grazing and protected

from fire. Cleaning, involving removal of excess coppice shoots, climber

cutting, etc. is prescribed.

Regeneration

Since the coppice shoots grow quickly, no weeding is usually required.

Over time, however, coppicing vigour declines and mortality of stumps tends

to increase. If protected from fire, grazing and other factors, the

seedling regeneration that comes up does help to compensate for stump

mortality. Most of the coppice forests however, are subjected to severe

biotic pressures and consequently seedling regeneration is absent. With

increasing stump mortality, degradation sets in over time. On account of

this Tamil Nadu has temporarily suspended the felling of fuel coupes.

Coppim with Standards (CWS) Syste,at

The coppice with standard (CWS) system involves the retention of a fixed

number of overwood trees, mostly of seedling origin, and extracted on a

rotation which is usually a mulitple of the coppice rotation. A forest

worked under the CWS system thus has two tiers, an upper one consisting of

the standards usually producing timber, and a lower tier primarily aimed at

the production of firewood and small timber. The standards also protect

the coppice crop from adverse climatic factors and form a source of seeds

for restocking the area and thus help to overcome the decline in

productivity due to stump mortality.

The main objective of management is production of firewood and small

timber. CWS is one of the most widely adopted systems in the country.

Most of the coppice forests are located close to habitations and are

burdened with rights27.

27This is particularly the case of the former zamindari forests which vested

with the government under the enactment of land reform acts. They have been

constituted as protected forests and the local people continue to enjoy

certain rights.

- 71 -

Yield Regulation

Yield is regulated by area. Usually the rotatiqn f'ollowed varies f'rom 30 to 40 years f'or f'uel working. After demarcating the annual coupes, the . entire tree growth is felled ei ther departmentally or by purchasers. Felling operations should be completed bef'ore the commencement of' the grow ing season. After f'elling the area is closed to grazing and protected from f'ire. Cleaning, involving removal of' excess coppice shoots, climber cutting, etc. is prescribed.

Regeneration

Since the coppice shoots grow quickly, no weeding is usually required. Over time, however, coppicing vigour declines and mortality of' stumps tends

to increase. If' protected f'rom fire, grazing and other f'actors, the seedling regeneration that comes up does help to compensate f'or stump mortality. Most of the coppice f'orests however, are subjected to severe

biotic pressures and consequently seedling regeneration is absent. With increasing stump mortality, degradation se ts in over time. On account of' this Tamil Nadu has temporarily suspended the felling of' f'uel coupes.

CoppJ.ce with Standards (CWS) Svstea

The coppice with standard (CW S) system involves the retention of a f'ixed number of' overwood trees, mostly of' seedling origin, and extracted on a rotation which is usually a mulitple of the coppice rotation. A forest worked under the CWS system thus has two tiers, an upper one consisting of' the standards usually producing timber, and a lower tier primarily aimed at the production of f'irewood and small timbe~ The standards also protect the coppice crop from adverse climatic factors and f'orm a source of' seeds f'or restocking the area and thus help to overcome the decline in productivity due to stump mortality.

The main objective of' management is production of' f'irewood and small timber. CWS is one of the most widely adopted systems in the country. Most of' the coppice forests are located close to habitations and are burdened with rights27•

27 . This is particularly the case of' the f'ormer z amindari f'orests which vested

with the government under the enactment of land ref'orm acts. They have been constituted as protectp<j forests and the local people continue to enjoy certain rights.

- 72 -

Yield is regulated by area. The rotation varies from 30 to 60 years and is

fixed taking into account the condition of the crop and the extent of local

demand. Where stocking is good and demand is low, usually a longer

rotation of 60 years is adopted28. The rotation of the standards is

usually a multiple of the coppice rotation and usually they are retained

for two coppice cycles29. The number of standards retained and the

preferred diameter class also vary between different categories of areas

(eg. Dhalbhum Division Bihar) as given in Table 16.

Table 16

Compice with Standards System in Bihar

Category

No. of stds. Preferred

per hectare diameter

Characteristi cs Rotation class (cm)

A Good soil -

Low biotic pressure 60 20-30 20-25

Deteriorated soil -

High biotic pressure 40 30-40 15-20

Highly deteriorated and

eroded soil. Very high 30 40-50 10-15

biotic pressure.

Marking rules indicate details regarding the retention of standards. Apart

fromthe standards, all fruit bearing trees like Mahua (Madhuca indica)

Mango (Mangifera indica), Amla (Emblica officinales) and Bahera (Terminalia

bellirica) are also retained. The total number of trees retained in a

coupe as standards and reserved trees should not exceed 50 in the case of

category A and B areas and 62 in the case of category C areas.

28The condition of the crop is directly related to the demand; where demand

is high a large quantity of wcod is removed, often unauthorisedly, and this

is an important factor in the deterioration of the condition of the crop.

29Where demand is very high, the standards seldom reach the prescribed

rotation.

- 72 -

Yield Regulation and Felling

Yield is regulated by area. The rotation varies from 30 to 60 years and is fixed taking into account the condi tion of the crop and the extent of local

demand. Where stocking is good and demand is low, usually a longer

rotation of 60 years is adopted28• The rotation of the standards is

usually a mu! tiple of the coppice rotation and usually they are retained

for two coppice cycles29• The number of standards retained and the

preferred diameter class also vary between different categorie& of areas

(eg. Dhalbhum Division - Bihar) as given in Table 16.

Category

A

B

C

Table 16

Coppi ce with Standards System in Bi har

Characteris ti cs

Good soil -

Low biotic pressure

Deteriorated soil -High biotic pressure

Highly deteriorated and eroded soil. Very high

biotic pressure.

Rotation

60

40

30

No. of stds.

per hectare

20-30

30-40

40-50

Preferred

diameter class (cm)

20-25

15-20

10-15

Marking rules indicate details regarding the retention of standards. Apart from the standards, all frui t bearing trees like Mahua (Madhuca indica)

Mango (Mangifera indica), Amla (Emblica officinales) and Bahera (Terminalia

bellirica) are also retained. The total number of trees retained in a

coupe as standards and reserved trees should not exceed 50 in the case of

ca tegory 'A and B areas and 62 in the case of category C areas.

28The condition of the crop is directly related to the demand; where demand

i s high a large quantity of wood is removed, often unauthorisedly, and this

is an important factor in the deterioration of the condi tion of the crop.

29Where dem'and is very high, the standards seldom reach the prescribed

rota tion .

- 73 -

After demarcating the annual coupe, a portion is set aside to meet the

traditional rights or nistar. In Bihar the coupe is divided into four

sections. To begin with, one section is opened to right holders to collect

the material required by thera on the basis of the recorded rights. If all

the requirements of right holders could not be met from the first section,

wood collection is permitted from the second section also. The residual

material available from the right holder's sections plus the unworked

section, leaving the standards and reserved trees, is sold in open auction

and removed by contractors30. With the introduction of state trading,

felling and transport is undertaken either by the department or by the

forest development corporations who finally sell the material from the

depots. Yield per hectare varies from 10 m3 to 25 m3, depending upon the

condition of the crop which is primarily dependent on biotic pressures. In

most cases, there is a declining trend in yield between successive rotation&

Regeneration

After felling a number of subsidiary silvicultural operations is undertaken

to promote coppice regeneration.

These include:

dressing down stumps higher than 15 cm above ground 1 evel ,

coppicing of damaged trees,

tending of seedlings by climber cutting, weeding etc.,

cutting back of malformed seedlings and reducing coppice

shoots to 2 to 3 per stump,

y) soil working in unproductive blanks and sowing of seeds of

sal and other valuable species and

vi) strict fire protection.

In Bihar thinning is carried out as per the cycle given in table 17.

30A major portion of the firewood so sold goes to meet the urban demand.

Sometimes firewood is transported for a distance of over 1000 km.

- 73 -

After demarcating the annual coupe, a portion is set aside to meet the

traditional rights or nistar. In Bihar the coupe is divided into four sections. To' begin wi th, one section is opened to right holders to collect the material required by them on the basis of the recorded rights. If all the requirements of right holders could not be met from the first section, wood collection is permitted from the second section also. The residual material available from the right holder's sections plus the unworked section, leaving the standards and reserved trees, is sold in open auction and removed by contractors30• With the introduction of state trading, felling and transport is undertaken ei ther by the department or by the forest development corporations who finally sell the material from the depots. Yield per hectare varies from 10m3 to 25 m3 , .depending upon the condition of the crop which is primarily dependent on biotic pressures. In

most cases, there is a declining trend in yield between successive rotations.

Regeneration

After felling a number of subsidiary sil vicul tural operations is undertaken to promote coppice regeneration.

These include:

i) dressing down stumps higher than 15 cm above ground level, ii) coppicing of damaged trees, 11i) tending of seedlings by climber cutting, weeding etc. , iv) cutting back of malformed seedlings and reducing coppice

shoots to 2 to 3 per stum p, v) soil working in unproductive blanks and sowing of seeds of

sal and other valuable species and vi) strict fire protection.

In Bihar thinning is carried out as per the cycle given in table 17.

30A major portion of the firewood so sold goes to meet the urban demand.

Sometimes firewood is transported for a distance of over 1000 km.

IYAluation

In theory the system is quite suitable for meeting the demand for fire wood

and small timber. Retention of standards incidentally helps seedling

regeneration, and thus to compensate for the stump mcrtality.

The system is however unable to meet the growing demand for timber and

firewood. Areas close to habitation particularly suffer from illicit

removal, and this in turn undermines the productivity of the system. In

response to the growing demand, an attempt has been made to enhance supply

by reducing the rotation. This is particularly the case for forests

adjoining villages. Reducing the rotation has,however, failed to be a

realistic solution, because already the biotic pressure on these forests is

very high and a reduction in rotation only increases the frequency of

removal and thereby the process of degradation is accelerated. Degradation

has gone to such an extent that it has become necessary to take up large

scale planting in these areas. Areas originally under CWS working circle

have been reallocated to rehabilitation or plantation working circle (Anon,

19714). In states like Orissa some effort is being made to introduce

coppice with reserve system.

- 74 -

_Table 17Thinning Cyple Un_der CWS System

Rotation Thinning Cycle(years) (years)

60 15,30,115

110 15,30

30 15

- 74 -

Table 17 Thinning Cycle Under CWS System

---------------------------------------------Rotation (years)

60 40

30

Evaluation

Thinning Cycle (years)

15,30,45 15,30 15

In theory the system is qui te sui table for meeting the demand for fire wood and small timbe~ Retention of standards incidentally helps seedling

regeneration, and thus to compensate for the stump mortality.

The system is however unable to meet the growing demand for timber and firewood. Areas close to habi ta tion particularly suffer from illici t removal, and this in turn undermines the productivity of the system. In response to the growing demand, an attempt has been made to enhance supply by reducing the rotation. This is particularly the case for forests

adjoining villages. Reducing the rotation has, how ever, failed to be a realistic solution, because already the biotic pressure on these forests is very high and a reduction in rotation only increases the fr6:juency of removal and thereby the process of degradation is accelerated. Degradation has gone to such an extent that it has become necessary to take up large

scale planting in these areas. Areas originally under CWS working circle

have been reallocated to rehabilitation or plantation working circle (Anon, 1974). In states like Orissa some effor.t is being made to introduce coppice with reserve system.

- 7 5 -

'There is nothing inherently wrong with the system. Where biotic pressures

- fire, grazing firewood collection - are not high, the system is able to

thrive well and regeneration is quite satisfactory31. In fact some of the

areas worked under coppice system in Dehra Dun has been later put under

conversion to uniform system.

Coppice with Reserve (CWR) Svstem

The coppice with reserve system has evolved in the former Central

Provinces, now consisting of portions of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.

As in the case of other coppice systems, the main objective is to produce

firewood and small timber, partly to meet the traditional rights (nistar)

and regeneration is primarily of coppice origin. One of the main

objectives of the system is prevention of site deterioration.. This is

aimed to be achieved by a combination of treatments appropriate to the

condition of the crop. Also it attempts to see that species with high

coppicing power do not form a pure crop and cause site deterioration.

Reservation thus involves the exclusion of specified areas, species and

trees above a prescribed diameter from felling. In effect it is a

combination of different elements in different systems applied to the same

coupe. The system was first introduced in 1927 by Trevor as 'modified

simple coppice'. It was later developed and improved by Datta and Sagreiya

(Tiw ari, 1968).

The system is now applied to the dry deciduous forests of Madhya Pradesh

and Maharashtra. In States like Orissa, CWR system is being introduced in

areas worked under CWS system to improve the condition of the crop and to

prevent degradation (Mahapatra, 1980). The main objectives of management

under the CWR system are,

1) to meet t.he increasing demand for small 'timber, poles and firewood, and

ii) to improve the stocking and quality of the crop by scientific

management.

31For example stoaing and regeneration in some of protected forests worked

under CWS system in Gua range in Saranda division is as good as the

adjoining areas worked under conversion to uniform system. Absence of

biotie pressures seems to be the main factor.

- 75 -

There is nothing inherently wrong wi th the system. Where biotic pressures

- fire, grazing firewood collection - are not high, the system is able to thrive well and regeneration is quite satisfactory31. In fact some of the areas worked l\nder coppice system in Dehra Dun has been later put under conversion to uniform system.

Coppice with Reserve (CWR) SysteJII

The coppice with reserve system has evol ved in the former Central

Provinces, now consisting of portions of Maharashtra and Madhya Prades~ As 1n the case of other coppice systems, the main objective is to produce firewood and small timber, partly to meet the traditional rights (nistar) and regeneration is primarily of coppice origin. One of the main

objectives of the system is prevention of site deterioration. This is aimed to be achieved by a combination of treatments appropriate to the condition of the crop. Also it attempts to see that species with high

coppicing power do not form a pure crop and cause site deterioration. Reservation thus involves the exclusion of specified areas, species and

trees above a prescribed diameter from felling. In effect it is a combination of different elements in different systems applied to the same coupe. The system was first introduced in 1927 by Trevor as 'modified simple coppice'. It was later developed and improved by Datta and Sagreiya (Tiwari, 1968).

The system is DOW applied to the dry deciduous forests of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. In States like Orissa, CWR system is being introduced in areas worked under CWS system to improve the condition of the crop and to prevent degradation (Mahapatra, 1980). The main objectives of management under the CWR system are,

1) to meet the increasing demand for small timber, poles and firewood, and

11) to improve the stocking and quali ty of the crop by scientific management.

31For example stocking and regeneration in some of protected forests worked under CWS system in Gua range in Saranda division is as good as the adjoining areas worked under conversion to uniform system. Absence of biotic pressures seems to be the main factor.

- 76 -

Yield Regulation

Yield is regulated by area. On account of the varying intensity in

felling, equal annual yield is difficult to realise. Often equiproductive

areas are demarcated to ensure equal annual yields. Rotations under CWR

system vary from 30 to 60 years and as in the case of CWS system a shorter

rotation is followed in areas where the demand for firewood is very high.

After demarcating the annual coupe, a treatment map is prepared identifying

the following types of areas.

Protection areas: No felling is carried out in these areas which

usually include understocked portions with a density of 0.4 or below,

eroded areas or areas subject to erosion and strips on either side of

water courses where retention of vegetation is essential.

Areas requiring enrichment

Areas fit for felling, and

Those fit for raising plantations.

Even in areas earmarked for felling, certain species as well as certain

trees above specified girth limits, are reserved. All species yielding

fruits and other minor forest products - eg. Madhucaindica, Emblica,

officinales, Mangifera indica, Buchnania lanzan. Diosbyros melanoxyagn,_

Syzygium cuminii, Acacia catechu, Boswellia serrata, Terminalia chebula and

Terminalia bellirica, are retained. All advance growth up to 24 cm girth

is reserved. In addition healthy trees of valuable species like Tectona

.grandis, terminalia tomentosa, Dalbergia latifolia, Gmelina arborea.

Chloroxylon swietenia are reserved to act as seed trees. Reservation of

species and trees ensures that the mixed character is not lost during

successive coppi cing.

Regenerati.ou

Although regeneration is primarily from coppice, the large number of trees

reserved ensures adequate seeding and natural restocking. To encourage

seedling and coppice regeneration, subsidiary silvicultural operations are

carried out in the year following felling. These include cleaning, cutting

back damaged stems, and climber cutting. The number of coppice shoots is

reduced to 2 or 3 per stool. Artificial regeneration is carried out in

blanks by sowing or planting. Thinning is prescribed in the case of pole

crops.

- 76 -

Yield Regulation

Yield is regulated by area. On account of the varying intensi ty in

felling, equal annual yield is difficult to realis~ Often equiproductive areas are demarcated to ensure equal annual yields. Rotations under CWR

system vary from 30 to 60 years and as in the case of CWS system a shorter rotation is followed in areas where the demand for firewood is very high.

After demarcating the annual coupe, a treatment map is prepared identifYing the follow ing types of· areas.

i) Protection areas: No felling is carried out in these areas which usually include understocked portions with a density of 0.4 or below ,

eroded ar~as or areas subject to erosion and strips on ei th"er side of water courses where retention of vegetation is essential.

ii) Areas requiring enrichment

iii) Areas fit for felling, and

iv) Those fit for rai s ing plantations.

Even in areas earmarked for felling, certain species as well as certain

trees above specified girth limits, are reserved. All species yielding fruits and other minor forest products - ego Madhuca indica, Emblica

officinales. Mangifera indica, Buchnania lanzan. Diospyros melanoxylon, Syzygium cuminii. Acacia catechu, Boswellia serrata, Termina1ia chebula and

Terminalia bellirica, are retained. All advance growth up to 24 cm girth is reserved. In addition healthy trees of valuable species like Tec tona grandis. terminalia tomentosa, Dalberg1a latifolia, Gmelina arborea.

Chloroxylon swietenia are reserved to act as seed tree~ Reservation of

species and trees ensures that the mixed character is not lost during successive coppi cing.

RegeneratioQ

Although regeneration is primarily from coppice, the large number of trees

reserved ensures adequate seeding and natural restocking. To encourage seedling and coppice regeneration, subsidi ary sil vicul tural operations are carried out in the year following felling. These include cleaning, cutting

back damaged stems, and cU.mber cut ting. The num ber of coppice shoots is reduced to 2 or 3 per stool. " Artificial regeneration is carried out in

blanks by sowing or planting. Thinning is prescribed in the case of pole crops.

- 77 -

Evaluation

The coppice with reserves system represents a unique attempt to adapt

silvicultural treatments to suit the varying conditions obtaining in a

mixed forest. The system is highly flexible and takes into account varying

site conditions.

Two factors, however, seem to affect the effectiveness of the system.

Firstly, CWR is a highly skilled intensive system requiring a good

understanding of the interaction between different species. The type of

intensive silviculture necessary is not being practised. Secondly, as in

the case of CWS system, excessive demand has led to unauthorised removal

causing serious deterioration in areas close to habitation.

Coneluzion

Coppice systems are primarily adopted in the case of the dry deciduous

forests where the main objective is the production of firewood and small

timber. Performance of the system largely depends on the socio-economic

conditions of the immediate environment. Where demand is low and biotic

pressures minimal, coppice systems do contribute significantly to the

production objective. Where biotic pressure is high, the system has been

found to be unsuitable. E.xcess removal, often unrecorded, coupled with

fire and grazing has led to degradation, and it has become necessary to

tackle these wastelands with artificial regeneration under rehabilitation

schemes.

- 77 -

Evaluation

The coppice with reserves system represents a unique attempt to adapt sllvicultural treatments to suit the varying conditions obtaining in a mixed forest. The system is highly flexible and takes into account varying

si te condi t1.ons • .

Two factors, however, seem to affect the effectiveness of the system. Firstly, CWR is a highly skilled intensive system requiring a good

understanding of the interaction · between different species. The type of intensive silviculture necessary is not being practised. Secondly, as in the case of CWS system, excessive demand has led to unauthorised removal causing serious deterioration in areas close to habitation.

Conclusion

Coppice systems are primarily adopted in the case of the dry deciduous forests where the main objective is the production of firewood and small timber. Performance of the system largely depends on the socto-economic condi tions of the immediate enVironment. Where demand is low and biotic pressures minimal, coppice systems do contribute significantly to the production objective. . Where biotic pressure is high, the system has been

found to be un sui table. Excess removal, often unrecorded, coupled with fire and grazing has led to degradation, and it has become necessary to

tackle these wastelands with artificial regeneration under rehabilitation schemes.

- 78 -

CLEARFELLING SYSTEM

The Clearfelling system has a long history in India, and it is adopted with

the objective of changing the crop composition in favour of commercially and

industrially more valuable species. Restocking of felled areas is

accomplished either naturally or artificially. Artificial regeneration is

necessary when new species are to be introduced or the composition of the crop

is to be significantly improved. Both methods of regeneration are followed in

India and the choice is determined by a number of factors. Dependence on

natural regeneration.to restock clearfelled areas is however on the decline

and is restricted to those areas, where regeneration comes up profusely.

Clearfelling is adopted in almost all states in India, with the following

objectives:

To enhance the proportion of valuable species, especially in the mixed

moist and dry deciduous forests and to improve the condition of

degraded ares (eg. planting of teak in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,

Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh. Planting of padauk

in the moist deciduous forests of Andamans, etc.).

To drastically change the crop composition by introducing species

outside their natural habitats (eg. introduction of teak to the sal

zone in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal, and eucalypt and

tropical pines in different states).

Yield Regulation and Felling

When managed on the basis of working plans, yield is regulated by area and

the extent of the annual coupe is derived on the basis of rotation and area

under the felling series. The rotation varies between species and between

regions for the same species. Table 18 gives some of the typical rotations

applied for some of the species commonly managed under clenr felling.

- 78 -

CLEARFELLING SYSTEM

The Clearfelling system has a long history in India, and it is adopted with the objective of changing the crop composition in favour of commercially and

industrially more viuuable species. Restocking of felled areas is accomplished either naturally or artificially. Artificial regeneration is

necessary when new species are to be introduced' or the composi tion of the crop is to be significantly improved. Both methods of regeneration are followed in India and the choice is , determined by a number of factors. Dependence on natural regeneraticn to restock clearfelled areas is however on the decline and is restricted to those areas, where regeneration comes up profusely .

Clearfelling is adopted in almost all states in India, with the following objectives:

i) To enhance the proportion of valuable species, especially in the mixed moist and dry deciduous forests and to improve the condition of degraded ares (eg. planting of teak in Kerala, Karna taka, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh. Planting of padauk in the moist deciduous forests of Andamans, etc.).

ii) To drastically change the crop composition by introducing species outside their natural habitats (eg. introduction of teak to the sal

zone in, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal, and eucalypt and tropical pines in different states).

Yield Regulation and Felling

When managed on the basis of working plans, yield is regulated by area and the extent of the annual coupe is derived on the basis of ' rotation and area under the felling series. The rotation varies between species and. Iletween

regions for the same species. Table 18 gives some of the typical rotations applied for some of the species cormonly managed under clear felling.

St.ate

- 79 -

Rntation for Plantations/Natural Regeneration

Division Species Rotation

(in yrs)

Kerala Nilambur Teak 55

Konni Teak 70

Maharashtra Allappalli Plain FS Teak 120

Allappalli FDC Plantation Teak* 50

Madhya Pradesh Hoshangabad Teak 80

Uttar Pradesh Haldwani Teak 50

w Sal 90

vy Sissoo and Semul 60

West Bengal Jalpaiguri Sal 80

Teak 70

All States .. Eucalypts 7 to 15

The objective of management of FDC plantations is to produce poles and small

timber and hence a low rotation of 50 years.

Although the rotation remains still very high for most of the hardwood

species, there is a trend towards reducing it. (Ghosh and Singh 1981).

Partly this depends on saleability of the produce, and a declining trend is

particularly evident in the case of high value species like teak.

Regeneration

Examples of natural restocking with clear felling are Saranda in Bihar and

Raipur in Madhya Pradesh for sal and Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh and Chanda

in Maharashtra for teak. In the case of sal forests of Sranda, regeneration

comes up profusely immediately after clear felling32. Such a situation,

however, seems to be an exception. In Saranda itself the mixed forests are

regenerated artificially with teak. In the teak areas of Madhya Pradesh and

Mararashtra dependence on natural regeneration is very partial. Compact

blocks of not less tha 0.8 hectares containing more than 750 saplings per

hectare over 1.5 metres are retained and damaged and malformed saplings are

cut back. Also poles up to 76 cm gbh are retained as advance growth. In

other areas artificial regeneration is the usual practice.

32Details have been given in Chapter 3. Strictly the system adopted in

Saranda is clearfelling with natural regeneration. But management plans refer

to this as conversion to uniform system (Rajhans, 1976).

- 79 -

Table 18

Rotation for Plantations/Natural Regeneration

------------------------------------------------------------~-----------------

State DiviSion Species RotaU.on (in yrs)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Kerala

Maharash tr a

Madhya Pradesh Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

All States

Nil am bur Konni Allappalli Plain FS

Allappalli FDC Plantation Hoshangabad Haldwani

" "

Jalpaiguri

Teak 55 Teak 70 Teak 120 Teakll 50 Teak 80 Teak 50 Sal 90 S1ssoo and Semul 60 Sal 80 Teak 70 Eucalypts 7 to 15

lithe objective of management of FDC plantations is to produce poles and small timber and hence a low rotation of 50 years.

Although the rotation remains still very high for most of the hardwood species, there i s a trend towards reducing it. (Ghosh and Singh 1981). Partly this depends on saleability of the produce, and a declining trend is

particularly evident in the case of high value species like teak.

Regeneration

Examples of mtural restocking with clear felling are Saranda in Bihar and Raipur 1n Madhya Pradesh for sal and Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh and Chanda in Mabarashtra for teak. In the case of sal forests of Sranda, regeneration comes up profusely immediately after clear felling32• Such a situ~tion, however, seems to be an exception. In Saranda itself the mixed forests are regenerated artificially with teak. In the teak areas of Madhya Pradesh and

Mararashtra dependence on natural regeneration is very partial. Compact blocks of not less tha 0.8 hectares containing more than 750 saplings per

hectare over 1.5 metres are r etained and damaged and malformed saplings are cut back. Also poles up to 76 cm gbh are retained as advance growth. In

other areas artificial regeneration i s the usual practice.

32Details have been given in Chapter 3. Strictly the system adopted in Saranda is clearfelling with na tural regeneration. But management plans refer to this as conversion to uniform system (Rajhans, 1976).

- 80 -

Natural regeneration is taken advantage of in restocking final felled Wattle

plantations (Acacia mearnsii) during the second and subsequent rotations in

Nilgiri and Palni hills in Tamil Nadu. Wattle is worked on a 10 year rotation

for pulpwood and bark. After final felling the area is control burnt and this

helps to end the dormancy of seeds. Natural regeneration comes up profusely

and after 2 or 3 years thinning is done to remove excess number of saplings.

Artificial regeneration is resorted to in failed areas and new areas only.

Conclusion

No systematic evaluation has yet been carried out of the multifarious effects

of clearfelling systems, despite the very great expansion of clearfelling

followed by artificial regeneration that has taken place in the 1970s. There

is however a growing awareness of its possible adverse social and

environmental effects but the future of the system will depend also on a

number of other factors. One of the justifications for clear felling, is for

instance, to make the land available for the plantation programmes geared to

meet industrial and domestic wood requirements. However, this could be

undertaken on the extensive degraded land already available (Bentley, 1984).

Probably, the contribution of clearfelling towards revenue will also continue

to provide a strong compulsion for continuance of the system. Another factor

that will necessitate clear felling will be the need to supply wood to

industries like sawmilling. Most of the plantations belong to the younger age

classes and output from them will not be available in time to replace timber

obtained from natural forests. Further, most of the plantation programmes

have focused on a few species, while no attempt has been made to raise those

required for ordinary purposes. Considering all these, it is difficult to

predict the future direction. The system may continue to be used, but on a

much reduced scale.

Mf.,ILT/sKDIM,TS AD FOREST MANAGEMENT

Society-forest interaction as reflected in the management system undergoes

changes in response to changing characteristics of society and forests.

Management systems, therefore, seldom remain static and what is appropriate at

a given time may not remain so later. The future of natural management of

mixed tropical forests in India depends on a number of factors. To get a

picture of emerging trends, it is imperative to analyse how developments in

biological, technical, organisational and managerial sciences have influenced

current management systems.

- 80 -

Natural regeneration is taken advantage of in restocking final felled Wattle plantations (Acacia mearnsii) during the second and subsequent rotations in

Nilgiri · and Palni hills in Tamil Nadu. Wattle is worked on a 10 year rotation for pulpwood and bark. After final felling the area is control burnt and this helps to end the dormancy of seed~ Natural regeneration comes up profusely

and after 2 or 3 years thinning is done to remove excess num ber of saplings. Artificial regeneration is resorted to in failed areas and new areas only.

CogcJ.usi op

No systematic evaluation has yet been carried out of the multifarious effects of clearfelling systems, despite the very great expansion of clearfelling

followed by artificial regeneration that has taken place in the 1970s. There is however a growing awareness of its possible adverse social and

environmental effects but the future of the system will depend also on a number of other factor~ One of the justifications for clear felling, is for

instance, to make the land available for the plantation programmes geared to

meet industrial and domestic wood requirement~ However, this could be undertaken on the extensive degraded land already available (Bentley, 1984).

Probably, the contribution of clearfelling towards revenue will also continue to provide a strong compulsion for continuance of the system. Another factor

that will necessitate clear felling will be the need to supply wood to

industries like saw milling. Most of the plantations belong to the younger age

classes and output from them will not be available in time to replace timber

obtained from na tural forest~ Further, most of the plantation programmes have focused on a few species, while no attempt has been made to raise those

required for ordinary purposes. Considering all these, it is di.fficul t to predict the future direction. The system may continue to be used, but on a much reduced scale.

SOC1KU, FORESTS AID FOREST KAlAGEKEIiT

Society-forest interaction as reflected in the management system undergoes changes in response to changing characteristics of society and forests.

Management systems, therefore, seldom remain static and what is appropriate at a given time may not remain so later. The future of natural management of

mixed tropical forests in India depends on a number of factors. To get a picture of emerging trends, it is imperative to analyse how developments in

biological, technical, organisational and managerial sciences have influenced current management systems.

- 81 -

Techrtical Changes

Developments in biological and technical sciences related to forestry can

be grouped as (1) those which improved management and utilisation of

natural forests and (2) those that contributed to better management of man-

made forests. Identification, and cataloguing of species and research on

forest utilisation were largely aimed to enhance the use of natural

forests. Forest botany and forest products research were the major areas

that got attention during the early stages of forestry research. Extensive

exploration was undertaken with the objective of identifying commercially

valuable species. Research on forest products, particularly wood anatomy,

timber mechanics, wood seasoning and preservation, etc. was also taken up

simultaneously.

Cataloguing and classification led to forest type classification, an

important field in forest ecology. Autecological studies were initiated in

response to the need for regenerating some of the commercially valuable

species like teak and sal. Initially there was complete reliance on

natural regeneration and most of the techniques were standardised by way of

trial and error. Sal was one species whose regeneration received

considerable attention. Sal forests can be broadly grouped into those

where regeneration is satisfactory and those which are difficult to

regenerate. A lot of effort was directed to promoting regeneration in the

latter, involving operations like canopy manipulation, shrub cutting,

controlled burning, fencing and soil working. To identify the factors that

inhibit regeneration, investigations were undertaken covering geology,

soil, climate, biotic factors, ecological status of the forests,

competition for light and moisture and so on. No doubt, these studies

improved the understanding of sal ecology; but natural regeneration

continued to remain an intractable problem. Artificial regeneration, often

with species other than sal, had to be resorted to in many areas.

Growth and yield studies of important commercial species also received

considerable attention. This led to preparation of volume and yield tables

and a better understanding of the growth response to various treatments.

Synecological studies on tropical mixed forests are at best partial and

most often limited to a small segment of the complex processes such as

nutrient partitioning, biomass distribution, etc. (Nair, 19824). No

research has been carried out to understand the intra and intersystem

flows, fractioning of energy and matter, processes of succession and the

impact of different intensities of harvesting in representative forest

ecosystems over a sufficiently long period to generate reliable data

required for developing appropriate management practices.

- 81 -

Technical Changes

Developments in biological and technical sciences related to forestry can be grouped as (1) those which improved management and utilisation of na tural forests and (2) those that contributed to better management of man­made forests. Identification, and cataloguing of species and research on forest utilisation were largely aimed to enhance the use of natural forests. Forest botany and forest products research were the major areas that got attention during the early stages of forestry research. Extensive exploration was undertaken wi th the objective of identifYing commercially valuable species. Research on forest products, particularly wood ana tomy, timber mechanics, wood seasoning and preservation, etc. was also taken up

simul taneously.

Cataloguing and classification led to forest type classification, an important field in forest ecology. Autecological studies were ini tiated in

response to the need for regenerating some of the commercially valuable species like teak and sal. Initially there was complete reliance on

natural regeneration and most of the techniques were standardised by way of trial and error. - Sal was one species whose regeneration received

considerable attention. Sal forests can be broadly grouped into those where regeneration is satisfactory and those which are difficult to regeoorate. A lot of effort was directed to promoting regeneration in the

latter, involving operations like canopy manipulation, shrub cutting, controlled burning, fencing and soil working. To identifY the factors that inhibit regeneration, investigations were undertaken covering geology, soil, climate, biotic factors, ecological status of the forests, competition for light and moisture and so 01). No doubt, these studies

improved the understanding of sal ecology; but natural regeneration continued to remain an intractable problem. Artificial regeneration, often

with species other than sal, had to be resorted to in many areas.

Growth and yield studies of important commercial species also received considerable attention. This led to preparation of volume and yield tables and a better understanding of the growth response to various treatments.

Synecological studies on tropical mixed forests are at best partial and most often limited to a small segment of the complex processes such as

nutrient partitioning, biomass distribution, etc. (Nail', 1984). No research has been carried out to understand the intra and intersystem

flows, fractioning of energy and matter, processes of succession and the impact of different intensitles of harvesting in representative forest ecosystems over a sufficiently long period to generate reliable data required for developing appropriate management practices.

- 82 -

Neither have researchers attempted to address management objectives, nor

have managers tried to adopt research findings. Consequently, management

of natural forest continues to be unscientific and managers often act

arbitrarily in response to immediate compulsions. Thus, when there is an

increasing pressure from wood based industries, large areas are exploited

heavily, disregarding long term sustainability of wood supply. Response in

the opposite direction is also seen, often leading to the total stoppage of

felling due to pressures from environmental groups.

An outcome of the emphasis on exploitation of natural forests is the high

priority given to forest resource inventory and the attempt to improve

logging techniques. Resource surveys focussing entirely on wood

availability have been undertaken in most of the forest areas. This

information has been utilised for management plans and particularly for

taking up forestry projects by the forest development corporations. A

considerable effort has been made to improve logging techniques, but on a

national scale the impact has been marginal. This is partly attributed to

the prevalence of the contract system (Govt. of India, 1976). However,

even in states where the contract system of timber extraction has been

abolished, no significant improvement is noticeable.

Most of the recent developments in forestry are directed at creation and

management of man-made forests and are therefore not relevant to this

review.

No doubt, the inherent complexity of forest ecosystems limits the adoption

of techniques appropriate to simple ecosystems like agriculture. But other

factors have also contributed to such a situation. Firstly, a large

proportion of timber continues to be obtained from natural forests with

practically very little investment or re-investment. The assumption that

forests are inexhaustible continues to influence the thinking of both

people and decision-makers. Secondly, low prices for wood and other

products provides little incentive for high investment. Industrial wood

supply is highly subsidised and most consumers of wood regard it as a free

good. Finally, the long gestation period of forestry investments acts as a

disincentive, especially to the private sector. With the introduction of

short rotation crops, this is, however, changing.

Development in the field of wood utilisation has been quite impressive, and

partly due to the necessity to use lesser known species arising from the

unavailability of conventional species. However, developments in

silviculture and management are limited to a few well known indigenous

species like teak, sal, sissoo and semul or exotics like eucalypt and

tropical pines. Easy availability of information on management practices

of exotics has been primarily responsible for their large scale

- 82 -

Neither have researchers attempted to address management objectives, nor have managers tried to adopt research findings. Consequently, management of natural forest continues to be unscientific and managers often act

arbi trarily in response to immediate compulsions. Thus, when there is an increasing pressure from wood based industries, large areas are exploited

heavily, disregarding long term sustainability of wood supply. Response in the opposite direction is also seen, often leading to the total stoppage of

felling due to pressures from environmental groups.

An outcome of the emphasis on exploi tation of natural forests is the high priority given to forest resource inventory and the attempt to improve logging techniques. Resource surveys focussing entirely on wood

availability have been undertaken in most of the forest areas. This information has been utilised for management plans and particularly for

taking up forestry projects by the forest development corporations. A considerable effort has been made to improve logging techniques, but on a

national scale the impact has been marginal. This is partly attributed to the prevalence of the contract system (Govt. of India, 1916). However, even in states where the contract system of timber extraction has been abolished, no significant improvement is noti ceable.

Most of the recent developments in forestry are directed at creation and

management of man-made forests and are therefore not relevant to this

review .

No doubt, the inherent complexi ty of forest ecosystem s limit·s the adoption of techniques appropriate to simple ecosystems like agriculture. But other

factors have also contributed to such a situation. Firstly, a large

proportion of timber continues to be obtained from natural forests wi th

practically very little .investment or re-investment. The assumption that forests are inexhausti ble continues to influence the thinking of both

people and decision-makers. Secondly, low prices for wood and other

products provides li ttle incentive for high investment. Industrial wood

supply is highly subsidised and most consumers of wood regard it as a free good. Finally, the long gestation period of forestry investments acts as a disincentive, especially to the private sector. With the introdu ction of short rotation crops, this is, however, changing.

Development in the field of wood utilisation has been quite impreSsive, and partly due to the necessity to use lesser known species arising from the

unavailabili ty of conventional species. However, developments in

silviculture and management are limi ted to a few well known indigenous species like teak, sal, sissoo and semul or exotics like eucalypt and tropical pines. Easy availability of information on management practices of exotics has been primarily responsible for their large scale

introduction33. Despite the long history of trials, information on many of

the indigenous species continues to be inadequate, especially for those

which are of local importance only.

Ins ti tutional_gbangga

Introduction of organisational and managerial developments has also been

extremely slow. In fact, so slow that it seems to have seriously hampered

the development of forestry. Structure and organisational patterns of

forest departments have undergone little change since their establishment.

Polioing the forests continues to be the main function and the function as

land manager has been neglected considerably.

Attempts have been made to separate the different functions of forest

services. Such organisational changes are mostly internal, like creation

of separate wings, or divisions for logging, afforestation., sale of timber,

collection of minor forest products, social forestry, etc. The

establishment of autonomous forest development corporations is a further

step in the direction of giving more emphasis to the land management

function. As pointed out earlier, forest development corporations were

formed to ensure better operational flexibility necessary in land

management and to utilise institutional finance for forest development.

Activities undertaken by forest development corporations can be categorised

as follows:

83 -

Harvesting natural forests and

valuable minor forest products

Raising pla.ntations of species

pines and

collection of commercially

like tendu leaves, sal seeds, etc.

like teak, eucalypt, and tropical

ill) Cultivation of cash crops like oil palm, tea, rubber, coffee

and cardamom.

Since commercial profitability is the main consideration, none of the

corporations has taken up management of natural forests. Further,,

the activities of most of the corporations have centred on well stocked

natural forests from where a substantial quantity of timber can be obtained

by way of clearfelling. In many instances, treating the yield from

clearfelling as a project benefit has enhanced 'che financial profitability

of the projects.

-

33A number of international institutions, including aid agencies, and

research institutions, has played an important role in the introduction of

exotics 3.ike eucalypts and tropical pines.

- 83 -

introduction33. Despite the long history of trials, information on many of

the indigenous species continues to be inadequate, especially for those

which are of local importance only.

Institutional Changes

Introduction of organisational and managerial developments has also been extremely slow. In fact, so slow that it seems to have seriously hampered

the development of forestry . Structure and organisational patterns of

forest departments have undergone little change since their establishment.

Policing the forests continues to be the main function and the function as land manager has been neglected considerably.

Attempts have been made to separate the different functions of forest services.· Such organisational changes are mostly internal, like creation

of separate wings, or divisions for logging, afforestation, sale of timber,

collection of minor forest products, social forestry, ete. The

establishment of autonomous forest development corporations is a further

step in the direction of giving more emphasis to the land management

function. As pointed out earlier, forest development corporations were formed to ensure better operational flexibility necessary in land

management and to utilise insti tutional finance for forest development.

Activities undertaken by forest development corporations can be cateBorised

as follows:

i) Harvesting na tural forests and collection of commercially

valuable minor forest products like tendu leaves, sal seeds, ete.

ii) Raising plantations of speCies like teak, eucalypt, and tropical

pines and

iii) Cultivation of cash crops like oil palm, tea, rubber, coffee and cardamom.

Since commercial profitability is the main consideration, none of the

corporations has taken up management of natural forests. Further, the activities of most of the corporations have centred on well stocked

natural forests from where a substantial quantity of timber can be obtained

by way of clearfelling. In many instances, treating the yield from

clearfelling as a project benefit has enhanced the financial profi tabili ty

of the projects.

33 A number of intel'na tional lnsti tutions, including aid agenoies, and

research institutions, has played an important role in the introduction of exoti cs like eucalypts and tropi cal pines.

- 84 -

Organisation and management of forest research and education have undergone

little change during the last few decades and this has been an important

factor impeding the development of forestry. The training of forestry

personnel has been one of the most important functions of existing

institutions, and institutions geared to the development of forestry

science are poorly developed.

Natural Management: Future Trend

Necessary conditions for natural management to be successful are (1)

adequacy of natural regeneration, (2) negligible biotic factors which could

adversely affect recruitment and establishment of regeneration and (3) low

and stable demand for wood and other products. The extent to which

fulfilment of the above conditions will affect natural management in

important forest regions are examined below.

Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen Forests

Andaman and Nicobar Islands:

Natural regeneration is satisfactory. Due to the low population density,

biotic factors like fire, grazing etc. are not serious. Currently, timber

is obtained from harvesting unworked near-virgin stands. Even if

regeneration is good, a decline in yield during the second rotation is

anticipated. Scarcity of veneer logs in the mainland will lead to over-

exploitation. Another important factor that could affect forest management

is the diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes, particularly for

cultivation of cash crops like rubber and oil palm. Already the forest

development corporation in Andamans has taken up an oil palm project in

Little Andamans. There could also be an expansion of oil palm cultivation

in order to reduce the growing foreign exchange drain through import of

edible oil. This could drastically change the land use pattern affecting

natural management.

North Eastern Region

The north eastern region presents another extreme situation. Industrial

capacity and wood resources are unevenly distributed between different

states. Rapid growth of the plywood industry has led to over exploitation

of all easily accessible forests. Natural regeneration is unsatisfactory

and areas degraded due to past working are being restocked artificially. A

large proportion of the" forests is under tribal control and subject to

shifting cultivation which rules out the possibility of any long term

sustainable management for wood production.

- 84 -

Organisation and management of forest research and education have undergone little change during the last few decades and this has been an important factor impeding the , development of forestr~ The training of forestry personnel has been one of the most important functions of existing institutions, and institutions geared to the development of forestry science are poorly developed.

Natural Management: Future Tr,end

Necessary conditions for natural management to be successful are (1)

adequacy of natural regeneration, (2) negligible biotic factors which could

,adversely affect recrui tment and establishment of regeneration and (3) low and stable demand for wood and other products. The extent to which fulfilment of the above conditions will affect natural manageme'nt in important forest regions are examined below.

Tropical Eyergreen and Semi-Evergreen Forests

(1) Andamari and Nicobar Islands:

Natural regeneration is satisfactory. Due to the low population density, biotic factors like fire, grazing etc. are not serious. Currently, timber is obtained from harvesting unworked near-virgin stands. Even if

regeneration is good, a decline in yield during the second rotation is

antiCipated. Scarci ty of veneer logs in the mainland will lead to over­exploitation. Another important factor that could affect forest management

is the diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes, particularly for cultivation of cash crops like rubber and oil palm. Already the forest

development corporation in Andamans has taken up an oil palm project in Little Andamans. There could also be an expansion of oil palm cultivation in order to reduce the growing foreign exchange drain through import of edible oil. This could drastically change the land use pattern affecting natural management.

(2) North Eastern Region

The north eastern region presents another extreme si tua tion. Industrial capacity and wood resources are unevenly distributed between different states. Rapid grow th of the plywood industry has led to over exploitation of all easily accessible forests. Natural regeneration is unsatisfactory and areas degraded due to past working are being restocked artificially. A

large proportion of the forests is under tribal control and subject to shifting cul tivation which rules out the possibility of any long term sustainable 'management for wood production.

- 85 -

(3) Western Ghats

Natural regeneration is unsatisfactory. Adverse biotic factors such as

fire and encroachment are serious. Further, the demand for timber,

especially veneer and saw logs, is increasing. Most often demand is met by

reducing exploitable girth and felling cycle and increasing the number of

trees harvested per hectare34. The felling cycle is often unrealistically

low inhibiting natural recoupment. Also there is growing pressure to

divert forest land for non-forestry purposes. One cannot, therefore, be

optimistic about the feasibility of natural management in the Western Ghat

evergreen forests.

As can be seen, evergreen and semi-evergreen forests in all the three

regions are exploited primarily to supply veneer logs. Future management

of those forests is essentially linked to the growth of plywood industry

and the availability of raw material from alternative sources. Imports

could be helpful to relieve the pressure for the time being. But in the

long run, there has to be reliance on man-made forests. Adoption of

coppice with standards system in eucalypt plantations under which the

standards harvested after 3 or 4 coppice rotations to supply veneer logs,

is an appropriate alternative. Failure to find alternative sources of

veneer logs will lead to intensive, and often uncontrolled exploitation

Causing total degradation.

Even if the problem of wood raw material to the plywood industry is

resolved, future management of evergreen forests will depend on the changes

in overall land use. Climatic and soil conditions are apparently

favourable for alternative land uses, especially for cash crop cultivation

and the process of diversion for non- forestry purposes is continuing. How

far this will continue depends on a large number of factors, particularly

population growth, the pace of economic development, the dependence on land

as a source of income and government policy on land use. Changes to

agricultural land tenure are likely to have significant effect. Although

land reform legislation has been enacted in most states, their

implementation is tardy and consequently feudal relationships persist in

many areas.

Implementation of land reforms could reduce the pressure on forest land,

especially that due to migration of landless to forest areas. Better

income could also reduce the need for collecting firewood.

34Recently a change in the opposite direction is seen. For example in

Karnataka the number of trees allowed to be harvested has been reduced to 2

largely due to the pressure from the environmental groups.

- 85 -

(3) Western Ghats

Natural regeneration is unsatisfactory. Adverse biotic factors such as fire and encroachment are serious. Further, the demand for timber, especially veneer and saw logs, is increasing. Most often demand is met by reducing exploitable girth and felling cycle and increasing the number of trees harvested per hectare3 4. The felling cycle is often unrealistically low inhibiting natural recoupment. Also there is growing pressure to

divert forest land for non-forestry purposes. One cannot, therefore, be optimistic about the feasibility of natural management in the Western Ghat

evergreen forests.

As can be seen, evergreen and semi-evergreen forests in all the three

regions are exploited primarily to supply veneer logs. Future management of those forests is essentially linked to the growth of plywood industry and the availabili ty of raw material from al terna tive sources. Imports could be helpful to relieve the pressure for the time being. But in the long run, there has to be reliance on man-made forests. Adoption of

coppice with standards system in eucalypt plantations under which the standards harvested ·after 3 or 4 coppice rotations to supply veneer logs,

is an appropriate alternative. Failure to find alternative sources of veneer logs will lead to intensive, and often uncontrolled exploitation

caUSing total degradation.

Even if' the problem of wood raw material to the plywood industry is resolved, future management of evergreen forests will depend on the changes in overall land use. Climatic and soil conditions are apparently favourable for alternative land uses, especially for cash crop cultivation and the process of diversion for non- forestry purposes is continuing. How

far this will continue depends on a large number of factors, particularly population growth, the pace of economic development, the dependence on land as a source of income and government policy on land us~ Changes to

agricultural land tenure are likely to have significant effect. Although land reform legislation has been enacted in most states, their implementation is tardy and consequently feudal relationships persist :in

many areas.

Implementation of land reforms could reduce the pressure on forest land, especially that due to migration of landless to forest areas. Better

income could also reduce the need for collecting firewoo~

34Recently a change in the opposi te direction is seen. For example in Karnataka the number of trees allowed to be harvested has been reduced to 2 largely due to the pressure from the environme.ntal groups.

- 86 -

Although there is growing awareness of the productive, protective and

social functions of evergreen forests, diversion for non-forestry purposes

may continue for some more time, consequently increasing the pressure on

the remaining forests. Natural management has very limited scope under

such conditions.

Hoist Deciduous Forest_s

Sal Forests

Natural management can be considered as successful only in a few areas like

Saranda in Bihar and Raipur in Madhya Pradesh. Adequacy of natural

regeneration seems to be the most critical factor. In most of the valley,

plain and hill sal tracts (parts of UP, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa

and Madhya Pradesh) despite earnest efforts, regeneration continues to be

problematic and artificial planting is being resorted to, often involving

replacement of sal with teak, eucalypt, etc. In theory, selective felling,

in which intensity of removal is low, relies upon natural regeneration.

However, no study has been carried out on the long term impact of selective

removal in sal forests. Also selective felling as practised now, cannot be

strictly regarded as a management system.

Teak Forests

Dependence on natural regeneration to restock teak forests is limited to

some areas like Chanda, Hoshangabad, etc. Even here, uncertainty of

natural regeneration has led to its replacement by artificial regeneration,

although this is known to cause site deterioration by way of soil loss

(Seth and Kaul, 1978). Status of natural regeneration is unsatisfactory in

selection felling areas.

Mixed Forests

Natural regeneration of valuable species is unsatisfactory. Further most

of these forests are subjected to fire, grazing and such other biotic

pressures. Traditionally the objective of management has been to enhance

the proportion of valuable species and inevitably artificial regeneration

is resorted to.

- 86 -

Although there is growing awareness of the productive, protective and social functions of evergreen forests, diversion for non-forestry purposes may continue for some more time, consequently increasing the pressure on the remaining forests. Natural managem~nt has very limited scope under

such condi tions.

Moist Deciduous Forests

( 1) Sal Forests

Natural management can be considered as successful only in a few areas like Saranda in Bihar and Raipur in Madhya Pradesh. Adequacy of natural regeneration seems to be the most critical factor. In most of the valley, plain and hill sal tracts (parts of UP, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh) despi te earnest efforts, regeneration continues to be problematic and artificial planting is being resorted to, often involving replacement of sal with teak, eucalypt, etc. In theory, selective felling, in which intensity of removal is low, relies upon natural regeneration.

However, no study has been carried out on the long term impact of selective removal in sal forests. Also selective felling as practised now, cannot be

strictly regarded as a management system.

(2) Teak Forests

Dependence on natural regeneration to restock teak forests is "limited to some areas like Chanda, Hoshangabad, ete. Even here, uncertainty of natural regeneration has led to its replacement by artificial regeneration, although this is known to cause site deterioration by way of soil loss (Seth and Kaul, 1978). Status of natural regeneration is un sa tisfactory in selection felling areas.

(3) Mixed Forests

Natural regeneration of valuable species is unsatisfactory. Further most of these forests are subjected to fire, grazing and such other biotic

pressures. Traditionally the objective of management has been to enhance the proportion of valuable species and inevitably artificial regeneration is resor ted to.

- 87 -

(4) Dry Deciduous Forests

Most of the dry deciduous forest are managed under coppice systems.

Production of fuelwood and small timber is the main objective of management

and these forests primarily cater to the local demand. Coppice

regeneration is satisfactory, but most of these forests are subjected to

severe biotic pressures, especially fire and grazing, leading to

degradation. Illicit removal of wood is also a serious problem and is an

indication of the growing demand. Natural management is almost impossible

under such circumstances, consequently most of the degraded areas are

being restocked artificially.

A similar situation exists in the case of forests predominantly used for

production of bamboo, salai, sandalwood, etc. Especially when the same

forests are utilised for producing more than one product, incompatibilities

arise and operations intended to benefit one become deterimental to the

other. For example to induce production of coppice shoots in Dioepyros

Relanoxylon (Tendu) burning is resorted to. No doubt this increases the

availability of tendu leaves (which is an important source of revenue to

forest departments in many states) but adversely affects natural seedling

regeneration of a large number of species. Similarly collection of sal

seeds could have serious implications on natural regeneration, especially

during poor seed years (Verma and Sharma, 1978). Biotic pressures like

fire, grazing illicit removal and non-compliance with silvicultural

prescriptions have adversely affected both growing stock and increment.

Realisation of long run sustainable supply under existing systems of

management is impossible.

Forest MAnagalaqta - Future Options

Although India has about 75 million hectares of land legally classified as

forests, the growing stock and increment are very low. The average growing

stock is estimated as 26 m3/hectare. This is unevenly distributed with

easily accessible areas exhibiting poor growth. Total demand for wood by

2000 AD is projected as 289 million m3 (Govt. of India, 1976). With a low

mean annual increment of 0.5 m3/hecta.re this demand cannot be met. A

radical change in the direction of forestry development is essential to

ensure that forestry fulfills the multifarious requirements of society.

The present phase of forestry is characterised by

high dependence on natural forests to meet industrial and domestic

demand.

deforestation to meet the demand for land for alternative uses and

low investment in forestry.

- 87 -

(4) Dry Deciduous Forests

Most of the dry deciduous forest are managed under coppice systems. Production of fuelwood and small timber is the main objective of management

and these forests primarily cater to the local demand. Coppice regeneration is satisfactory, but most of these forests are subjected to severe biotic pressures, especially fire and grazing, leading to degradation. Illicit removal of wood is also a serious problem and is an indication of the growing demand. Natural management is almost impossible under such circumstances. consequently most of the degraded areas are being restocked artificially.

A similar situation exists in the case of forests predominantly used for production of bamboo, sal ai, sandalwood, eta. Especially when the same fOrests ar·e utilised for producing more than one product, incompatibllities arise and operations intended to benefit one become deterimental to the other . For example to induce production of coppice shoots in Diospyros melanoxylon (Tendu) burning is resorted to. No doubt this increases the

availability of tendu leaves (which is an important source of revenue to forest departments in many states) but adver sely affects natural seedling regeneration of a large number of species. Similarly col l ection of sal seeds could have serious implications on natural regeneration, especially

during poor seed year s (Verma and Sharma, 1978) . Biotic pressures like fi r e, grazing Hlici t removal and non-compliance wi th s ilvicul tural prescriptions have adversely affected both growing stock and increment. Realisation of long run sus t ainable supply under existing systems of management is impossible.

Forest Management - Future Options

Although India has about 75 million hectares of land legally classified as forests, the growing stock and increment are very low. The average growing

stock is estimated as 26 m3/hectare. This is unevenly distributed with easily accessible areas exhibiting poor growth. Total demand for wood by

2000 AD is proj ected as 289 million m3 (Govt. of India, 1976). With a low mean annual increment of 0.5 m3/hectare this demand cannot be met. A

radical change in the direction of forestry development is essential to enSUre that forestry fulfills the multifarious requirements of society. The present phase of forestry is characterised by

1) high dependence on natural forests to meet industrial and domestic demand.

2) deforestation to meet the demand for land for alternative uses and

3) low investment in forestry.

- 88 -

An alternative and more desirable scenario will be one in which:

the dependence on natural forests is minimal,

very little diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes and

high investment on forestry, especially on plantation develoixnent.

Under this alternative, most of the wood requirements may be met from

plantations raised in the degraded and waste lands. Natural forests,

especially those in hilly areas, can be utilised to fulfill the protective

and social functions, to supply a small quantity of high quality timber and

to balance the cyclic fluctuations in wood demand. There are some

indications of a change including (1) a general opposition to clearfelling

natural forests for conversion to monoculture plantations, (2) growing

environmental awareness and resultant closer scrutiny of developmental

projects, especially those implemented in forest areas and (3) assigning a

high priority for social forestry and development of w ast el ands through

afforestation. The Government has initiated an ambitious wasteland

development programme and proposes to afforest 5 million hectares annually.

To undertake this, a Waste Land Development Board has been constituted.

Successful implementation of this programme will result in a radical change

in forestry and the dependence on natural forests for meeting wood

requirements will be reduced significantly. A balanced multiple use of

mixed tropical forests requires the creation of intensively managed

plantations on land which contains no tree growth now. Failure to pursue

such a policy would result in heav-y exploitation of natural forests,

seriously jeopardising the realisation of many different values in the long

run.

Constraints in the pursuit of a rational forestry programme have been

indicated elsewhere (FAO, 19814). The new approach would require

formulation of a forest policy as a component of an integrated land use

policy, creation of appropriate institutions for implementation of such a

policy, and provision of a suitable legal framework (Nair, 19821).

Institutions involved in education, research and extension would need to be

remodelled and strengthened to overcome the information gap, communication

gap and adoption gap. With the involvement of Universities in forestry

educa.tion and research, development of forestry science is expected to gain

considerable momentum.

- 88 -

An alternative and more desirable scenario will be one in which:

1) the dependence on natural forests is minimal,

2) very little diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes and

3) high investment on forestry, especially on plantation development.

Under this alternative, most of the wood requirements may be met from plantations raised in the degraded and waste lands. Natural forests, especially those in hilly areas, can be utilised to fulfill the protective and social functions, to supply a small quantity of high quality timber and to balance the cyclic fluctuations in wood demand. There are soine indications of a change including (1) a general opposition to clearfell1ng natural forests for conversion to monoculture plantations, (2) growing environmental awareness and resul tant closer scrutiny of developmental

projects, especially those implemented in forest areas and (3) assigning a high priority for social forestry and development of wastelands through af'forestation. The Government has ini tiated an ambitious wasteland

development programme and proposes to af'forest 5 million hectares annually. To undertake this, a Waste Land Development Board has been -consti tuted.

Successful implementation of this programme will result in a radical change in forestry and the dependence on natural forests for meeting wood

requirements will be reduced significantly. A balanced mul tiple use of mixed tropical forests requires the creation of intensively ma-naged plantations on land which contains no tree growth now. Failure to pursue such a policy would result in heavy exploitation of natural forests, seriously jeopardising the realisation of many different values in the long run.

Constraints in the pursui t of a rational forestry programme have been indicated elsewhere (FAO, 1984). The new approach would require formulation of a forest policy as a component of an integrated land use policy, creation of appropriate institutions for implementation of such a

policy, and provision of a suitable legal framework (Nair, 1984). Institutions involved in education, research and extension would need to be

remodelled and strengthened to overcome the information gap, communication gap and adoption gap. With the involvement of Universities in forestry

education and research, development of forestry science is expected to gain considerable momentum.

- 8 9 -

Conclusion

Society has treated forests as a God given asset and hence a freely

available resource. The uncontrolled exploitation that this has led to

still continues. Applications of developments in biological and technical

sciences are all primarily directed at the accelerated exploitation of

natural forest. Organisational changes in forest administration have been

marginal and have not brought about any significant change from the

traditional policing role.

As long as such a situation persists, sustainable natural management of the

tropical mixed forests will not be possible. Analysis of existing

management systems indicates the limitations of present approaches. The

creation of intensively managed plantations on barren land to meet most of

the wood requirements seems to be the only alternative. Indications are

that Indian forestry is entering a transition phase during which current

practices will be critically examined and a more rational approach to land

use, in particular forestry, will have to be pursued.

- 89 -

Conclusion

Society has treated forests as a God given asset and hence a freely available resource. The uncontrolled exploitation that this has led to still continues. Applications of developments in biological and technical

sciences are all primarily directed at the accelerated exploitation of na tural forest. Organisational changes in forest administration have been marginal and have not brought about any significant change from the

tradi tional policing role.

As long as such a situation persists, sustainable natural management of the tropical mixed forests will not be possible. Analysis of existing

management systems indicates the limitations of present approaches. The creation of intensively managed plantations on barren land to meet most of the wood requirements seems to be the only alternative. Indications are that Indian forestry is entering a transition phase during which current practices will be critically examined and a more rational ap proach to land use, in particular forestry, will have to be pursued.

•

- 90 -

CHAPTER IV

FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS DI MALAYSIA

TFIE BACKGROUND TO MANAGEMENT

Location and Environment

Malaysia is located within latitudes 1° Lo 7° north and longitudes '100° to

119° east. The country has an approximate land area of 33 million hectares,

comprising 13.1 million hectares in Peninsular Malaysia, 7.4 million hectares

in Sabah and 12.5 million hectares in Sarawak as shown in Figure 6. Peninsular

Malaysia is separated from Sabah and Sarawak by about 750 kilometres of the

South China Sea giving the country a coastline of about 4,800 kilometres much

of it exposed to the monsoons. The topography is characterised by coastal

lowlands with hills in the interior, culminating in Mount Kinabalu at 4,100

metres in the State of Sabah. The rivers are fast-flowing; most Malaysian

soils are easily eroded.

The climate is typically tropical and is characterised by year round high

temperature and seasonal monsoon rain. The mean temperatures during, the day

and night are 32°C and 22°C respectively. The average monthly temperature

variation is about 2°C while diurnal temperature variations for inland and

coastal areas are 8.5°C to 11°C and 5.5°C to 8.5°C respectively. The average

rainfall is about 2,540 mm per year with a maximum of 5,080 mm and a minimum of

1,650 mm. Humidity is always high and ranges between 70 to 98%.

The population of Malaysia comprises predominantly Malays and other indigenous

races, Chinese and a substantial proportion of Indians. The population in

1980 was 13.7 million and is expected to reach 15.5 million in 1985, growing

at an ave..age rate of 2.5% per annum over the period 1981-1985. The

geographical distribution by 1985 is expected to be 82.8% in Peninsular

Malaysia, 7.7% in Sabah and 9.5% in Sarawak. Notable features of the

population distribution are the preponderance of Malaysians living in the

rural areas and the age structure which was estimated at 37.8% within 0-14

years, 58.5% within 15-64 years and 3.7% over 65 years. A New Population

Policy for increasing the country's population to 70 million by the year 2100

is currently being formulated.

- 90 -

CHAPTER IV

FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS III MALAYSIA

THE BACKGROUND TO MANAGEMENT

LOcation and Enyironment

Ma l aysia is located within latitudes 10 to 70 north and 10Dgitudes 1000 to 1190 east. The country has an approximate land area of 33 million hectares, comprising 13.1 million hectares in Peninsular Malaysia, 7.4 million hectares in Sabah and 12.5 million hectares in Sarawak as shown in Figure 6. Peninsular Malaysia is separated from Sabah and Sarawak by about 750 kilometres of the South China Sea giving the country a coastline of about 4,800 kilometres much of it exposed to the monsoons. The topography is characterised by coastal

lowlands with hills in the interior, culminating in Mount Kinabalu at 4,100 metres in the State of Sabah. The rivers are fast-flowing; most Malaysian soils are easily eroded.

The climate is typically tropical and is characterised by year round high temperature and seasonal monsoon rain. The mean temperatures during the day and night are 320 C and 220 C respectively. The average monthly temperature variation is about 2 0 C while diurnal temperature variations for inland and

coastal areas are 8.5 0 C to 11 0 C and 5.5 0C to 8.5 0 C respectively. The average rainfall is about 2,540 mm per year withamaximum of 5,080 mm and a minimum of 1,650 mm. Humidity is always high and ranges between 70 to 98%.

The population of Malaysia comprises predominantly Malays and other indigenous races, Chinese and a substantial proportion of Indians. The population in 1980 was 13.7 million and is expected to reach 15.5 million in 1985, growing at an aVf..'age rate of 2.5%' per annum over the period 1981-1985. The geographical distribution by 1985 is expected to be 82.8% in Peninsular Malaysia, 7.7% in Sabah and 9.5% in Sarawak. Notable features of the

population distribution are the preponderance of Malaysians living in the rural areas and the age structure which was estimated at 37.8% within 0-14 years, 58.5% within 15-64 years and 3.7% over 65 years. A New Population Policy for increasing the country's population to 70 million by the year 2100 is currently being formulated.

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- 92 -

Constitution and Legal Provisions

Malaysia is a federation of 13 States of which 11 are located in Peninsular

Malaysia. Under the Malaysian Constitution, land is defined as a State

matter and is thus within the jurisdiction of the respective states. As

such, each is empowered to enact laws on forestry and to formulate forest

policy independently. The executive authority of the Federal Government

only extends to the conduct of research and maintenance of experimental and

demonstration stations, training and the provision of advice and technical

assistance to the States.

In order to facilitate the adoption of a co-ordinated and common approach

to forestry, the National Forestry Council (NFC) was established on 20th.

December, 1971 by the National Land Council (NLC). The NLC is empowered

under the Malaysian Constitution to formulate national policies for the

promotion and control of the utilization of land for mining, agriculture

and forestry. The NFC serves as a forum for the Federal and the State

Governments to discuss and resolve common problems and issues relating to

forestry policy, administration and management. All the decisions of NFC

have to be endorsed by the NLC. The responsibility for implementing the

decisions of NFC lies with the State Governments unless it is specifically

within the authority of the Federal Government.

Currently, the legal basis for law enforcement and management in the

forestry sector are the various Forest Enactments and Rules of the

respective States. These are now obsolete and limited in terms of scope

and objectives. As they do not have sufficient provisions to meet the

present and future needs of the forestry sector, a comprehensive National

Forestry Act, 1984 has been promulgated which will ensure effective forest

administration, utilization, management, harvesting and reforestation in

accordance with the concept and principles of sustained yield. This Act

will be supplemented by the Wood-based Industries Act, 1984 which will

regulate and ensure the rational development of wood-based industries.

Forestry Sector Contributions

The forest resource in Malaysia is an important renewable asset which plays

an important role not only in contributing towards the socio-economic well-

being of the country but also in the impovement of environmental conditions

which are essential for optimum development of the agricultural and other

sectors of the economy and ultimately for upgrading the quality of life.

- 92 -

Constitution and Legal Provisions

Malaysia is a federation of 13 States of which 11 are located in Peninsular Malaysia. Under the Malaysian Constitution, land is defined as a State matter and is thus within the jurisdiction of the respective states. As such, each is empowered to enact laws on forestry and to formulate forest policy independently. The executive authority of the Federal Government only extends to the conduct of research and maintenance of experimental and demonstra,tion stations, training and the provision of ac;lvice and technical assistance to the States.

In order to facilitate the adoption of a co-ordinated and common approach to forestry, the National Forestry Council (NFC) was established on 20th. December, 1971 by the National Land Council (NLC). The NLC is empowered under the Malaysian Constitution to formulate national policies for the promotion and control of the utilization of land for mining, agriculture and, forestry. The NFC serves as a forum for the Federal and the State Governments to discuss and resolve common problems and issues relating to forestry policy, administration and managemen~ All the ' decisions of NFC bave to be endorsed by the NLC. The responsibility for implementing the decisions of NFC lies with the State Governments unless it is specifically within the authority of the Federal Governmen~

Currently, the legal basis for law enforcement and management in the forestry sector are the various Forest Enactments and Rules of the respective States. These are now obsolete and limited in terms of scope and objectives. As they do not have sufficient provisions to meet the present and future needs of the forestry sector, a comprehensive National Forestry Act, 1984 has been promulgated which will ensure effective forest administration, utilizati'on, management, harvesting and reforestation in accordance ' with the concept and principles of sustained yield. Tbis Act will be supplemented by the Wood-based Industries Act, 1984 which will regula:'e and ensure the rational development of wood-based industries.

Forestry Sector Contributions

Tbe forest resource in Malaysia is an important renewable asset which plays an important role not only in contributing towards the socia-economic well­being of the country but also in the impovement of environmental conditions which are essential for optimum development of the agricultural and other

, sectors of the economy and ultimately for upgrading the quality of life.

- 93.-

In 1983, the total forest revenue collected by the various State Forestry

Departments in Malaysia amounted to M$1,394.4 million while the total

roundlog production was 32.7 million m3 with an export of 23.0. million m3.

of timber and timber products. This represents 14.1% of the total gross

export earnings and 6.8% ofthe total Gross National Product ranking second

to petroleum and petroleum products.

During that year, the forestry sector in Malaysia provided employment for

9,484 people in the forestry services and agencies which are responsible

for forestry administration and for management and development of the

forest resources while another 121,000 people were employed directly in the

forest industries for timber harvesting and processing. Employment

opportunities in the sector are expected to increase substantially in view

of the priority accorded to the expansion of the forest resource base

through intensive forest management and development and the establishment

of fast-growing tree plantations, as well as to the modernisation of forest

industries to produce higher value-added products. As most forestry

workers are semi-skilled to highly skilled, they tend to earn higher wages

than those employed in other sectors. Consequently, as most forestry jobs

are located in the rural areas, the development of the forestry sector will

not only contribute significantly to socio-economic development in the

rural areas but also effective transfer of skills and expertise to those

areas.

Forest Resources

Malaysia is fortunate to be endowed with extensive areas of valuable

natural tropical rainforests with the proportion of forest land being

higher in Sabah and Sarawak than in Peninsular Malaysia. These tropical

rainforests are extremely complex ecosystems and are richer in tree species

than in similar areas of Africa and South America. They are, in fact,the

most species-rich plant communities known anywhere in the world (Whitmore,

1975). In Peninsular Malaysia alone, the flora is estimated to comprise

7,500 species of seed plants of which 4,100 are woody. An estimated 2,900

species reach a diameter of 10 cm. at breast height (dbh) while about 1,680

species in 375 genera are trees i.e. they reach a diameter of 30 cm. dbh.

(Whitmore, 1975); with 890 of these species reaching exploitable sizes of

at least 45 cm. dbh. Of these 890 species, a total of 408 have been

introduced at one time or another to the international markets under the

Malayan Grading Rules.

- 93 -

In 1983, the total .forest revenue collected by the various State Forestry

Departments in Malaysia amounted to M$1,3 94.4 million while the total roundlog production was 32.7 million m3 wi·th an· export of 23.0. million m3• of timber and timber products. This represents 14.1 % of the total gross export earnings and 6.8% of the total Gross National Product ranking second to petroleum and petroleum products.

During that year, the forestry sector in Malaysia provided employment for 9,484 people in the forestry services and agencies which are responsible for forestry administration and for management and development of the forest resources while another 121,000 people were employed directly in the forest industries for timber harvesting and processing. Employment opportunities in the sector are expected to increase substantially in view

of the priority accorded to the expansion of the forest resource base through intensive forest management and development and the establishment · of fast-growing tree plantations, as well as to the modernisaHon of forest industries to produce higher value-added products. As most forestry

workers are semi-skilled to highly skilled, they tend to earn higher wages than those employed in other sectors. Consequently, as most forestry jobs are located in the rural areas, the development of the forestry sector will not only contribute significantly to socio-economic development in the rural areas but also effective transfer of skills and expertise to those areas.

Forest Resources

Malaysia is fortunate to be endowed with extensive areas of valuable natural tropical rainforests with the proportion of forest land being higher in Sabah and Sarawak than in Peninsular Malaysia. These tropical rainforests are extremely complex ecosystems and are richer in tree species

than in similar areas of Africa and South America. They are, in fact, the most species-rich plant communi ties known anywhere in the world (Whi tmore,

1975). In Peninsular Malaysia alone, the flora · is estimated to COmprise 7,500 species of seed plants of which 4,100 are woody. An estimated 2,900 species reach a diameter of 10 cm. at breast height (dbh) while about 1,680 species in 375 genera are trees i.e. they reach a diameter of 30 cm. dbh. (Whitmore, 1975); with 890 of these species reaching exploitable sizes of at least 45 cm. dbh. Of these 890 species, a total of 408 have been introduced at one time or another to the international markets under the Malayan Grading Rules.

- 94 -

In numerical terms, in a 10 ha, survey at Pasoh Forest Reserve (a lowland

dipterocarp forest) a total of 5,907 trees of 10 cm. dbh and larger

belonging to 460 different species was identified (Ashton, 1971) About 80%

of these trees are in the 10-29 cm. diameter class while about 10% are with

diameter greater than 40 cm. The Dipterocarpaceae constitutes about 7 -

14% of the total number of trees while Euphorbiaceae accounts for about 5 -

'lb% .

Tang (1976) in a study in Terengganu found that the average stocking of

trees with diameter greater than 5 cm. in a virgin stand was 934 ± 121 per

ha. with 80% of these in the two smallest diameter classes and less than 2%

in the 60 cm. dbh and larger class. The average basal area was about 30

m2/ha.

The average yield from the forest is estimated to be 52 m3 per ha. and this

is roughly about 30% of the total standing volume (FAO, 1973). Current

logging practices account for less than 100 (or 15%) of the total 700species of merchantable timber trees (Soepadmo and Kora, 1977). Based on

this approximation, the forest is then potentially capable of yielding

about 177 m3 per ha. A 42 year old mixed meranti stand at the Forest

Research Institute which was felled in 1978 gave an estimated net return of

140.4 m3 per ha. (Wan Razali and Daljeet, 1981). The yield from a good

stand of Kapur forest is estimated to be 142 m3 per ha. and a figure of 284

m3 per ha. has been reported to be the upper limit (Lee, 1977).

In recent years, these forests have contributed significantly to industrial

development, of foreign exchange earnings, and the improvement of socio-

economic conditions, particularly in the rural areas. The forests also

play a vital role in environmental management and conservation of soil,

water, wildlife and genetic resources which are essential for successful

agricultural and rural development as well as for enhancing the quality of

life for both the rural and urban population. As a consequence of the

country's policies for sustained yield and conservational management,

forests still cover about 20.6 million hectares or 62.3% of the total land

area.. The location of the forest resources by regions is as shown in Table

19.

- 94 -

In numerical terms, in a 10 ha, survey at Pasoh Forest Reserve (a lowland

dipterocarp forest) a total of 5,907 trees ofl 0 cm. dbh and larger belonging to 460 different species was identified (Ashton, 1971) About 80% of these trees are in the 10-29 cm. diatpeter class while about 10% are with diameter greater than 40 cm. The Dipterocarpaceae constitutes about 7 -

14% of the total number of trees while Euphorbiaceae accounts for about 5 -16% •

Tang (1976) in a study in Terengganu found that the average stocking of

trees with diameter greater than 5 cm. in a virgin stand was 934 ± 121 per ha. with 80% of these in the two smallest diameter classes and less than 2% in the 60 cm. dbh and larger class. The average basal area was about 30

m2/ha.

The average yield from the forest is estimated to be 52 m3 per ha. and this is roughly about 30% of the total standing volume (FAO, 1973). Current logging practices account for less than 100 (or 15%) of the total 700

species of merchantable timber trees (Soepadmo and Kora, 1977). Based on this approximation, the forest is then potentially capable of yielding about 177 m3 per ha. A 42 year old mixed meranti stand at the Forest Research Institute which was felled in 1978 gave an es.timated net return of 140.4 m3 per ha. (Wan Razali and Daljeet, 1981). The yield from a good

stand of Kapur forest is estimated to be 142 m3 per ha. and a figure of 284 m3 per ha. has been reported to be the upper limit (Lee, 1977).

In recent years, these forests have contributed significantly to industrial development, of foreign exchange earnings, and the improvement of socio­economic conditions, particularly in the rural areas. The forests also play a vi tal role in environmental management and conservation of soil,

water, wildlife and genetic resources which are essential for successful agricultural and rural development as well as for enhancing the quality of life for both the rural and urban population. As a consequence of the country's policies for sustained yie::'j and conservational management,

forests still cover about 20.6 mU lion hectares or 62.3% of the total land area. The location of the forest resources by regions is as shown in Table 19.

- 95 -

Area Under Forest, Malaysia

(million ha.)

Region Land Area Forest Area Percentage of Land

Under Forest

Peninsular Malaysia 13.17 6.54 49.7Sabah 7.39 4.61 62.4Sarawak 12.45 9.43 75.7

Total 33.01 20.58 62.3

The forests of Malaysia have been variously classified according to their

ecological and physical distribution but for the purposes of management

they can be classified broadly into the Dipterocarp, Freshwater Swamp and

Mangrove Forests. The estimated extent of these forest types by regions at

the end of 1983 is as shown in Table 20 below:

Tab.J.e 20

Distribution and Extent of Major Forest Types, Malaysia

¡pillion ha.)

Region Dipterocarp Freshwater Mangrove Total

5w ara

Peninsular Malaysia 5.97 0.46 0.11 6.54Sabah 4.12 0.17* 0.32 4.61Sarawak 7.78 1.47 0.17 9.42

Malaysia 17.87 2.10 0.60 20.57

*Estimated

- 95 -

Table 19 Area Under Forest. Malaysia

(million ha.)

~-----------------------------------------------------------------------------Region

Peninsular Malaysia

Sabah Sarawak

Total

Land Area

13.17

7.39 12.45

33.01

Forest Area

6.54

4.61 9.43

20.58

Percentage of Land

Under Forest

49.7 62.4

75.7

62.3

--------------~---------------------------------------------------------------

The forests of Malaysia have been variously classified according to their

ecological and physical distribution but for the purposes of management they can be classified broadly into the Dipterocarp, Freshwater Swamp and Mangrove Forests; The estimated extent of these forest types by regions at

the end of 1983 is as · shown in Table 20 below:

Table 20

Distribution and Extent of Major Forest Types, Malay sia (million ha.)

Region

Peninsular Malaysia Sabah Sarawak

Malaysia

Dipterocarp

5 . 97 4.12 7.78

17 . 87

Freshwater Swamp

0.46

0.17· 1.47

2.10

*Estimated

Mangr ove

0 . 11 0.32 0.17

0 . 60

Total

6 . 54 4.61 9.42

20.57

- 96 -

On the plains, the tropical forest forms an almost unbroken canopy, but in

the higher mountains it tends to thin out and exhibits considerable

variation in flora. In the swampy areas, the high forest is replaced by a

swamp flora terminating in mangroves. The Dipterocarp forest which

represents 86.9% of the total forested land, is characterised by the

predominance of the family Dipterocarpaceae with many of the species of Uhe

genera Anisoptera. Dinterocarpus, Drvobalanops, Hopea,. Shorea and

Parashorea.

Although this rich timber resource is still subjected to rapid depletion as

a result of the large scale forest land clearance for agricultural and

urban development, a total of 13.8 million ha. of forested land has been

earmarked as Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) to be managed under sustained

yield. The information here is aggregated into two broad categories as

details vary from State to State. Protective forests include all forested

land designated as National Parks, Wildlife Reserves, etc. Hence,

approximately 9.1 million ha. of the proposed Permanent Forest Estates have

been identified as productive while the remaining 4.7 million ha. as

protective forests. The extent of the proposed Permanent Forest Estates in

Malaysia is shown in Table 21 below:

Table 21

Extent of the Proposed Permanent Forest Estates

(million ha,)

*Estimated

The bulk of the PFE will be located in the hilly and mountainous

interior with most of the forests covering sensitive environments and

critical watersheds. Intensive forest inventory and relevant integrated

forest management and operational studies as well as some basic research

and development will therefore be imperative to determine more precisely

the timber production areas.

Region Protective

Forest

Productive

Forest

Total

Peninsular Malaysia 1.90 2.85 4.75Sabah 0.35 3.00 3.35Sarawak* 2.42 3.24 5.66

Malaysia 4.67 9.09 13.76

- 96 -

On the pl-ains, the tropical forest forms an almost unbroken canopy, but in

the higher mountains it tends to thin out and exhibi ts considerable variation in flora. In the swampy areas, the high forest is replaced by a swamp flora terminating in mangroves. The Dipterocarp forest which represents 86.9% of the total forested land. is characterised by the predominance of the family Dipterocarpaceae with many of the species of the genera Anisoptera. Dipterocarpus. Dryobalanops, Hopea, Shorea and Parashorea.

Although this rich timber resource is still subjected to rapid depletion as a result of the large scale forest land clearance for agricultural and

urban development, a total of 13.8 million ha. of forested land has been earmarked as Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) to be managed under sustained

yield. The informa tion here is aggrega ted into tw 0 broad categories as details vary from State to State. Protective forests include all forested land deSignated as National Parks, Wildlife Reserves, etc. Hence, approximately 9.1 million ha. of the proposed Permanent Forest Estates have been identified as productive while the remaining 4.7 million ha. as

protective forests. Tbe extent of the proposed Permanent Forest Estates in Malaysia is show n in Table 21 below:

Table 21 Extent of the Proposed Permanent Forest Estates

(million ha.)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------Region

Peninsular Malaysia Sabah Sarawak-

Protective Forest

1.90 0.35 2.42

Productive Forest

2.85 3.00 3.24

Total

4.75 3.35 5.66

------------------------------------------------------------------------------Malaysia 4.67 9.09 13.76

-Estimated

Tbe bulk of the PFE will be located in the hilly and mountainous

interior with most of the forests covering sensi ti ve environments and cri tical watersheds. Intensive forest inventory and relevant integrated forest management and operational studies as well as some basic research and development will therefore be imperative to determine more precisely the timber production areas.

- 97 -

Due to the absence of regular and up-to-date forest inventories; the

complexities of the tropical rainforests; and the lack of standardisation

in format and uniformity in terminology,concerning forest and timber

resources there is no overall estimate of the growing stock in Malaysia

The issue is further confused by the great variation in the stocking of

similar forest types and the level or intensity of utilisation in the

various States. Under the circumstances, the total growing stock cannot be

determined precisely but a conservative estimate based on past forest

inventories suggest a total volume in excess of one billion (109) cubic

metres. In addition, recent estimates also indicate that substantial

volumes of currently under-utilised timbers would be available if

appropriate uses, technologies and markets could be found.

In recent years, Malaysia has recognised the urgent need for forest

plantations to meet domestic requirements in Peninsular Malaysia and to

sustain timber exports in Sabah. Ambitious programmes for the

establishment of plantations of fast-growing tree species, such as Acacia

mangium. Gmelina arborea, Paraserianthes falcataria. Eucalyptus deglupta

and Pinus caribaea, have been formulated and some have been implemented

which could eventually cover as much as 500,000 hectares. Programmes which

are being implemented include those of Sabah Softwood (61,000 ha.); Sabah

Forestry Development Authority (100,000 ha.); Sabah Forest Industries

(48,150 ha.) and the Compensatory Plantation Project in Peninsular Malaysia

(188,000 ha.) which will initially involve the States of Johore, Negeri

Sembilan, Pahang and Selangor.

FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Perspective

The first forest service in Malaysia was established in the Straits

Settlements in 1883 with its first Chief Forest Officer being appointed in

1901 while the first Conservators of Forests in Sabah (North Borneo) and

Sarawak were appointed in 1915 and 1919 respectively (Menon, 1976) when

most of the country was forested and demands on the forest were few. The

removal of forest produce to satisfy domestic basic needs had an

insignificant impact on the forest environment which had an immense

capacity for regeneration. Under these circumstances,the main activities

were exploration, reservation, legislation and administration, as

management in the strict sense was hardly necessary. Traditional working

plans based on area control were more than adequate for operation and

regulation.

- 97 -

Due to the absence of regular and up-to-date forest inventories ; the

complexities of the tropical rainforests; and the lack of standardisation in format and uniformity in terminology , concerning >forest and timber resources there is no overall estimate of the growing stock in Malaysia

The issue is further confused by the great variation in the stocking of> similar forest types and the level or intensi ty of utilisation in the various States. Under the circumstances, the total growing stock cannot be determined precisely but a conservative estimate based on past forest inventories suggest a total volume in excess of one billion (10 9) cubic

metres. In addi tion, recent estimates also indica te that substantial volumes of currently under-utilised timbers would be available if appropriate uses, technologies and markets could be found.

In recent years, Malaysia has recognised the urgent need for forest

plantations to meet domestic requirements in Peninsular Malaysia and to sustain timber exports in Sabah. Ambitious programmes for the

establishment of plantations of fast-growing tree species, such as Acacia mangium. Gmelina arborea. Paraserianthes falcataria. Eucalyptus deglupta and Pinus caribaea, have been formulated and some have been implemented which could eventually cover as much as 500,000 hectares. Programmes which

are being implemented include those of Sabah Softwood (61,000 ha.) ; Sabah

Forestry Development Authority (100,000 ha.); Sabah Forest Industries

(48,150 ha.) and the Compensa tory Plantation Proj ect in Peninsular Malaysia (188,000 ha.) which will initially involve the States of Johore, Negeri Sem bilan, Pahang and Selansor.

FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Perspective

The first forest service in Malaysia was established in the Straits Settlements in 1883 with its first COief Forest Officer being aPPOinted in 1901 while the first Conservators of Forests in Sabah (North Borneo) and

Sarawak were appOinted in 1915 and 1919 respectively (Menon, 1976) when most of the country was forested and demands on the forest were few. The removal of forest produce to satisfy domestic basic needs had an

insignificant impact on the forest environment which had an immense capaci ty for regeneration. Under these circumstances, the main activi ties were exploration, reservation, legislation and administration, as management in the strict sense was hardly necessary. Traditional working

plans based on area control were more than adequa te f or operation and regula tion.

- 98 -

Malaysia has been able to conserve the country's abundant and rich natural

forest resources by adopting relevant policies to ensure balanced and

beneficial utilisation of these resources consistent with the concept and

principles of sustained yield management. As a developing country with a

relatively small population and chronic under-development in the past,

Malaysia is committed to a comprehensive socio-economic development

programme in which land development has a major role. Hence, after

independence in 1957, ambitious plans were formulated for socio-economic

development, particularly in the rural areas. Large-scale land development

programmes were launched by the conversion of land under natural tropical

forest which produced an abundance of high quality logs. This coincided

with a rapid increase in world demand for tropical hardwoods which

stimulated a tremendous expansion of wood-based indusries in Malaysia. The

unprecedented grow th in demand for tropical hardwoods combined with

clearing for agriculture development resulted in accelerated depletion of

tropical forest to the present level at which rational management has

become imperative. However, the relevance and soundness of the forest

resource utilisation and management policies in Malaysia should be

evaluated in perspective, particularly in the light of the different needs,

aspirations and conditions prevailing in the respective States concerned.

A "Forest Management Policy and Strategy for Peninsular Malaysia" was

proposed in 1976 and subsequently accepted as supplementary to the National

Forestry Policy. The policy was formulated to ensure fuller utilisation of

the forest resource; sustained yield in perpetuity; maximum social and

economic benefits; and environment stability. The explicit forest

Management policy is:

to manage and utilise the forest for maximum benefit based on the

inherent capability of the forest and its optimal use;

to manage the utilisation of the forest resource based on

comprehensive forest land use and management plans;

to determine potential yield on the basis of systematic and in-

depth appraisals of the forest resource base, its growth potential

and of the relevant factors;

to regulate log flows based on a careful balance of supply and

demand and maximum utilisation prospects and constraints;

to harvest the forest resource conservationally by selective

felling and retention of adequate natural regeneration, consistent

with econorical harvesting, to ensure the sustainability of the

forest resource base; and

~ 98 -

. Malaysia has been able to conserve the country's abundant and rich natural

forest resources by adopting relevant policies to ensure balanced and beneficial utilisation of these resources consistent with the concept and principles of sustained yield management. As a developing country with a relatively small population and chronic under-development in the past, Malaysia is committed to a comprehensive socio-economic development . programme in which land development has a major role. Hence, after independence in 1957, ambitious plans were formulated for socio-economic development, particularly in the rural areas. Large-scale land development

programmes were launched by the conversion of land under natural tropical forest which produced an abundance of high quality logs. This coincided with a rapid increase in world demand for tropical hardwoods which stimulated a tremendous expansion of wood-based indusries in Malaysia. The

unprecedented growth in demand for tropical hardwoods combined with clearing for agriculture development resulted in accelerated depletion of tropical forest to the present level at which rational management has become imperative. However, the relevance and soundness of the forest resource utilisation and management policies in Malaysia should be evaluated in perspective, particularly in the light of the different needs, aspirations and conditions prevailing in the respective States concerned.

A "Forest Management Policy and Strategy for Peninsular Malaysia" was

proposed in 1976 and subsequently accepted as supplementary to the National Forestry Policy. The policy was formulated to ensure fuller utilisation of the forest resource; sustained yield in perpetuity; maximum social and economic benefits; and environment stability. The explicit forest management policy is:

i) to manage and utilise the forest for maximum benefit based on the inherent capability of the forest and its optimal use;

11) to manage the utilisa tion of the forest resource based on comprehensive forest land use and management plans;

iii) to determine potential yield on the basis of systematic and in­depth appraisals of the forest resource base, its growth potential

and of the relevant factors;

iv) to regulate log flows based on a careful balance of supply and

demand and maximum utilisation prospects and constraints;

v) to harvest the forest resource conservationaliy by selective

felling and retention of adequate natural regeneration, consistent with econo~ical harvesting, to ensure the sustainability of the forest resource base; and

- 99 -

vi) to apply optimal forest management regimes developed on the basis

of information generated by systematic integrated forest

management and operations research.

In Sabah, the basis for rational future management of the forests has been

considered to be as follows:

i) intensive manag:r nt r- the permanent forests with extensive

liberation treatmenu based on forest sampling/inventory

to determine species and size class distribution for prescribing

treatment of the growing stock,

ii) special provisions in logging licences and concerted efforts to

curtail logging damage,

iii) mulitple-use management through strict regulation of logging in

forest reserves with protective functions and incorporation of

agro-forestry in suitable areas,

iv) development of forest tree plantations to an appropriate extent, -

and

v) reduction of export of logs and promotion of local processing.

In Sarawak, the broad objectives of forest management are as follows:

optimum utilisation of the resource potential;

regulation of the harvest in accordance with the sustained yield

concept;

rehabilitation and protection of the forest after harvest; and

development of the forest estate as a permanent resource base for

industry or other uses and maximising revenue and socio-economic

benefits in as far as it is compatible with the dominant use of

the forest.

The overall management strategies for the forestry sector in Malaysia are as

follows:

i) forest land which is scheduled for conversion to agriculture will

be released for clearance in a properly planned and controlled

manner so as to ensure a regulated and reliable flow of logs,

together with the maximum possible utilization of the available

wood supply. Plans for the efficient prior harvesting of all

areas scheduled for land clearance must be strictly enforced, and

- 99 -

vi) to apply optimal forest management regimes developed on the basis of information generated by systematic integrated forest management and operations research.

In Sabah, the basis for rational future management of the forests has been considered to be as follows:

. / i) intensive manage!'" nt (" the permanent forests with extensive

liberation treatmenL based on forest sampling/inventory to determine species and size class distribution for prescribing treatment of the growing stock,

ii) special provisions in logging licences and concerted efforts to curtail logging damage,

iii) mulitple-use management through strict regulation of logging in forest reserves with protective functions and incorporation of agre-forestry in sui table areas,

iv) development of forest tree plantations to an appropriate extent, and

v) reduction of export of logs and promotion of local processing.

In Sarawak, the broad objectives of forest management are as follows:

i) optimum utilisation of the resource potential;

ii) regulation of the harvest in accordance with the sustained yield concept;

iii) rehabilitation and protection of the forest after harvest; and

iv) development of the forest estate as a permanent resource base for industry or other uses and maximising revenue and socie-economic benefits in as far as it is compatible with the dominant use of the forest.

The overall management strategies for the forestry sector in Malaysia are as follows:

i) forest land which is scheduled for conversion to agricul ture will be released for clearance in a properly planned and controlled manner so as to ensure a regulated and reliable flow of logs, together with the maximum possible uti+ization of the available wood supply. Plans for the efficient prior harvesting of all areas scheduled for land clearance must be strictly enforced, and

ii) forested land which is not destined for conversion to agriculture

will be designated as permanent forest and will be managed as a

renewable resource in a manner designed to maximize commercial

returns compatible with the maintenance of environmental value.

PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

Early Development

The first recorded forest management of importance in Peninsular Malaysia

is generally known as the "gutta percha" era (1900 - 1910) (Barnard, 1954).

The price of gutta percha, a latex of Palaquium gutta, then fetched a price

of up to $500/pikul (60 kg) (Wyatt-Smith, 1963). Trees of P. gutta were

destructively felled for their latex. Logging was highly selective and

confined to the naturally durable heavy hardwoods, mainly Balanocarpus

heimii (Chengal). It was estimated then that the virgin Malayan rainforest

carried about 260 m.3/ha of stemwood and at the start of the century only

about 7 m.3/ha were being extracted (Wyaatt-Smith, 1959). After this

operation the forest was considered "worked out". Silvicultural operations

were confined to the establishment of P. gutta and para rubber (Revea

brasiliensis) plantations with enrichment planting of Balanocarous heimii,

only fo fail through the lack of subsequent tendings.

For the period 1910 - 1922 a series of silvicultural treatments knawn as

Departmental Improvement Fellings was implemented mainly to favour mostly

the development of P, gutta and poles of immature trees (not young

regeneration) of the more valuable timber species. During this period,

exploitation of timber and fuel was carried out exclusively on Stateland

foresta. The treatment involved the removal of all species whose crowns

were interfering with any valuable timber species and cutting of all bettam

(Engeissona triste) and creepers (except rattans) within a fixed distance

(Wyatt-Smith, 1963). It was observer_t that natural regeneration was very

good for all species except Palaquium species and it was suggested that,

instead of planting, it would be better to "assist the existing natural

regeneration by giving them more light and space". These observations

formed the basis of early forest improvement work which involved the

freeing of young trees of economic value.

- 100 -

ii) forested land which is not destined for conversion to agriculture

will be designated as permanent forest and will be managed as a renewable resource in a manner ,designed to maximize commercial returns compatible with the maintenance of environmental value.

PBNIHSULAH MALAYSIA

Early Development

The first recorded forest management of importance in Peninsular Malaysia is generally know n as the "gutta percha" era (1900 - 1910) (Barnard, 1954).

The price of gutta percha, a latex of PalaQuium gutta, then fetched a price of up to $500/pikul (60 kg) (Wyatt-Smith, 1963). Trees of .f.. gutta were destructively felled for their latex. Logging was highly selective and confined to the naturally durable heavy hardwoods, mainly Balanocarpus heimii (Chengal). It was estimated then that the virgin Malayan rainforest

carried about 260 m.3/ha of stemwood and at the start of the century only

about 7 m. 3/ha were being extracted (Wyaatt-Smith, 1959) . After this operation the forest was considered "worked out". Silvicultural operations were confined to the establishment of L. gutta and para rubber (Heyea brasiliensis) plantations with enrichment planting of Balanocarpus heimii,

only fo fail through the lack of subsequent tendings.

For the period 1910 - 1922 a series of silvicultural treatments known as Departmental Improvement Fellings was implemented mainly to favour mostly the development of L. gutta and poles of immature trees (not young regeneration) of the more valuable timber speCies. During this period, exploitation of timber and fuel was carried out exclusively on Stateland

forests. The treatment involved the removal of all species whose crowns were interfering with any valuable timber species and cutting of all bettam (Engeissona triste) and creepers (except rattans) within a fixed distance (Wyatt-Smith, 1963). It was observe". that natural regeneration was very good for all species except Palaauium species and it was suggested that,

instead of planting, it would be better to "assist the existing natural regeneration by giving them more light and space". These observations

formed the basis of early forest improvement work which involved the freeing of young trees of economic value.

- 101 -

About 1922, a change occurred in the exploitation of the forests as Forest

Reserves were opened for logging, mainly for firewood in response to an

increased demand while the mining boom had also created a strong demand for

poles. These developments were considered in relation to the early

Departmental Improvement Felling operations which were aimed solely at

improving the existing stock and as the response of immature trees to these

treatments were poor, doubt was expressed about the value of such

treatments. Moreover, in the face of the rising demand for timber, it was

felt that it would be unwise to girdle trees which had a use as poles or

fuel.

A review of silvicultural practices in 1926 (Wyatt-Smith, 1963) revealed

that the value of earlier Departmental Improvement Fellings had been lost

as they had not been repeated. However, profuse young regeneration of the

more valuable species had resulted and the improvement fellings had, in

effect, been regeneration fellings (For. Dept. W. Mal, 1972). As a result, -

three classes of operations were distinguished as follows:

Departmental Improvement Fellings (Operations).

Commercial Regeneration Fellings (Operations).

Departmental Regeneration Fellings (Operations) or Regeneration

Improvement Fellings (R.I.F.).

The Departmental Improvement Fellings which had the intention of removing

the inferior species in several stages to promote the development of

species having actual or potential value before the felling of these

species were permitted had virtually ceased by 1932 (Hodgson, 1932). The

second and third methods had a great deal of similarity with the classical

shelterwood systems where the original forest canopy was gradually removed

over a period of 8 - 10 years, during which regeneration was expected to be

established and was given repeated regeneration tendings (Blandford, 1929).

Commercial Regeneration Fellings which was also known as "Seedling

Fellings" were formulated in 1927 with a 5 years regeneration period and

several clearings. This operation involved the gradual removal in several

stages, of the inferior species before the felling of the useful species

under commercial operations when there was a market for firewood and poles

and at a profit to the Forestry Department. The sequence of operations is

as in Table 22 below:

- 10 1 -

About 1922, a ·change occurred in the exploitation of the forests as Forest

Reserves were opened for logging, mainly for firewood in response to an increased demand while the mining boom had also created a strong demand for poles. These developments were considered in relation to the early

Departmental Improvement Felling operations which were aimed solely at improving the existing stock and as the response of immature trees to these treatments were poor, doubt was expressed about the value of such

treatments. Moreover, in the face of the rising demand for timber, it was felt that it would be unwise to girdle trees which had a use as poles or

fuel.

A review of ail vicul tural practices in 1926 (Wyatt-Smith, 1963) revealed that the value of earlier Departmental Improvement Fellings had been lost

as they had not been repeated. However, profuse young regeneration of the more valuable species had resul ted and the improvement fellings had, in effect, been regeneration fellings (For. Dept. W. Mal, 1972). As a result,

three classes of operations were distinguished as follows:

i) Departmental Improvement Fellings (Operations) .

11) Commercial Regeneration Fellings (Operations).

i1i) Departmental Regeneration Fellings (Operations) or Regeneration Improvement Fellings (R.I.F . ).

The Departmental Improvement Fellings which had the intention of removing

the inferior species in several stages to promote the development of species having actual or potential value before the felling of these species were permitted had virtually ceased by 1932 (Hodgson, 1932). The second and third methods had a great deal of similari ty with the cl as si cal shelterwood systems where the original forest canopy was gradually removed

over a period of 8 - 10 years, during which regeneration was expected to be established and was given repeated regeneration tendings (Blandford, 1929).

Commercial Regeneration Fellings which was also known as "Seedling Fellings" were formulated in 1927 with a 5 years regeneration period and several clearings. This operation involved the gradual removal in several stages, of the inferior species before the felling of the useful species under commercial operations when there was a market for firewood and poles and at a profit to the Forestry Department. The sequence of operations is as in Table 22 belOW:

- 1 P Felling of unmarked class 2 poles under 20 cm dbh.

Si First seeding felling of marked class 2 trees.

n + 2 or + 3 Cl First cleaning if necessary.

52 Second seeding felling of marked class 2 trees.

+ 5 C2 Second cleaning.

+ 6 F Final felling of marked class 1 trees provided

successful regeneration verified in C2.

4 7 C Clearing alter final felling if necessary.

- 102 -

Table 22

tiSequence of Operations for Commercial Regeneration Feflings

*Based on Baur (1964)

Hodgson (1932) prescribed a slightly different schedule to this. Pole

felling (P) included the felling of poles up to 30 cm dbh, the second

cleaning being caried out in year n + 6 or n + 7, final felling in year n+

7, and the cleaning after final felling being carried out some time after

F if found necessary. The pole felling was to remove those small stems

which were liable to be severely damaged if retained. In the first seeding

felling the aim was to produce evenly distributed gaps of about 7.5 m

diameter in the canopy and under-storey canopy opening was to be avoided.

The long regeneration period of 6 or 7 years gave time for regeneration to

be established, and if it was still absent at this stage the final felling

was to be delayed. However, when final felling did occur, ,all trees above

50cm dbh were to be removed. Zugeissona was to be removed, if dense,

before any treatment was given. It was expected that after treatment a

felling cycle of 40 years, with intermediate thinnings, could apply.

The Departmental Regeneration Fellings also known as Regeneration

Improvement Fellings (R.I.F.) were rather similar to Commercia.3.

Regeneration Fellings and were confined to areas where there was no demand

for inland firewood. Canopy opening became bolder, or even drastic, with

two or more complete undergrowth cuttings. The general schedule of

operations was similar to those for Commercial Regeneration Fellings, but

the inferior species were removed by girdling if over 15 cm dbh. Since the

canopy was opened more gradually by the slow death of girdled trees, the

first girdlin,g operation was more severe than the broadly equivalent first

seedling fellings, and where commercial trees were plentiful all inferior

species might be removed during the first girdling operation.

Year Code Operation

- 102 -

Table 22

-Sequence of Operations for Commercial Regeneration Fellings

------------------------------------------------------------------------------Year Code Operation

n - 1 P Felling of unmarked class 2 poles under 20 cm dbh. n Sl First seeding felling of marked class 2 trees.

n + 2 or + 3 Cl First cleaning if necessary.

n + 4 S2 Second seeding felling of marked class 2 trees. n + 5 C2 Second cleaning.

n + 6 F Final felling of marked class 1 trees provided successful regeneration verified in C2.

n + 7 C Clearing after final felling if necessary.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Based on Baur (1964)

Hodgson (1932) prescribed a slightly different schedule to this. Pole

felling (P) included the felling of poles up to 30 cm dbh, the second cleaning bei ng caried out in year n + 6 or n + 7, final felling in year n +

7, and the cleaning after final felling being carried out some time after

F if found necessary. The pole felling was to remove those small stems which were liable to be severely damaged if retained. In the first seeding felling the aim was to produce evenly distributed gaps of about 7.5 m diameter in the canopy and under-storey canopy opening was to be avoided.

The long regeneration period of 6 or 7 years gave time for regeneration to be established, and if it was still absent at this stage the final felling was to be delayed. However, when final felling did occur, ,all trees above 50cm dbh were to be removed. Eugeissona was to be removed, if deuse,

before any treatment was given. It was expected that after treatment a felling cycle of 40 years, with intermediate thinnings, could apply.

The Departmental Regeneration Fellings also know n as Regeneration

Improvement Fellings (R.I.F.) were rather similar to Commercial Regeneration Fellings and were confined to areas where there was no demand for inland firewood. Canopy opening became bolder, or even drastic, with two or more complete undergrowth cuttings. The general schedule of operations was similar to those for Commercial Regeneration Fellings, but

the inferior species were removed by girdling if over 15 cm dbh. Since the canopy was' opened more gradually by the slow death of girdled trees, the first girdling operation was more severe than the broadly equivalent first seedling fellings, and where commercial trees were plentiful all i nferior species might be removed during the first girdling operation.

- 103 -

The girdling was accompanied by the first cleaning (GCI), and the

treatments were repeated 3 or 14 years later (GC2) when girdling was

commonly confined to those stems that had survived the first girdling.

Another cleaning might be given one or two years later, and the final

felling was carried out to 2 to 24 years after GC2. The sequence of

operations for Departmental Regeneration Improvement Fellings is shown in

Table 23 below:

Table 2'i

*Sequence of Operation

for Departmental Regeneration Improvement Fellings (R.I.F.)

0C1 First girdling of inferior species and

cleaning.

n + 3 or + 24 GC2 Second girdling and cleaning.

about n + 5 C3 Cleaning in necessary.

about n + 7 F Final Fellings of marked trees.

*Based on Baur (19614)

Hence, Regeneration Improvement Fellings involved girdling rather than

felling. Girdling helps to reduce damage to the residual stand, deprives

climbers of the convenient ladder of a fallen but still strong crown, and

slows down the increase of light, thereby giving trees more chance of

competing with the more rapidly responding light demanding climbers. This

operation was profitable as long as there was a high demand for fuelwood,

but with the ever increasing competition from coal, oil and electricity,

greater numbers of unwanted trees had to be removed by deep girdling. The

loss of revenue, coupled with costly girdling operations resulted in the

evolution of a cheaper and more efficient technique in tree killing

operations by the use of an aqueous solution of sodium arsenite poured into

a shallow frill-girdle round the tree. The Departmental Regeneration

Feflings became known as Regeneration improvement Fellings (R.I.F.), and

strictly speaking this name should only be applied to the departmental

operations. However, it now appears standard practice to refer to either

type of regeneration inducement as R.I.F., in view of the great similarity

between them. Moreover, from about 1935 onwards, as the demand for

firewood decreased in the face of competition from alternative sources of

fuel, and as the market for mining poles became more limited, departmental

operations became increasingly widely applied.

Year Code Operation

- 103 -

The girdling was accompanied by the first cleaning (GCI), and the

treatments were repeated 3 or 4 years later (GC2) when girdling was commonly confined to those stems that had survived the first girdling.

Another cleaning might be given one or two years later, and the final felling was carried out to 2 to 4 years after GC2. The sequence of

operations for Departmental Regeneration Improvement Fellings is show n in Table 23 below:

Table 23

·Sea ue nce of Operati on

for Departmental Regeneration Improyement Fellings (R.I.F,)

Year Code Operation

n GC1 First girdling of inferior species and

cleaning.

n + 3 or + 4 GC2 Second girdling and cleaning.

about n + 5 C3 Cleaning in necessary.

about n + 7 F Final Fellings of marked trees.

·Based on Baur (1964)

Hence, Regeneration Improvement Fellings invol ved girdling rather than

felling. Girdling helps to reduce damage to the residual stand, deprives

climbers of the comenient ladder of a fallen but still strong crow n, and

slows down the increase of light, thereby giving trees more chance of

competing with the more rapidly responding light demanding climbers. This

operation was profitable as long as there was a high demand for fuelwood,

but with the ever increasing competition from coal, oil and electricity,

grea ter numbers of unwanted trees had to be removed by deep girdling. The

loss of revenue, coupled with costly girdling operations resulted in the

evolution of a cheaper and more efficient technique in tree killing

operations by the use of an aqueous solution of sodium arsenite poured into a shallow frill-girdle round the tree. The Departmental Regeneration

Fellings became known as Regeneration Improvement Fellings (R.I.F.), and strictly speaking this name should only be applied to the departmental

operations. However, it now appears standard practice to refer to ei ther type of regeneration inducement as R.LF., in view of the great similarity

between them. Moreover, from about 1935 onwards, as the demand for firewood decreased in the face of competition from alternative sources of

fuel, and as the market for mining poles became more limited, departmental

operations became increasingly widely applie~

- 104 -

During the period 1935 - 1941, while the demand for inland firewood was

declining sharply, the development of medium powered sawmills and the

shortage of supplies from accessible stateland forests had led to an

increasing demand for timber from the Forest Reserves and less selective

timber exploitation and to the evolutions of 'sawmill silviculture'

(Barnard, 19511). As research results began to become available during this

period, it was also realised that successful regeneration could be

established with fewer cleanings. There were suggestions for cleaning of

the regeneration to be carried out after exploitation was completed, in

contrast to the pre-treatment in vogue, combined with poison-girdling of

the remaining large trees would ordinarily suffice. There was also a

general introduction of cheap poison-girdlin,g by the application of sodium

arsenite at 50 to 100 gm per litre of water to the frill (Mead, 1940).

Another development during the mid-thirties appears to have followed a

suggestion of Edwards (1931) that some form of sampling should be employed,

as a guide to cleaning treatments and to the desirability of carrying out

final felling. About 1935, linear sampling using milliacre plots of 2 m x

2 m was introduced and was later widely used as a means of determining the

extent and nature of desirable regeneration.

During the Japanese Occupation (19142 - 1945) great destruction took place

on accessible forested lands which were converted for food growing. This

included the destruction of about 14,200 ha. under regeneration fellings

and 5,300 ha, or nearly half of the fully regenerated forest available.

Uncontrolled timber exploitation on stateland forests and in Forest

Reserves occurred and no silvicultura], operations were carried out.

The Malayan Uniform Synteza (MAL S.)

After the Pacific War, Regeneration Improvement Felling (R.I.F.) was

discontinued after a couple of years because of the increased demand for

raw materials from the increasing number of sawmills and the use of heavy

machinery in harvesting. Moreover, it was observed that many of the

untended clear-fellings made during the Japanese Occupation and suspected

storm forests contained adequate advanced seedlings regeneration which were

present on the ground at the time felling had survived undamaged and had

even grown rapidly to form the dominant crop without any assistance while

the slower growing 'economic species' had formed the sub-dominant crop. In

fact, meranti seedlings already on the ground responded immediately to a

sudden drastic canopy opening. These factors led to the formulation of the

Malayan Uniform System (MUS) in 19148 which is basically a system for

converting the virgin tropical lowland rainforest ( a rich, complex multi-

species and multi-aged forest) to a more or less even-aged forest

containing a greater proportion of the commercial species, achieved by a

clearfelling release of selected natural regeneration of varying age, aided

by systematic poisoning of unwanted species (Wyatt-Smith, 1963).

- 104 -

During the period 1935 - 1941, while the demand for inland firewood was

declining sharply, the development of medium powered sawmills and the shortage of supplies from accessible stateland forests had led to an increasing demand for timber from the Forest Reserves .and less selective timber exploitation and to the evolutions of 'sawmill silviculture' (Barnard, 1954). As research results began to become available during this period, it was also realised that successful regeneration could be

established with fewer cl eanings. There were suggestions for cleaning of the regeneration to be carried out after exploitation was completed, in contrast to the pre-treatment in vogue, combined with poison-girdling of the remaining large trees would ordinarily suffice. There was also a general introduction of cheap poison-girdling by the ·application of sodium arsenite at 50 to 100 gm per litre of water to the frill (Mead, 1940).

Another development during the mid-thirties appears to have followed a suggestion of Edwards (1931) that some form of sampling should be employed, as a guide to cleaning treatments and to the desirability of carrying out final felling. About 1935, linear sampling using milliacre plots of 2 m x 2 m was introduced and was later widely used as a means of determining the extent and nature of desirable regeneration.

During the Japanese Occupation (1942 - 1945) great destruction took place on accessible forested lands which were converted for food growing. This included the destruction of about 14,200 ha. under regeneration fellings and 5 ,300 ha, or nearly half of the fully regenerated forest available.

Uncontrolled timber explOitation on stateland forests and in Forest Reserves occurred and no silvicultural operations were carried ou~

The Kalayan Uniforw System CM. U. S. )

After the Pacific War, Regeneration Improvement Felling (R.LF.) was discontinued after a couple of years because of the increased demand for raw materials from the increasing number of sawmills and the use of heavy machinery in harvesting. Moreover, it was observed that many of the untended clear-fellings made during the Japanese Occupation and suspected storm forests contained adequate advanced seedlings regeneration which were present on the ground at the time felling had survived undamaged and had even grown rapidly to form the dominant crop without any assistance while

the slower growing 'economic species' had formed the sub-dominant crop. In fact, meranti seedlings already on the ground responded immediately . to a sudden drastic canopy opening. These factors led to the formulation of the

. Malayan Uniform System (MUS) in ;948 which is basically a system for

converting the virgin tropical lowland rainforest ( a rich, complex multi­species and multi-aged forest) to a more or less even-aged forest containing a grea ter proportion of the commercial species, achieved by a clearfelling release of selected natural regeneration of varying age, .aided by systematic pOiSOning of unwant.ed species (Wyatt-Smith, 1963).

- 105 -

Hence, MUS consists of removing the mature crop in one single felling of

all trees down to 45 cm. diameter at breast height for all species and

releasing the selected natural regeneration of varying ages which are

mainly the light demanding medium and light harwood species. This felling

operation is followed by a poison girdling operation of defective relics

and non-commercial species down to a minimum dbh of 15 cm. - 5 cm.

Approximately 5 to 7 years after felling a linear strip sampling is carried

out to verify the presence of sufficient regeneration on the ground and

subsequently to determine suitable silvicultural treatments.

The success of the system depends upon five important factors which are as

follows:

There must be an adequately well-distributed stocking of seedlings

of economic species at the time of felling. This information is

obtained from a milliacre ( 2 x 2 m) linear sampling of the area.

If stocking is inadequate the stand is to be left behind until

after a seed year to be followed by another sampling.

Complete removal of the canopy through poison-girdling of all

remaining big sized trees and other species considered as non-

commercial down to 5 cm. dbh.

No tending until the regrowth has passed the ephemeral climber

stage and is relatively clear below.

- 105 -

Hence, MUS consists of removing the matUre crop in one single felling of all trees down to 45 cm. diameter at breast height for all species and releasing the selected natural regeneration of varying ages which are mainly " the light demanding medium and light harwood species. This felling operation is followed by a poison girdling operation of defective relics

and no~commercial species down to a minimum dbh of 15 cm. - 5 cm. Approximately 5 to 7 years after felling a linear strip sampling is carried

out to verifY the presence of sufficient regeneration on the ground and subsequently to determine suitable silvicultural treatments.

The success of the system depends upon five important factors which are as

follows:

i) There must be an adequately well-distributed stocking of seedlings of economic species at the time of felling. This information is obtained from a milliacre ( 2 x 2 m) linear sampling of the ar~ If stocking is inadequate the stand is to be left behind until

at'ter a seed year to be t'ollowed by another sampling.

11) Complete "removal of the canopy through poison-girdling ot' all

remaining big sized trees and other species considered as no~

commercial down to 5 cm. dbh.

111) No tending until the regrowth has passed the ephemeral climber stage and 1s relatively clear below.

- 106 -

iv) Maintenance of adequate new canopy to prevent the redevelopment of

climbers.

Linear samplings have to be carried out at regular intervals to

assess the regeneration status of the seedlings.

The normal sequence of operations under the MUS as originally prescribed is

as shown in Table 214.

Table 24

*Sequence of Operations

for Malaz,Ta.n Uniform System (As Originally Prescribed)

- 1 1/2

to n + 1

+ 3 to n + 5

+ 10

+ 20, n + 240 etc.

Year Operation

Linear sampling ( 2m. x 2 in. ) of regeneration,

and enumeration of merchantable trees.

Exploitation, followed by poison-girdling down to

5 cm. dbh.

Linear sampling (5 in. x 5 m.) of' new crop,

followed by cleaning, climber cutting and poison-

girdling as required.

Linear sampling (10 m. x 10 m.) of new crop,

followed by treatment as required or passed as

regenerated.

Sampling and thinning as required.

*Based on Baur (19614)

Yec___Lafied Mal ay si an MAP oral Sys tem

This M.U.S. has been successfully applied to the lowland dipterocarp forest

but has been found to be unsuccessful in the hill dipterocarp forest. The

reasons for that include the comparatively more difficult terrain, uneven

stocking, lack of' natural regeneration on the forest floor before logging,

uncertainty of seedling regeneration after logging because of irregular

seeding from potential mother trees, soraetimes at intervals of several

years (Whitmore, 1975), heavy seedling mortality due to felling damage on

steep slopes and poor viability of the seed of Shorea ourtisii which is the

main commercial species (Burgess, 1968, 1971).

- 106 -

iv) Maintenance of adequate new canopy to prevent the redevelopment of

climbers .

v) Linear samplings have to be carried out at regular intervals to assess the regeneration status of the seedlings.

The normal sequence of operations under the MUS as originally prescribed is as show n in Table 24.

Table 24 .Sequence Qf OperatiQns

for Malayan Uniform System (As Originally Prescribed)

Year

n - 1 1/2

n to n + 1

n + 3 to n + 5

n + 10

n + 20, n + 40 etc .

Operation

Linear sampling ( 2m. x 2 m.) of regeneration, and enumeration of merchantable trees.

ExplOitation, followed by poison-girdling down to

5 cm. dl:h. Linear sampling (5 m. x 5 m.) of new crop,

followed by cleaning, cl imber cut ti ng and poiso~

girdling as required. Linear sampling (10 ID. X 10 m.) of new crop, followed by treatment as required or passed as regenerated.

Sampling and thinning as required.

- Based on Baur (1964)

Modified KalaYsian Unito .... System

This H.U.S. has been successfully applied to the lowland dipterocarp forest

but has been found to be unsuccessful in the hill dipterocarp forest. The

reasons for that include the comparatively more difficul t terrain, uneven stocking, lack of natural regeneration on the forest floor before logging,

uncertainty of seedling regeneration after logging because of irregular

seeding from potential mother trees, sometimes at intervals of several years (Whitmore, 1975), heavy seedling mortality due to felling damage on steep slopes and poor viability of the seed of Shorea curtisii which is the

main commercial species (Burgess, 1968, 1971).

- 107 -

Other factors, including the danger of erosion on steep slopes and theincidence of bertam (Eugeissona triste) and other secondary growth, do notfavour a drastic opereing of the canopy. Moreover, the poison-girdling ofspecies down to a minimum of 5 cm dbh was considered to be too drastic evenfor forest in which Light Red Merantis predominate and for various reasonsit is not always possible in practice to delay harvesting until there isadequate regeneration present on the ground. Often the mandatory pre-felling sampling could not be carried out and regeneration could only bedone after the harvesting operation. This and other deviations led to theMUS being modified in various ways, mostly of a relatively minor natureinitially, in the light of experience over the first decade (Baur, 196)4).

The general pattern of the sequence of operations in 1964 is shown in Table25.

Table 25*Sequence Of Operations

for Mal_a_v_a_;_niU a:form System (General Pattern, 1q6)41

Year Operation

- 3 to n - 7 Canopy opening at time of good seedfall, in areas whereregeneration and seed bearers are scarce,

- 3 to n - 5 Treatment of areas heavily infested with bamboo.- 3 Treatment of areas with dense Eugeissona.- 2 Climber cutting in areas of heavy vine infestation.to n - 1 1/2 Milliacre sampling and enumeration of utilizable stems.

Exploitation of all merchantable stems (normally to 45cm dbh). Poison girdling all unwanted stems down to 15cm dbh in Kapur and Seraya types and in heavily openedpatches (except for dense s_hade-casters), and down to 5cm dbh. in shaded patches in other types. Retention ofany potentially valuable stems below 48 cm dbh (largerwhere minimum felling limit is larger).

+ 2 Commence tending in areas designated as heavy hardwoodssi tes.

+ 3 to n + 5 5 meter square sampling (not in swampy rain forest).Such treatment as indicated by diagnostic sampling,e.g. climber cutting, eradication of weed tree spp. etc.

+ 8 to n + 10 10 meter square sampling. Such treatment as indicatedby diagnostic sampling.

*Based on Baur (1964)

n -

n -n -

n -

- 107 -

Other factors, including the danger of erosion on steep slopes and the

inc.1dence of bertam (~ssona triste) and other secondary grow th, do not favour a drastic opening of the canopy. Moreover, the poison-girdling of species dow n to a minimum of 5 cm dbh was considered to be too drastic even

for forest in which Light Red Merantis predominate and for various reasons it is not always possible in practice to delay harvesting until there is adeq uate regeneration present on the ground. Often the mandatory pre­felling sampling could not be carried out and regeneration could only be done after the harvesti.ng operation. This and other deviations led to the

MUS being modified in various ways, mostly of a relatively minor nature ini tially, in the light of experience over the first decade (Baur, 1964). The general pattern of the sequence of operations in 1964 is shown in Table 25.

Year

3 to n - 7

3 to n - 5

3 2

Table 25

.Sea uence of Qperati 90S

for Malayan Uniform SV$tem (General Pattern, 1964)

Operation

Canopy opening at time of good seedfall, in areas where

regeneration and seed bearers are scarce.

Trea tment of areas heavily infes ted wi th bamboo. Trea tment of areas wi th dense Eugeissona.

n to n - 1 1/2

Climber cutting in areas of heavy vine infestation. Milliacre sampling and enuneration of utilizable stems. Exploi tation of all merchantable stems (normally to 45

cm dbh) . Poison girdling all unwanted stems down to 15 cm dbh in Kapur and Seraya types and in heavily opened

pa tches (except for dense shade-casters), and dow n to 5 cm dbh. in shaded patches in other types. Retention of

any potentially valuable stems below 48 cm dbh (larger where minimum felling limit is larger).

n

n + 2

n + 3 to n + 5

n + 8 to n + 10

Commence tendi ng in areas designa ted as heavy hardwoods

si tes. 5 meter S(juare sampling (not in swampy rain forest).

Such treatment as indicated by diagnostic sampling,

e.g. climber cut tif1.g, eradication of weed tree spp. etc. 10 meter square sampling. Such treatment as indicated by diagnostic sampling.

-Based on Baur (1964)

Burgess (1970) has also emphasized that silvicultura], systems for forests

in so complex an environment as the hills of Malaysia can do no more than

lay down the general guidelines. Any system must be executed with care and

intelligence by officers who really understand the principles upon which it

is based. The sequence of operations of the silvicultural systems for

steep lowland forests, hill dipterocarp forests and upper hill dipterocarp

forests as suggested by Burgess (1970) is shown in Table 26.

'Table 26

- 108 -

Hill DiPterocaro Forests and Upper Dipterocarp Forests

- 1 a) Poison bamboo.

Two meter square sampling (intensive) immediately before

exploitation.

Exploitation to 1.2 m girth.

Girdle unwanted trees to 30 cm girth, retaining relic

Dipterocarp trees.

+ 5 a) Regeneration assessment - 10 meter square sampling (all

(and after sizes).

next seed yr.) b) If regeneration adequate, girdle Dipterocarp relics.

c) If regeneration is inadequate, enrich and tend.

- 1 a) Poison bertam.

Visual assesanent of regeneration or LSM (intensive)

immediately before exploitation

Exploitation to 1.5 m girth, retain proportion of stand

if necessary.

+ 2 a) Girdle unwanted or defective trees to 1 m gi rth

+ 7 a) Regeneration sample - 10 m square sampling (all sizes).

b) Regeneration adequate, girdle to 30 cm girth.

c) If regeneration is inadequate, enrich and girdle, tend.

Precipitous forests - no exploitation or treatment (slopes 450)

Marginal or non-commercial forests: a) Enumerate stand and regeneration

(LSM extensive); b) Regeneration fair and good log market exploit to 1.2

m girth and enrich; c) Regeneration inadequate and poor stand - replace

by planting.

*Based on Burgess (1970).

S u se Se

- 10 8 -

Burgess (1970) has also emphasized that silvicultural systems for forests

in so complex an environment as the hills of Malaysia can do no more than lay down the general guidelines. Any system must be executed with care and

intelligence by officers who really understand the principles upon which it is based. The sequence of operations of the silvicultural systems for

steep low land forests, hill dipterocarp forests and upper hill dipterocarp

forests as suggested by Burgess (1970) is shown in Table 26.

Table 26

-Suggested S1lVicultural Systems for Steep LCMland Forests, Hill D1pterocarp Forests and Upper D1pterocarp Forests

n - 1 n

a) Poison bamboo.

a) Two meter square sampling (intensive) immediately before

exploi ta tion.

b) Exploitation to 1.2 m girth.

c) Girdle unwanted trees to 30 cm girth, retaining relic

Dipterocarp trees.

n + 5 a) Regeneration assessment - 10 meter square sampling (all

sizes). (and after

next seed yr.) b)

c)

If regeneration adequate, girdle Dipterocarp relics.

If regeneration is inadequate, enrich and tend.

n - 1

n

n + 2

n + 7

a) Poison bertam.

a) Visual assessnent of regeneration or LSM (intensive)

immediately before exploitation

b) Exploitation to 1.5 m girth, retain proportion of stand

if necessary.

a) Girdle unwanted or defective trees to 1 m girth

a) Regeneration sample - 10 m square sampling (all sizes).

b) Regeneration adequate, girdle to 30 cm girth.

c) If regeneration is inadequate, enrich and girdle, tend.

Precipitous forests - no exploitation or treatment (slopes 450 ).

Marginal or non-commercial forests: a) Enumerate stand and regeneration

(LSM extensive); b) Regeneration fair and good log market - exploit to 1.2

m girth and enrich; c) Regeneration inadequate and poor stand - replace

by planting.

-Based on Burgess (1970).

- 109 -

The sequence of operations of the 'modified, MUS that is still being used

is shown in Table 27 below:

Table 27tm

Year Operation

- 1/2 to n - 1

Felling of all commercial and utilisable species of 45

cm dbh and above.

+ 1/4 to n + 1/2

Enumeration data of trees greater than 35 cm dbh as

required for premium determination only (10% sampling

intentity). Tree marking may be carried out for

checking completeness of felling only. No marking of

residual trees for retention.

Post-felling sampling to determine fines on trees

unfelled, royalty on short logs and tops, damage to

r esi dual s.

+ 2 to n + 5 Linear Regeneration Sampling to determine appropriate

silvicultural treatments.

n + 20 Linear Sampling of regenerated forest to determine

status of the forest.

Artificial regeneration started in the mid-1960's, gained momentum in the

late 1960's and early 1970's but waned in the mid-1980's. During this

period, the Taungya system as a means of artificial regeneration was

introduced to re-forest patches of Forest Reseves in Peninsular Malaysia,

especially around the fringes, which were found to be devastated as a

result of continuous illegal cultivation. Some ofthese areas had reverted

to 'belukar' (secondary forest) while others were under sheet lalang

(Imperata cylindrioa). Under this system, the illegal farmers were given

, permits to cultivate the land provided that they would in turn plant tree

seedlings provided by the Forestry Department. Generally, this system

could be divided into two categories which were namely, Taungya with pine

(predominately Pinus caribaea) and Taungya with hardwood species (mainly

Dryobalanons aromatica, Shorea leprosula, ovalis, 1 curti*ii, _sand

Swietenia waoroolaylla).

- 109 -

The sequence of operations of the 'modified' MUS that is still being used is show n in Tabl e 27 below:

Year

n - 112 to n - 1

n

n + 114 to n + 1/2

n + 2 to n + 5

n + 20

Table 27

'Modified Malayan Uniform System (MUS)'

Operation

Enumeration data of trees greater than 35 cm dbh as required for premium determination only (10~ sampling intenti ty). Tree marking may be carried out for

checking completeness of felling only. No marking of residual trees for retention.

Felllng of all commercial and utilisable species of 45 cm dbh and above.

Post-felling sampling to determine fines on trees unfelled, royalty on short logs and tops, . damage to

residuals.

Linear Regeneration Sampling to determine appropriate

silvicultural treatments.

Linear Sampling of regenerated forest to determine status of the forest.

Artificial regeneration started in the mid-1960's, gained momentum in the

late 1960's and early 1970's but waned in the mid-1980's. During this period, the Taungya system as a means of artificial regeneration was introduced to re-forest pa tcnes of Forest Reseves in Peninsular Malaysia, espeCially around the fringes, which were found to be devastated as a resul t of continuous illegal cultivation. Some of these areas had reverted to 'belukar' (secondary forest) while others were under sheet lalang (Imperata cylindrical. Under this system, the illegal farmers were given

_ permits to cultivate the land provided that they would in turn plant tree seedlings provided by the Forestry Department. Generally, this system could be divided into two categories which were namely, Taungya wi th pine (predominately Pinus caribaea) and Taungya with hardwood species (mainly

Dryobalanops aromatica. Shorea leprosula. ~ ovalis, ~ curtisii ~

Swietenia macrophylla).

- 110 -

The agricultural ca.sh crors used were mainly banana and tapioca (black-twig

variety). However, this system was discontinued because of the lack of

response from the cultivators due to insecurity of land tenure, the

accelerated development of large-scale agricultural schemes that were being

under-taken by the Government thus relieving land pressure for agricultural

land and the, high costs of supervision incurred by the Forestry Department-

Technically, artificial regeneration with indigenous species is feasible as

indicated by preliminary results of Shorea oarvifolia established at Tapah

Hills (Tang and Chew, 1980). The current annual mortality rate recorded

was 10% in the first three years after planting and subsequently dropped t o

5% in the following three years. The mean annual height increment was

between 1.2 - 1.5 m while the mean annual diameter increment was between

1.3 - 1.5 cm. However, artificial regeneration on a large scale may not be

a practical proposition since accessibility is poor and establishment and

maintenance costs high.

The Saeetive Management System (SMS)

In recent years, virtually all easily acceasible lowland and hill forests

had been logged and about two-thirds (the more accessible parts) of the hill

forests had been selectively exploited. As the remaining virgin forests

are found on steeper slopes in the remote parts of the country, mainly in

the central/eastern region, there has been growing support for a selective

felling system to be applied in Peninsular Malaysia. Apart from the

silvicultural and environmental difficulties encountered in trying to apply

the MUS in the hill forest, the monocyclic approach may not be financially

and economically attractive enough to encourage large investment in the

forestry sector. The long rotation and the single cycle of the MUS would

require a larger forest base in order to practise sustained yield forestrY.

Since land is limited, the way to achieve this is either to shorten the

rotation or increase the number of cuts per rotation.

Consequently, the Selective Management System (SMS) was evolved as it

seemed to offer the following adva.ntages:

the flexibility to manage the highly variable forest conditions

and the changes in the socio-economic enviroment,

it is rationally based on the inherent characteristics of the

forest and the prevailing socio-economic conditions, and

it will allow for the optimization of forest management

goals which are namely:

an economic cut,

the sustainability of the forest, and

e) the minimum cost for forest development.

- 11 0 -

The agricultural cash crop3 used were .mainly banana and tapioca (bla.ck-twig

variety). However, this system was discontinued because of the lack of response from the cultivators due to insecurity of land tenure, the accelerated development of large-scale agricul tural schemes that were being under-taken by the Government thus relieving land pressure for agricultural land and the high costs of supervision incurred by the Forestry Department.

Technically, artificial regeneration with indigenous species is feasible as indicated by preliminary results of Shore a paryifolia established at Tapah

Hills (Tang and Chew, 1980). The current annual mortality rate recorded was 10% in the first three years after planting and subsequently dropped to 5:1 in the following three years. The mean annual height increment was between 1.2 - 1.5 m while the mean annual diameter increment was between ·1.3 - 1.5 cm. However, artificial regeneration on a large scale may not be , a practical proposition since accessibility is poor and establishment and maintenance costs high.

The Selective tlam ...... ent Syst!!ll (00)

In recent years, virtually all easily accessible lowland and hill forests had been logged and about two-tttird3 (the more accessible parts) of the hill

forests had been selectively exploited. As the remaining virgin forests are found on steeper slopes in the remote parts of the country, mainly in the central/eastern region, there has been growing support for a selective felling system to be applied in Peninsular Malaysia. Apart from the

silvicultural and environmental difficulties encountered in trying to apply the MUS in the hill forest, the monocyclic approach may not be financially and economically attractive enough to encourage large investment in the forestry sector. The long rotation and the single cycle of the MUS would

require a larger forest base in order to practise sustained yield forestry. Since land is limited, the way to achieve this is either to shorten the rotation or increase the number of cuts per rotation.

Consequently, the Selective Management System (SMS) was evolved as it seemed to offer the following advantages:

i) the flexibility to manage the highly variable forest conditions

and the changes in the soc1o-economic environnent,

ii) it is rationally based on the inherent characteristics of the forest and the prevailing socio-economic conditions, and

11i) it will allow for the optimization of forest management

goals which are . namely: a) an economic cut,

b) the sustainability of the forest, and c) the minimum cost for forest development.

Thus, SMS is designed to optimize the management objectives of economic and

efficient harvesting, sustainability of the forest and minimum forest

development cost, under prevailing conditions. It requires the choice of

management (fellings) regimes based on inventory data, instead of an

arbitrary prescription, which will be equitable to both logger and forest

owner as well as eo ensure ecological balance and environmental quality.

In order to determine the appropriate minimum cutting limits (ideally of at

least 45 cm dbh for the Non-Dipterocarp and 50 cm dbh for the Dipterocarp

species) under this system of management, a pre-felling inventory is

carried out to provide reliable estimates of the population parameters

being measured which are as follows:

1) all tree species 5 cm dbh and above and tree species having a dbh

of less than 5 cm but having a minimum height of 15cm and above

by

dbh class,

species, and

volume/stems per ha.

Incidence of weed species and climbers, and

Physiography by -

slope,

elevation,

soil types, and

river systems.

Based on the above information and other relevant information about the

markets and other socio-economic considerations, a felling regime will be

formulated that will optimize the stated goals. Colour-coded stock maps

which enable the subdivision of compartments in areas of different types of

tree stock by predominant species groups and/or size (dbh) classes are also

prepared.

Under this system of forest management, growth rates and the required stand

determine the length of the cutting cycle. Disappointing growth rates

would mean that the cutting cycle will have to be prolonged and a lower

allowable annual coupe adopted while higher growth rates would lead to a

shorter cutting cycle and higher allowable annual coupe.

- 111 -

Thus, SMS is designed to optimize the management objectives of economic and

efficient harvesting, sustainability of the forest and minimum forest development cost, under prevailing conditions. It requires the choice of management (fellings) regimes based on inventory data, instead of an arbitrary prescription, which will be equitable to both logger and forest

owner as well as t o ensure ecological balance and environmental · qUality.

In order to determine the appropriate minimum cutting limits (ideally of at least 45 cm dbh for the Non-Dipterocarp and 50 .cm dbh for the Dipterocarp species) under this system of management, a pre-felling inventory is carried out to provide reliable estimates of the population parameters being measured which are as follows:

i) all tree species 5 cm dbh and above and tree species having a dbh of less than 5 cm but having a minimum height of 15cm and above by-

a) dbh class, b) species, and

c) volume/stems per ha.

ii) Incidence of weed species and climbers, and

i11) PhYsiography by -

a) slope, b) elevation, c) soil types, and d) river systems.

Based on the above information and other relevant information about the markets and other socio-economic considerations, a felling regime will be formulated that will optimize the stated goals. Colour- coded stock maps which enable the subdivision of compartments in areas of different types of tree stock by predominant species groups and/or size (dbh) classes are also prepared.

Under this system of forest management, growth rates .and the required stand determine the length of the cutting cycle. Disappointing growth rates

would mean that the cutting cycle will have to be prolonged and a lower ·allowable annual coupe adopted while higher growth rates would lead to a shorter cutting cycle and higher allowable annual coupe.

- 112 -

Based on a series of about one hundred continuous inventory sample plots of

0.4 ha. each and another hundred experimental cutting and/or silvicultural

treatment plots, usually of a size of 4 ha, each containing a systematic

permanent observation sample, that were established in logged-over hill

forest, the following annual growth and mortality rates of trees over 30 cm

dbh (tree boles only) were observed (UNDP/FAO, 1978).

i) Diameter Growth in cm/year:

All marketable species 0.80

Dark/Light and Red Merantis 1.05

Medium-Heavy marketable 0.75

species

Light Non-Meranti marketable 0.80

species

and e) No n-marke table species 0.75

ii) Gross volume growth in m3/ha/year:

a) All marketable species 2.20

and b) all species 2.75

iii) Gross volume gradth percent:

a) All marketable species 2.1%

and b) All species 1.9%

iv) Annual Mortality percent: 0.9%

(of numbers of marketable species)

v) Annual in-growth percent: 0.6%

(of marketable species growing

mover 30 cm dbh limit)

Preliminary studies have assessed felling damage to remaining intermediate

sized trees of 30 cm dbh and above to be about 30%, and wastage due to

breakage and bueldng in the range of 6.5% to 8% of the gross timber volume

(Griffin and Caprata, 1977). More effective use of directional felling

would reduce the effects of logging on the residual crop. The relationship

between percentage of felling damages to intermediate sized trees in

relation to diameter classes is as shown in Table 28 below:

- 112 -

Based on a series of about one hundred continuous inventory sample plots of

0.4 ha. each and another hundred experimental cut ting and/or sil vicul tural treatment plots, usually of a size of 4 ha, each containing a systematic

permanent observation sample, that were, established in 'logged-over hill forest, the following annual growth and mortality rates of trees over 30 cm

dbh (tree boles only) were observed (UNDP/FAO, 1978).

j,) Diameter Growth in cm/year:

a) All marketable species

b) Dark/Light and Red Merantis c) Medium-Heavy marketable

species d) Light Non-l1eranti marketable

species

and e) Non-marketable species

11) Gross volume growth in m3/ha/year:

a) All marketable species

and b) all species

-iU) Gross volume growth percent:

a) All marketable species and b) All speCies

1v)

v)

Annual Mortality percent: (of numbers of marketable species)

Annual in-growth percent: (of marketable species grOWing - 1nover 30 cm dbh limit)

0.80

1.05

0.75

0.80

0.75

2.20 2.75

2.1%

1.9%

0.9%

0.6% .

Preliminary studies have assessed felling damage to remaining intermediate

s1zed trees of 30 cm dbh and above to be about 30%, and wastage due to

breakage and bucking in the range of 6.5% to 8% of the gross timber volume . (Griffin and Caprata, 1977). More effective use of directional felling

would reduce the effects of logging on the residual crop. The relaUonship between percentage of felling damages to intermediate sized trees in relaUon to diameter' classes is as shown in Table 28 bEllow:

The minimum numbers of trees required for the various dbh classes, are

based on the overall stock results of the National Forest Inventory of 1 973

for unexploited/undisturbed forests, as these are considered to represent

the average stocking capacity of the natural forests. These stock data

were increased by 30% - 50% for trees over 2 cm dbh to account for probable

higher than natural mortality, wind-throw and growth stagnation of a

portion of the trees remaining in logged-over forests, as shown in Figure

7-

In determining the adequacy of residual stocking for the next cutting

cycle, the number of residual stems in the higher dbh class is deemed to

have an equivalent value to the proportion of stems required by the

standards of the next lower dbh class. This concept can be illustrated

more clearly in Table 29 below: (Forestry Department, 1977)

- 113 -

Table 28

Percent Damage according to Diameter Class

Diameter Class Percent Damage

+ 60 cm 20

45 - 60 em 30

30 - 45 cm 40

15 - 30 cm 50

- 113 -

Table 28

Percent Damage according to Diameter Class

Diameter Class Percent Damage

-----------------------------------------------------

+ 60 cm

45 - 60 cm

30 - 45 cm 15 - 30 cm

20

30

40 50

The minimum numbers of trees required for the various dbh classes, are

based on the overall stock results of the National Forest Inventory of 1973 for unexploited/undisturbed forests, as these are considered to represent the average stocking capacity of the na tural forests. These stock data were increased by 30~ - 50~ for trees over 2 cm dbh to account for probable

·h1gher than natural mortality, wind-throw and growth stagnation of a

portion of the trees remaining in logged-over forests, as shown in Figure

7.

In determining the adequacy of residual stocking for the next cutting cycle, the number of residual stems in the higher dbh class is deemed to have an equivalent value to the proportion of stems required by the standards of the next lower dbh class. This concept can be illustrated more clearly in Table 29 below: (Forestry Department, 1977)

Class

- 114 -

Minimum Residual Stocking

Number of Trees per ha. Tree Equivalenceto 1 tree in

Size No./ha No./ha Proportion of class 30_45cm

before after Rules Numbers dbh

logging logging

(trees below

30cm dbh are

not considered

for next cut)

Exploitable +45 cm

dbh

25 18 2 2

Ingrowth 30_45 cm

dbh

25 33 3 1

Small trees 15-30 cm 99 75 (1/3)

- 11 4 -

Table 29 Minimum Residual Stocid.ng

~-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Class Size

Exploitable +45 cm dbh

Ingrowth 3~45 cm dbh

Small trees 15-30 cm

No./ha before logging

25

25

99

Number of Trees per ha.

No./ha after logging

18

33

75

Proportion of Rules Numbers

- 2

3

Tree Equivalence to 1 tree in class 3~45cm dbh

2

1

( 113) (trees below

30cm dbh are not considered

for next cut)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

.1,500aIttrrs

PERHA

1,000

500

400

300

200

100

0

FIGURE./ FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF TREES

BY DIAMETER CLASSES

+50% OVER AVERAGE VIRGIN FORESTS,

+30% OVER AVERAGE VIRGIN FORESTS.-.1020MOMPar :=2100======= DBH

AVERAGESVIRGIN

FORESTS

+45% OVER AVERAGE VIRGIN FORESTS.

MINIMUM NUMBERS.REQUIRED

33% OVER AVERAGE VIRGIN FORESTS.

15 30 45 60.CCU

·1,500 ·'mEES

PER HA

1,000

500

400

300

200

100

0

- 115 -

FIGURE.1 FREQUENCY DISTRIBtrl'ION O? TREES

BY DIAMETER CLASSES

+50\ OVER AVERAGE VIRGIN FORESTS,

r AVERAGES

VIRGIN FORES~'S

0 15

MINIMUM NUMBR~.

REQUIRED

OVER AVERAGE VIRGIN FORESTS.

OVER AVERAGE VIRGIN FORESTS. +30\ OVER AVERAGE VIR:HN FORESTS.

-2 2 2 ? Z

30 4S .. , 60. DBB

cm

- 116 -

In practice when the next cut is expected in 25-30 years after the first

logging, the cutting limits for the dipterocarp and non-dipterocarp species

should not be less than 50 cm dbh and 145 cm dbh respectively; while the

minimum residual stocking (medium sized trees 30-45 cm) should not be less

than 32 sound marketable trees of good form from diameter class 30-45 cm or

i ts equivalence.

For example, a stand after logging with 8 trees of 45 cm dbh and 17 trees

of dbh class 30-45 cm, (in total 25 trees of +30 cm dbh), would not satisfy

the rules for class +45 cm, neither for 30-45 cm, nor even the total +30

cm. However, the 8 trees of +45 cm dbh are equivalent to 16 trees of the

30-45 cm dbh class and the total equivalence becomes 16 + 17 33 trees,

which satisfies the minimum number required for the 30-45 cm dbh class. It

should be noted that when applying this technique, the age of the whole

stand has to be accordingly lowered and used in calculations to estimate

the expected yield and time of harvest.

Moreover, in order to enhance the next cut with a greater. proportion of

dipterocarp species than the non-dipterocarp species, the difference in

cutting limits prescribed between the two groups of species should be 5 cm

for any one cutting block or compartment.

Although the economics of logging in Peninsular Malaysia are not well

understood because of the lack of definitive economic studies of the

various logging systems, it is calculated that the minimum economic cut

based on current log prices, estimated cost of logging and government

charges should be in the range of 35 m3 to 40 m3 per ha. of currentlycommercial and utilisable species. Net volume is derived from gross volume

minus 40% for trees having dbh less than 60 cm and minus 30% for trees

having dbh greater than 60 cm.

The forest planning and operational studies carried out so far in

Peninsular Malaysia have thus clearly indicated the feasibiltiy or

continuous and economically viable hill forest production in terms of

economic log-outturn volumes with periodic cuts every 35-140 years, using

locally appropriate cutting limits and leaving adequate number of medium

sized trees of marketable species for natural in growth to commercial

sizes. It has been shown that, with average diameter growth rates of trees

over 30 cm dbh of 0.8 - 1.0 cm per year in diameter and 2.0-2.5 m3/ha.. per

year in commercial gross volume, about three-quarters of the hill forests

is capable of producing every 30 years about 140-45 net m3/ha. which is

about the current average outturn level of virgin hill forest. However, it

is impera.tive to limit exploitation damage of the residual stands to not

more than 30% of intermediate sized trees.

- 11 6 -

In practice when the next cut is expected in 25-30 years after the first

logging, the cutting limits for the dipterocarp and non-dipterocarp species should not be less than 50 cm dbh and 45 cm dbh respectively; while the minimum residual stocking (medium sized trees 30-45 cm) should not be less than 32 sound marketable trees of good form from diameter class 30-45 cm or its equivalence.

For example, a stand after logging with 8 trees of 45 cm dbh and 17 trees of dbh class 30~45 cm, (in total 25 trees of +30 cm dbh), would not satisfY

the rules for class +45 cm, neither for 30-45 cm, nor even the total +30 cm. However, the 8 trees of +45 cm dbh are equivalent to 16 trees of the 30-45 cm dbh class and the total equivalence becomes 16 + 17 = 33 trees, which satisfies the minimum number required for the 30-45 cm dbh class. It should be noted that when apPlying this technique, the age of the whole stand has to be accordingly lowered and used in calculations to estimate the expected yield and time of harvest.

Moreover, in order to enhance the next cut with a greater. proportion of dipterocarp species than the non-dipterocarp species, the difference in cutting limits prescribed between the two groups of species should be 5 cm for any one cutting block or compartment.

Although the economics of logging in Peninsular Malaysia are not well understood because of the lack of definitive economic studies of the various logging systems, it is calculated that the minimum economic cut based on current log prices, estimated cost of logging and government charges should be in the range' of 35 m3 to 40 m3 per ha. of currently commercial and utilisable species. Net volume is derived from gross volume minus 40% for trees having dbh less than 60 cm and minus 30% for trees having dbh greater than 60 cm.

The forest planning and operational studies carried out so far in Peninsular Malaysia have thus clearly indicated the feasibiltiy oz'

continuous and economically viable hill forest production in terms of economic log-outturn volumes with periodic cuts every 35-40 years, using locally appropriate cutting limits and leaving adequate number of medium sized trees of marketable species for natural in growth to commercial sizes. It has been shown that, wi th average diameter growth rates of trees

OVer 30 cm dbh of 0.8 - 1.0 cm per year in diameter and 2.0-2.5 m3/ha. per year in commercial gross volume, about three-quarters of the hill forests

is capable of producing every 30 years about 40-45 net m3/ha. which is about the current average out turn level of virgin hill forest. However, it is imperative to limit exploitation damage of the residual stands to not

more than 30% of intermediate sized trees.

- 117 -

There are two opportunities presently favouring the implementation of the

Selective Management System in Peninsular Malaysia. Firstly, in the hill

forests for which this is the appropriate management system, a

concentration of operations on a large scale using mechanized equipment, is

required, providing higher levels of employment and job diversification.

Since these operations will, by being concentrated, become increasingly

sophisticated the prospects of thereby transfering technical and

organizational skills to local, largely rural residents, would be enhanced.

Secondly, the large land development schemes expected to continue for

another decade are releasing large amounts of wood material which are

increasingly being utilized. The extensive tree-crop plantations of rubber

and oil palm for which annual replanting schemes will steadily increase in

future years, will also provide a source of woody fibre materials with

potentials for industrial processing in oaming decades of declining raw

material and energy supplies.

The sequence of operations under the Selective Management System is as in

Table 30 below:

Tabl e 90

Selective Management System (ama)

Year Operation

n-1 to n-2

n to n-1

n+2 to ni-5

Pre-felling forest inventory using systematic-

line-plots and determination of cutting regimes

(limits).

Climber cutting to reduce damage during logging.

Tree marking incorporating directional felling.

No marking of residual trees for retention.

Felling of all trees as prescribed.

Post-felling inventory using systematic-line-plots

to determine residual stocking and appropriate

sil vicul tural treatments.

- 117 -

There are two opportuni ties presently favouring the implementation of the

Selective Management System in Peninsular Malaysia. Firstly, in the hill forests for which this is the appropriate management system, a concentration of operations on a large scale using mechanized equipment, is required, providing higher levels of employment and job diversificatio~ Since these operations will, by being concentrated, become increasingly sophisticated the prospects of thereby transfering technical and organizational skills to local, largely rural residents, would be enhanced. Secondly, the large land development schemes expected to continue for another decade are releasing large amounts of wood material which are increasingly being utilized. The extensive tree-crop plantations of rubber and oil palm for which annual replanting schemes will steadily increase in future years, will also provide a source of woody fibre materials with

potenti als for industrial processing in coming decades of declining raw material and energy supplies.

The sequence of operations under the Selective Management System is as in Table 30 below:

Table 30 <

Selective Management System (SMS)

Year Operation

--------------------------------------------------------------------

n-1 to n-2

n to n-1

n

n+2 to lH-5

Pre-felling forest inventory using systematic­

line-plots and determination of cutting regimes (limits) •

Climber cutting to reduce damage during logging. Tree marking incorporating directional felling. No marking of residual trees for retention.

Felling of all trees as prescribed.

Post-felling inventory using systematic-line-plots to determine residual stocking and appropriate

si1 vicul tural treatments.

- 118

.0..ABAH

The rain forests of Sabah are very similar to those in Peninsular Malaysia,

but are characterized by a smaller number of non-dipterocarps and by the

presence of generally larger trees. Trees with diameter ranging from 116 cm -

155 cm are common and trees between 194 cm - 242 cm are not extreme rarities

and are usually sound. The growth is generally superior and trees can exceed

73 m in total height while, particularly on the rich volcanic soils, the

length of clear bole above buttresses and below the first branch is regularly

over 30 m and frequently exceeding 36 m (Walton, 1955). The most common

commercial species is Tarashorea aalaanon which, over large areas, makes up

80% of all the timber trees and in parts up to 98% (Baur, 1964). With the

similarity of the rainforests and a very often senior personnel with Malayan

experience, it was natural that the early forest management systems practised

in Sabah would also be very similar to those in Peninsular Malaysia.

The history of forest exploitation and management in Sabah before the

inception of the Forest Department in 1915 is obscure. During the period

1915 - 1 951 the main policy of the Forest Department focused on

exploitation rather than conservation and sustained yield management.

Hence, the main functions of the Department were forest revenue collection

and "to a more or less extent an agent of the timber concessionaire" in

forest reconnaisance and marketing. In 1 920 the first major timber

concession was granted to the British Borneo Timber Company which had

complete monopoly of forest exploitation over all inland forests up till

the year 1952 with the Forest Department having no control over how and

where forests were worked. The company, or any one authorised by it, could

work anywhere, take or leave any tree or species of timber and cease work

or move on to another convenient area at will. As there was no systematic

working plan for the inland forests, logging was mostly selective depending

on terrain and species utilised. This resulted not only in the creaming of

the most accessible fringes; of level country along streams and rivers but

also provided experience in only the simplest and most primitive forms of

extraction with minimal or no forest management inputs at all.

Nevertheless, the Forest. Department conducted early research on

silvicultural techniques and in 1934 had undertaken regeneration treatments

of the dipterocarp forests in the form of Regeneration Improvement Fellings

(R.I.F.) which were similar to those in Peninsula Malaysia but on a limited

scale. The objective was to ensure adequate regeneration of commercial

speices on the forest floor, prior to logging (Fox, 1968; Martyn and

Udarbe, 1 976).

- 11 8 -

SABAH

Tbe rain forests of Sabah are very similar ' to those in Peninsular Malaysia, but are characterized by a smaller number of non-dipterocarps and by the presence of generally larger trees. Trees with diameter ranging from 116 cm -

155 cm are common and trees between 194 cm - 242 cm are not extreme rarities and are usually sound. The grow th is generally superior and trees can exceed 73 m in total height while, particularly on the rich volcanic soils, the length of clear bole above but tresses and below the first branch is regularly over' 30 m and frequently exceeding 36 m (Walton, 1955). The most common commercial species is Parashorea malaanon which, over large areas, makes up 80% of all the timber trees and in parts up to 98% (Baur, 1964). With the

similarity of the , rainforests and a very often senior personnel with Malayan experience, it was natural that the early forest management , systems practised in Sabah would also be very similar to those in Peninsular Malaysia.

A Delayed Start

The history of forest exploitation and management in Sabah before the inception of the Forest Department in 1915 is obscure. During the period 1915 - 1951 the main policy of the Forest Department focused on exploitation rather than conservation and sustained yield managemen~

Hence, the main functions of the Department were forest revenue collection and "to a mor e or less extent an agent of the timber concessionaire" in fores t reconnai sance and marketing. In 1920 the first major timber concession was gr anted to the British Borneo Timber Company which had complete monopoly of forest exploitation over all inland forests up till the year 1952 with the Forest Department having no control over how and where forests were worked. The company, or any one authorised by it, could

work anywhere, take or leave any tree or species of timber and cease work or move on to ano ther conv enient area at will. As there was no systematic working plan for the i nland forests, logging was mostly selective depending on terrain and species utilised. This resul ted not only in the creaming of the most accessible fringes of level country along streams and rivers but

also pr ovided experience in only the simplest and most primitive forms of extraction with minimal or no forest management inputs at all.

Nevertheless, the Forest Department conducted early research on silvicultural t echniques and in 1934 had undertaken regeneration treatments of the dipterocarp forests in the form of Regeneration Improvement Fellings (R.LF. ) which were similar to those in Peninsula Malaysia but on a limited

. "scale. The objective was to ensure adequate regeneration of commercial speices on the forest floor, prior to logging (Fox, 1968; ~!artyn and

Udarbe, 1976) .

- 119 -

In 1936, the Taungya system was introduced in Sabah as a means of checking

the indiscriminate destruction of the forest lands by shifting cultivation

which was considered to be a major management problem. The illegal

occupants were given permits to till the land provided that th ey would in

turn plant tree seedlings provided by the Forest Department. The scheme

apparently was not successful.

In 19L9 another method of° improv-ement fellingz was introduced which was

known as the Selection Improvement Fellings. The aim of these operationswas to assist pole-size trees of 1 0 cm dbh and above which were found on

areas that had been logged 15 to 25 years before to develop into the next

crop. This method involved the poison-girdling of non-commercial trees

shading or competing with the commercial species, and included the cutting

of climbers (Martyn and Udarbe, 1976).

For many years, effective forest planning and management in the State were

hampered by the existence of the concession agreement mentioned earlier and

the absence of an approved forest policy. In 1948, a State Forest Policy

was finally approved by the Goverrunent in accordance with the

recommendation of the Fifth Empire Forestry Conference, 19147. The policy

recognised the importance of establishing the forest industry arad the

management of the forests on a sustained-yield basis and also the necessity

of practising scientific forestry in maintaining and improving edaphic and

climatic conditions. This policy, except for minor changes, was similar to

the Forest Department policy which for a number of years had guided itsofficer's in the management of the forests in Sabah.

As a direct result of this policy, negotiations were started to terminate

the timber concession of the British Borneo Timber Company. In 1952; the

Company's monopoly over the State forest ceased and they were granted

instead a limited concession area of about 260,000 ha. In this agreement,

the Government exercised control over forest operations whereby the whole

area was to be expoited during the period of 21 years with an annual coupe

of 1 2,3 80 ha. In theory, this agreement prescribed the final felling cycle

of 20 years. During the same year, four other timber concessions were

issued with a modified licence agreement of 21 years which stipulated an

annual coupe of one percent of the concession areas which were to be

managed under 80 years rotation. There was an allowance of 20 percent for

unproductive forests., The minimum felling diameter limit was 60 cm. and

the licensees were obliged to fell all trees over 80 cm. dbh. Yield

regulation was carried out by area-control.

- 119 -

In 1936, the Taungya system was introduced in Sabah as a means of checking

the indiscriminate destruction of the forest lands by shifting cul tiva tion which was considered to be a major management problem. The illegal occupants were given permits to till the land prcvided that they would in turn plant tree seedlings provided by the Forest Departmen~ The scheme appaI'ently was not successful.

In 1949, another method of improvement fellings was introduced which was known as the Selection Improvement Fellings. The aim of these operations

was to assist pcle-size trees of 10 cm dbh and above which .were found on areas that had been logged 15 to 25 years before to develop into the next crop. This m'?thod involved the poisorr-girdling of norr-commercial trees shading or competing with the commercial species, and included the cutting

of climbers (Martyn and Udarbe, 1976).

For many years, effeC'tive forest planning and management in the State were

hampered by the existence of the concession agreement mentioned earlier and the .absence of an approved forest policy. In 1948, a State Forest Policy was finally approved by the Government in accordance with the recommendation of the Fifth Empire Forestry Conference, 1947. The policy recognised the importance of establishing the forest industry and the

management of the forests on a sustained-yield basis and also the necessity

of practising scientific forestry in maintaining and improving edaphic and climatic conditions. This policy, except for minor changes, was similar to the Forest Department policy which for a number of years had guided its officers in the management of the forests in Sabah.

As a direct result of this pclicy, negotiations were started to terminate the timber concession of the Bri tish Borneo Timber Company. In 1952, the Company's monopoly over the State forest ceased and they were granted

·instead a limited concession area of about 260,000 ha. In this agreement, the Government exercised control over forest operations whereby the whole area was to be expoited during the period of 21 years with an annual coupe

of 12,380 ha. In theory, this agreement prescribed the final felling cycle of 20 years. During the same year, four other timber concessions were issued with a modified licence agreement of 21 years which stipulated an annual coupe of one percent of the concession areas which were to be managed under 80 years rotation. There was an allowance of 20 percent for unproductive forests. The minimum felling diameter limi t was 60 cm. and the licensees were obliged to fell all trees over 80 cm. dbh. Yield regulation was carried out by area-control.

- 120 -

lbe Modified Malayan Uniform System

In 1956, the 'modified' Malayan Uniform System for forest regeneration

treatment was introduced. This modification is aimed at achieving a more

or less even-aged dipterocarp forest with an increase in both quality and

volume over that of the original stand within a specified period of time,

usually between 80-100 years (Chai, 1981).

The success of this system depends upon five important principles, which

are as follows:-

The presence of a sufficient number of seedlings on the forest

floor prior to exploitation.

The ability of these seedlings to remain alive in unexploited

forest for a period long enough to bridge the interval between

seed years.

A sufficient number of these seedlings must remain on the

ground after logging.

The ability of regeneration to respond to increased light through

the opening up of the forest canopy.

(y) The crop trees forming the next regeneration will principally come

from these seedlings. Advance growth is additional but its

presence is not essential.

Basically the system prescribed the poison-girdling, immediately after

felling, of all defective trees of commercial species and all non-

commercial species down to 15 cm. diameter. In addition, in pockets of

undisturbed forest in logged over areas containing regeneration, all non-

comercial trees were girdled down to 5 cm. diameter. Sound commercial

trees of over 60 cm. diameter left unexploited were also girdled. The

cutting and poisoning of all woody climbers over 2.5 cm diameter was

prescribed at a later date. This system of management became the standard

regeneration technique of all dipterocarp forest in the Forest Reserves of

Sabah during its early introduction, as evidence showed that there was

nearly always adequate seedling present on the forest floor, especially if

the forest was virgin before logging (Nicholson, 1958, 1965; Burgess, 1961;

Cousens, 1965; Meijer, 1970: Wong, 1973).

- 120 -

The Hodit"ied Malayan Unif'orm System

In 1956, the 'modified' Halayan Uniform System for forest regeneration treatment was introduced. This modification is aimed at aChieving a more or less even-aged dipterocarp forest with an increase in both quality and volume over that of the original stand within a specified period of time, usually between 80-100 years (Chai, 1981).

The success of this system depends upon five important principles, which are as follow s:-

(1.) The presence of a sufficient number of seedlings on the forest floor prior to exploitation.

(ii) The ability of these seedlings to remain alive in unexploi ted f'orest for a period long enough to bridge the interval between seed years.

(i11) A sufficient number of these seedlings must remain on the ground after logging.

(iv) The ability of regeneration to respond to increased light through

the opening up of the forest canopy.

(v) The crop trees forming the next regeneration will principally come

f'rom these seedlings. Advance growth is additional but its presence is not essential.

Basically the system prescribed the poison-girdling, immediately after felling, of all defective trees of commercial species and all non­

commercial species dow n to 15 cm. diameter. In addi tion, in pocke ts of undisturbed forest in logged over areas containing regeneration, all non­

comercial trees were girdled dow n to 5 cm. diameter. Sound comme'.:lial trees of over 60 cm. diameter left unexploi ted were also girdled. The

cutting and pOiSOning of all woody climbers over 2.5 cm diameter was

prescribed at a later date. This system of management became the standard regeneration technique of all dipterocarp forest in the Forest Reserves of

Sabah during its early introduction, as evidence showed that there was nearly always adequate seedling present on the forest floor, especially if the forest was virgin before logging (Nicholson, 1958, 1965; Burgess, 1961; Cousens, 1965; Meijer, 1970: Wong, 1973).

- 121 -

Following further experimentation and studies the 'modified, MUS was

further refined and a full description of this refined system has been

discussed by Nicholson (1965). Its main features are as follows:-

1) Sodium arsenite at the rate of 2 lbs. per gallon of water is

used as the poison, applied in a complete, level frill girdle

ii) Girdle:

All trees of commercial species, except belian, which are

damaged, hollow, or otherwise defective, down to a lower limit

of 15 cm. diameter, and where they are not needed as seed

trees. Contrary to former instructions do not girdle all

trees over 60 cm0 dbh regardless of their quality. "Defective"

includes logging damage above 2.5 ra from ground (above stump

height), bad bends, low forks, exudations (indicating borer

attack), and severe crawn damage.

All trees of non-commercial species over 15 cm. diameter.

All non-commercial trees over 5 cm. diameter in dense islands

of unlogged forests where there is regeneration of commercial

species.

All woody climbers over 2.5 cm diameter are to be cut and the

lower end dampened with sodium arsenite. Rotan should be cut but

not poisoned.

iv) Belian is only to be girdled when the stem is so defective as to

be useless.

y) No tree is to be girdled when it is closer than its own height to

a main extraction route thac will be in use six months after

girdling.

vi) Girdling will continue right up to the banks of streams except

where a falling tree will be a danger to navigation or where it is

possible that human water supplies will become contaminated.

vil) No fruit tree (not including Kawang) will be girdled.

Girdling is to cease at the edge of unlogged forest, except for

the small islands within a logging area mention in ii(c) above.

Guide lines for girdling control will be cut 20 m. apart and

normally a milliacre (2 m x 2 m) sampling will be made along each.

- 121 -

Following further experimentation and studies the '.modif1ed' MUS was further refined and a full description of this refined system has been discussed by Nicholson (1965). Its main features are as follows:-

i) Sodium arseni te a t the rate of 2 lbs. per gallon of water is

used as the poison, applied in a complete, level frill girdle

ii) Girdle:

a) All trees of commercial species, except belian, which are damaged, hollow, or otherwise defective, down to a lower limit of 15 cm. diameter, and where they are not needed as seed trees. Contrary to former instructions do not girdle all

trees over 60 cm. dth regardless of their quality. "Defective" includes logging damage above 2.5 m from height), bad bends, low forks, exudations attack), and severe crown daImge.

ground (above stump (indicating borer

b) All trees of no~commercial species over 15 cm. diameter.

c) All non-.commercial trees over 5 cm. diameter in dense islands

of unlogged forests where there is regeneration of commercial

species.

iii) All woody climbers over 2.5 cm diameter are to be cut and the lower end dampened with sodium arsenite. Rotan should be cut but not poisoned.

iv) Belian is only to be girdled when the stem is so defective as to be useless.

v) No tree is to be girdled when it is closer than its own height to a main extraction route thac will be in use six months after girdling.

vi)

vii)

viii)

Girdling will continue right up to the banks of streams except where a falling tree will be a.danger to navigation or where it is possible that human water supplies will become contaminated.

No fruit tree (not including Kawang) will be girdled.

Girdling is to cease at the edge of unlogged forest, except for the small islands within a logging area mention in ii(c) above.

ix) Guide lines for girdling control will be cut 20 m. apart and

normally a milliacre (2 m x 2 m) sampling will be made along each.

- 122 -

All trees for retention must be marked with paint by the officer

in charge of the gang.

Commercial trees consist of all Dipterocarpaceae, all Leguminosae

(expect Koomnassia excelsa), DisideroxvIskn zwageri, Heritiera

simplicifolia (and similar species), Scorodocarnus borneenis,

laadirachta sp, Durio spp. yera sPP, and OctomelesIIMAtra_na when

there is nothing else.

In 1971 the 'modified and refined' MUS was subjected to further

modification and refinement to become a minimum girth limit system

(Stiatified Uniform System, M.U.S.(modified)), but retained the principles

of MUS following recommendations by Dawkins (1968).(Chai and Udarbe, 1977,Munang, 1978). These modifications and refinements centered mainly on the

importance of advance growth for the next crop and the reduction of logging

damage to them. As such, it is often still referred to as the Modified

Malayan Uniform System-

The sequence of operations of the various silvicultural operations is shown

in Table 31 below:-

Table 1/

S ste Sabah

Year Operation

- 2 to Allocation of coupe.

- 1 First silvicultural treatment - protective tree

marking and climber cutting.

Felling operation.

+ 0-1 month Clearance inspection.

+ 0-2 month Assessment of regeneration through Linear Sampling

Milliacre (LSM) (2 m x 2 m plots).

+ 3-6 month Second silvicultural treatment - First poison

girdling of unwanted and defective trees, climber

cutting if necesssary.

+ 10 to Assessment of regeneration through Linear Sampling

+ 15 Half-Chain Survey (LS1/2) (10 m x 10 m plots).

Third silviculturai treatment - Liberation treatment

where necessary.

*Based on Fox and Hepburn (1972) and Chal and Udarbe (1977)

- 122 -

xl All trees for retention must be marked with paint by the officer in charge of the gang.

xi) Commercial trees consist of all Dipterocarpaceae, all Leguminosae (expect Koompassia excelsa), Eusideroxylon zwageri, Heritiera simplicifolia (and similar species), Scorodocarpus borneenis, ~adirachta sp, Durio spp. pyera spp, and Octomeles sumatrana when there is nothing else.

In 1971 the 'modified and refined' MUS was subjected to further modification and refinement to become a minimum girth limit system (Stratified Uniform System, M.U.S.(modified», but retained the principles of MUS following recommendations by Dawkins (1968).(Chai and Udarbe, 1977, Munang, 1978). Tbese modifications and refinements centered mainly on the importance of advance growth for the next crop and the reduction of logging damage to them. As such, it is often still referred to as the Modified Malayan Uniform System.

The sequence of operations of the various sil vicul tural operations is show n in Table 31 below:-

Table 31 Sequence of Operations of the Modified Malayan Uniform System. Sabah

Year Operation

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

n - 2 to n - 1

n n + 0-1 month n+ 0-2 month

n+ 3-6 month

11 + 10 to n + 15

Allocation of coupe. First silvicultural treatment - protective tree marking and climber cutting. Felling operation. Clearance inspection. Assessment of regeneration through Linear Sampling Milliacre (LSM) (2 m x 2 m plots). Second sil vi cuI tural treatment - First poison girdling of unwanted and defective trees, climber cutting if necesssary. Assessment of regeneration through Linear Sampling Half-Chain Survey (LS1/2) (10 m x 10 m plots). Third silvicultural treatment - Liberation treatment where necessary.

---------~---------------------------------------------------------------------Based on Fox and Hepburn (1972) and Chai and Udarbe (1977)

- 123 -

In brief, annual felling coupes are usually selected two years in advance

with the first silviculture/ treatment being carried out in selected coupes

before logging commences. All climbers of whatever size will be cut once

right through, as Fox (1968a) had shown that prefelling climber cutting can

reduce logging damage by 20$. Along the strip and within each quadrat of

forest 100 m by 100 ni, twenty five trees of preferred or desired commercial

species will be marked as protected trees. These trees will normally be

between 0.6 m to 1.8 m girth, marked clearly with paint on three sides and

recorded. This procedure of protective tree marking and climber cutting is

fully documented in Sabah Forest Record No. 3 (Anon, 1972)which was

summarised by Liew (1973) as follows:-

*The annual coupe is to be treated systematically using a grid of narrow

rentises based on the company coupe boundary rentis, ridge tops, rivers or

other features. The grid should consist of na.rrow rentises spaced at 5

chains apart at right e.ngles to the base line. Within each strip of forest

of five chains width and five chains length twenty five trees of preferred

or desirable commercial species will be searched for. These should be in

groups of three to four trees up to half a chain apart and individual

groups up to two chains apart. The size of trees will normally be between

.two and 3iX feet girth. Each will be marked on three sides with bright

yellow or red paint. All climbers of whatever size will be cut once. Once

trees have been marked for retention, they become prohibited species under

licence Agreement (Schedule V) and may not be felled (Cla.use 16 (2) ).

However, variations are provided to suit the conditions of the forest. For

example, (a) one-foot girth commercial trees are to be included if there

are insufficient trees of two to six feet girth, (b) increase the list of

species from preferred and desirable commercial species if insufficient.

of these are available, (c) the use of the special list of species if a new

forest type is encountered, (d) if insufficient trees are available of the

one to six feet girth classes of the species list, then, depending on the

number of trees of one to six feet girth marked, niark one to three trees

per acre over six feet girth as seed-bearers, starting with the pi:eferred

list. The last variation can only be applied provided that L.S.M. has been

done and the stocking is found to be less than 200 stocked plots per acre".

The objectives of the second silvioultural treatment which is carried out

immediately after the regeneration sampling (LSM) are as follows:-

to ensure that commercial seedlings where present have sufficient

light for maximum development (but are not fully exposed ), and to

favour the development of advance growth;

to remove unwanted species and defective stetas which compete with

the regeneration;

- 123 -

In brief, annual felling coupes are usually selected two years in advance

with the first silvicultural treatment being carried out in selected coupes llefore logging commences. All climbers of whatever size will be cut once right through, as Fox (1968a) had shown that prefelling climber cutting can reduce logging damage by 20%. Along 'the strip and within each quadrat of

forest 100 m by 100 m, twenty five trees of preferred or desired commercial species will be marked as protected trees. These trees will normally be between 0.6 m to 1.8 m girth, marked clearly with paint on three sides and recorded. This procedure of protective tree marking and climber cutting is fully documented in Sabah Forest Record No. 8 (Anon, 1972)which was aummarised by Liew (1973) as follows:-

"The annual coupe is to be treated systematically using a grid of narrow

rentises based on the company coupe boundary rentis, ridge tops, rivers or other features. The grid should consist of narrow rentises spaced at 5 chaina apart at right angles to the base line. Wi thi.n each strip of forest of five chaina width and five chains length twenty five trees of preferred or desirable commercial species will be searched fo~ These should be in

groups of three to four trees up to half a chain apart and individual groups up to two chains apart. The size of trees will normally be between ,

' two and six feet girth. Each will be marked on three sides with bright

yellow or red paint. All climbers of whatever size will be cut once. Once trees have been marked for retention, they become prohibi ted species under licence Agreement (Schedule V) and may not be felled (Clause 16 (2) ). However, variations are provided to suit the conditions of the forest. For

example, (a) one-foot girth commercial trees are to be included if there are insufficient trees of two to six feet girth, (b) increase the list of species from preferred and desirable commercial species if insufficient of these are available, (c) the use of the special list of species if a new forest type is enco'untered, (d) if insufficient trees are available of the

one to six feet girth classes of the species list, then, depending on the number of trees of one to six feet girth marked, mark one to three trees per acre over six feet girth as seed- bearers, starting with the p,-eferred liSt. The last variation can only be applied pr ovided that r..S.M. has been done and the stocking is found to be less than 200 stocked plots per acre".

The objectives of the second silvicultural treatment which is carried out

immediately after the regeneration sampling (LSM) are as follows:-

i) to ensure that commercial seedlings where present have sufficient light for maximum development (but are not fully exposed ), and to

favour the development of advance growth;

ii) to remove unwanted species and defective stems which compete with the regeneration;

- 124 -

where seedlings are deficient, to retain suficient stems of

commercial species to ensure eventual maximum stocid.ng of

regeneration; and

to eliminate any climbers which still remain after the first

silvicultural treatment.

Thus, the purpose of the second silvicultura" treatment is to promote

vigorous growth of the natural regeneration present after logging, by

removing competition, and creating a suitable environment for growth

through the elimination of unwanted species and climbers. The bases of

this treatment are the presence of regeneration and the intensity of

logging. After such treatment, it is expected that an area should have a

rich stand of commercial pole-sized trees 5 to 10 years hence and which

would be able to maintain maximum growth when silviculturally treated.

Thus, after the LSM sampling, the third silvicultural teatment, which may

be in the form of further poison-gridling and climber cutting, removal of

seed-bearers and relics and tending could be carried out.

The areas treated under the modified Malayan Uniform System in the

Perma.nent Forest Estates (Forest Reserves) expanded rapidly, aafter 1971,reaching a total of 140,975 ha. in 1983. However, with the huge expansion

of areas being opened up for logging in the late sixties till the early

eighties, it was impossible for silvicultural treatments to keep pace and a

large backlog of untreated forest accumulated. In early 1 977 all treament

was stopped, after intensive investigation and studies conducted by Chai

and Udarbe (1977) which cast doubt on the usefulness of such treatments.

They noted that, owing to the high intensity of logging, silvicutural

treatments when carried out were effectively done on only one-third of the

logged-over area, with the other two-thirds having been released by logg,ing

itself.

Moreover, several concurrent developments encouraged changes in the

silvicultural system. Firstly, the increased intensity of logging

practices led to more damage to soils from heavy equipment. Secondly, the

steadily increasing average volume of removals affected soils and

regeneration. Lastly, very vigorous invasion of Tbalukari had been

observed after heavy logging and treatment. As a result, poisoning or any

other silvicultural treatment immediately after heavy logging in Sabah is

no longer considered appropriate. Subsequently and currently the sequence

of silvicultural treatments is as follows (Anon,1984):-

n - 2 to n - 1 Allocation of felling coupe followed by the

first silvicultural treatment which involves

climber cutting. This operation has not been

carried out extensively.

- 124 -

iii) where ' seedlings are deficient, to retain suficient stems of

commercial species to ensure eventual maximum stocking of regeneration; and

iv) to elimina te any climbers which still remain after the first

silvicultural treatment.

ThUS, the purpose of the second sil vicul tural treatment is to promote vigorous growth of the natural regeneration present after logging, by removing competi tion, and creating a sui table environment for growth throl;lgh the elimination of unwanted species and climbers. The bases of this treatment are the presence of regeneration and the intensi ty of logging. After such treatment, it is expected that an area should have a rich stand of commercial pole-sized trees 5 to 10 years hence and which would be able to maintain maximum growth when silviculturally treated.

Thus, after the LSM sampling, the third sil vicul tural teatment, ' which may

be in the form of further poison-gridling and climber cutting, removal of seed-bearers and relics and tending could be carried out.

The areas treated under the modified Malayan Uniform System in the

Permanent Forest Estates (Forest Reserves) expanded rapidly, aafter 1971, reaching a total of 140,975 ha. in 1983. However, with the huge expansion of areas being opened up for logging in the late sixties till the early eighties, it was impossible for silvicultural treatments to keep pace and a

large backlog of untreated forest accumulated. In early 1977 all treament was stopped, after intensive investigation and studies conducted by Chai and Udarbe (1977) which cast doubt on the usefulness of such treatments. They noted that, owing to the high intensity of logging, silvicutural

treatments when carried out were effectively done on only one-third of !;he logged-over area, with the other two-thirds having been released by logging itself.

Moreover, several concurrent developments encouraged changes in the

silvicultural system. Firstly, the increased intensity of logging practices led to more damage to soils from heavy equipment. Secondly, the

steadily increasing average volume of removals affected soils and

regeneration. Lastly, very vigorous invasion of 'balukar' had been observed after heavy logging and treatment. As a resu1 t, poisoning or any

other sil vicu1 tural treatment immediately after heavy logging in Sabah is no longer considered appropriate. Subsequently and currently the sequence

of sil vicul tural treatments is as follow s (Anon, 1 984):-

i) n - 2 to' n - 1: Allocation of felling coupe followed by the first sil vicul tural treatment which involves climber cutting. This operation has not been

carried out extensively.

- 125 -

n Felling operation.

n + 3 to n + 5 : Linear Regeneration Sampling (LRS-I) followed by

the second silvicultural treatment which

involves mainly climber cutting. This is an

effective treatment which usually results in the

creation of forest gaps inducing growth of

commercial species. Frill-girdling of non-

commercial trees or weed species has not been

undertaken because this operation was considered

to be harmful to the ecosystem and economically

unsound. The weed species may be a valuable

resource for future utilization locally.

Silvicultural treatment, particularly frill-

gridling, was not carried out immediatley after

logging because logging itself is a

silvicultural treatment opening up sufficient

gaps for inducing growth of seedlings and

saplings and sapings. Under intensive forest

management, enrichment planting would be carried

out when necessary.

n + 10 to n + 15: Further linear regeneration sampling (LSM) would

be carried out to assess the forest conditions.

This sampling is followed by the third

silvicultural treatment which normally involved

further climber cutting.

11)

11i)

n

n + 3 to n + 5

. .

- 125 -

Felling operation.

Linear Regeneration Sampling (LRS-I) followed by the second silvicultural treatment which iovol ves mainly climber cut ting. This is an effective treatment which usually results in the creation of forest gaps inducing growth of commercial species. Frill-girdling of non­

commercial trees or weed species has not been undertaken because this operation was considered to be harmful to the ecosystem and economically unsound. The weed species may be a valuable

resource for future utilization locally. Silvicultural treatment, particularly frill­gridling, was not carried out immediatley after logging because logging itself is a sil vicul tural treatment opening up sufficient gaps for inducing growth of seedlings and

saplings and sap1ngs. Under intensive forest management, enrichment planting would be carried

out when necessary.

iv) n + 10 to n + 15: Further linear regeneration sampling (LSM) would be carried out to assess the forest condi tions. This sampling is followed by the third

silvicultural treatment which normally involved further climber cutting.

- 126 -

SARAWAK'

There are three main foreste types in Sarawak, namely, Mangrove, Swamp and

Dipterocarp Hill Forests. Mangrove forests grow in the estuaries of the main

rivers, mainly to the south of the Batang Rajang (the biggest river in

Sarawa.k). They contain over 140 tree species and areas of Nipah palms.

Historically, these forests provided raw materials for the tannin industry but

now production is geared towards firewood, charcoal, poles and wood-chips.

Mixed Swamp forest is dominated by a few main commercial species, namely,

Ramin and a Group of Swamp Merantis such as horea uliginosa,

etneyasanna_natana, S.platycarpa and .a.scabrida. Ramin has been the main species

exported in the processed form. The Swamp Forest sub-type, Alan Forest, is

dominated by tall, often hollow trees of Alan (_Sh_oresa lalaged_a) which can occur

in virtually pure stands. Padang Paya and Padang Alan Forest are observed on

poorer sites.

The Dipterocarp forests have the greatest potential for development. They

show remarkable homogeneity at the timber group level where clipterocarps

account for 65-80% of the net industrial stemwood volume. A fourth type -

Kerangas Forest is generally non-commercial, containing small trees of poor

form and small size. The main species are Ças_uarina, Agat,his alba,

Tristania and infrequently Mo._ rea albida.

The recognised value and growing commercial and industrial significance of

timber in Sarawak led in 1 920 to the creation of a Forest Department. Before

World War II, the timber industry in Sarawak relied mainly on the

extensive areas of Lowland peat swamp forests. By about mid-sixties, the

effects of depletion of these swamp forests became evident and logging wasforced into hill forests. The first hill forest reserve however was not

licensed for logging until 1 969. Until then the bulk of the production

had come off stateland forest areas where logging was basically clear felling

for agricultural development purposes.

Lacking the experience in hill forest logging, Sarawak has tended to model its

management systems along the lines of those in the lowla.nd dipterocarp forest

of Peninsular Malaysia (Lee. 1982). Experience with similar forest in

Penisular Malaysia indicates that cut-over forests are mostly dominated by a

few relic trees that are of inferior species or seriously defective.

Mortality of the exposed relic trees is high and most damaged trees will not

recover. Relic trees left in dense clumps grow slowly while seedlings or

saplings of desirable species even if they have survived in the openings

cannot be expected to reach maturity for 70 to 8 0 years (F.A.O., 1 981 a).

- 12 .6 -

SARAWAK

There are three main for€st types in Sarawak, namely, Mangrove, Swamp and Dipterocarp Hill Forests. Mangrove forests grow in the estuaries of the main rivers, mainly to the south of the Batang Rajang (the biggest river in Sarawak). They contain over 40 tree species and areas of Nipah palms. Histori.cally, these forests provided raw material.s for the tannin industry but now production is geared towards firewood, charcoal, poles and wood-chips.

Mixed Swamp forest is dominated by a few main commercial species, namely, Ramin and a Group of Swamp Merantis such as Shorea ul1ginosa, ~

teysmanniana, l:l.platl[caroaand ~.~abrida. Ramin has been the main species exported in the processed form. The Swamp Forest sub-type, Alan Forest, is

domina ted by tall, often hollow trees of Alan (Shorea albida) which can occur in virtually pure stands. Padang Paya and Padang Alan Forest are observed on poorer si tes.

The Dipteroca'rp forests have the greatest potential for development. They

show remarkable homogeneity at the timber group level where dipterocarps account for 65-80% of the net industrial stemwood volume. A fourth type -Kerangas Forest is generally non-commercial, containing small trees of poor form and small size. The main species are Casuarina, Agathis~, Dacrydium,

Trist.ania and infrequently Stnrea albida.

The recognised value and growing commercial and industrial significance of

timber in Sarawak led in 1920 to the creation of a Forest Department. Before World War 11, the timber industry in Sarawak relied mainly on the extensive areas of Lowland peat swamp forests. By about mid-sixties, the effects of depletion of these swamp forests became evident and logging was forced into hill forests. The first hill forest reserve however was not

licensed for logging until 1969. Until then the bulk of the production had come off stateland forest areas where logging . was basically clear felling for agricul tural development purposes.

Lacking the experience in hill forest logging, Sarawak has tended to model its

management systems along the lines of those in the lowland dipterocarp forest of Peninsular Malaysia (Lee. 1982). Experience with similar forest in

Penisular Malaysia indicates that cut-over forests are J)lostly dominated by a few relic trees that are of inferior species or seriously defective •

. Mortality of the exposed relic trees is high and most damaged trees will not recover. Relic trees left in dense clumps grow slowly while seedlings or saplings of desirable species even if they have survived in the openings

cannot be expected to reach maturity for 10 toeo years (F.A.O., 1981 a).

- 127 -

Evaluation of Silvieultural Systems

From 1971f to 1980, three UNDP/FAO projects assisted the Forest Department

to establish interim guidelines for silviculture and management in Mixed

Dipterocarp Forest (M.D.F.). The primary solution to future timber

supplies lies in the imma.ture trees of the cut-over forests. Recent local

studies indicate that 1) before logging there are commonly enough immature

trees of quaility species for a future crop; 2) an adequate number for a

second crop can be spared damage if logging is done with care; and 3) such

trees respond sufficiently to liberation to present in 30 years a

prospective second cut about equal in volume and similar in quality to the

first cut.

In order to obtain necessary information about the fcrest, a series of

permanent sample plot was established in different parts of Sarawak

(F.A.O., 1982). Three silvicultural treatment were evaluated, namely, (1)

Overstorey Removal, (2) The Malayan Uniform System (MUS); and (3)

Liberation Thiruain,g.

The "Overstorey Removal" is a simple type of silviculture], treatment in

which the overmature trees not commercially ar.:ceptable and left standing at

the time of the harvest are removed.

The "Malayan Uniform System (MUS)" in its classic form, aims to produce the

next harvest entirely from the seedlings a.nd saplings which survive the

effect of the logging. Other surviving trees, if not economical, are

regarded as an impediment to the growth of saplings and seedlings, and are

therefore removed. The treatment especially if applied to the MDF of

Sarawak,may cause a drastic change in the forest environment, which may

persist for several years, and during that time the site may become

dominated by light-demanding pioneer species, resulting in a considerable

change in the species composition.

Realising the potentially destructive effect of the classical Malayan

Uniform System on advance growth of desirable species, a Modified Malayan

Uniform System has been designed, which seeks to preserve the best of the

advance growth of the desirable species. By this modification, a harvest

from the advance growth may be obtained even before the maturity of the

seecilings, resulting in a polycyclic form of management. The Sarawak

Forest Department has applied the Modified Malayan Uniform System for many

years, as a routine treatment after logging in the Mixed Swamp Forest.

- 127 -

Evaluation of Silvicultural Systems

From 1974 to 1980, three UNDP/FAO projects assisted the Forest Department to establish interim guidelines for silv.iculture and management in Mixed Dipterocarp Forest (M.D.F.). The primary solution to future timber

supplIes lies in the immature trees of the cut-over forests. Recent local studies. indicate that 1) before logging there are commonly enough immature trees of q uaility species for a future crop; 2) an adequate number for a second crop can be spared damage if logging is done with care; and 3) such trees respond sufficiently to liberation to present in 30 years a

prospective second cut about equal in volume and similar in quality to the first cut.

In order to obtain necessary information about the forest, a series of permanent sample plot was established in different parts of Sarawak

(F. A. 0. , 1982). Three silvicultural treatment were evaluated, namely, (1) Overstorey Removal, (2) The Malayan Uniform System (MUS); and (3)

Liberation Thinning.

The "Overstorey Removal" is a simple type of silvicultural treatment in wbich the overmature trees not commercially acceptable and left standing at the time of the harvest are removed.

The "Malayan Uniform System (MUS)" in its classic form, aims to produce the next harvest entirely from the seedlings and saplings which survive the effect of the logging. Other surviving trees, if not economical, are regarded as an impediment to the growth of saplings and .seedlings, and are

therefore removed. The treatment especially if applied to the MDF of Sarawak,may cause a drastic change in the forest environment, which may

persist for several years, and during that time the site may become dominated by light-demanding pioneer species, resulting in a considerable change in the species composi tioD.

Realising the potentially destructive effect of the classical Malayan

Uniform System on advance growth of desirable species, a Modified Malayan Uniform System has been deSigned, which seeks to preserve the best of the advance growth of the desirable species. By this modification , a harvest from the advance growth may be obtained even before the maturity of the seediings, resulting in a polycyclic form of management. The Sarawak Forest Department has applied the Modified Malayan Uniform System for many years, as a routine treatment after logging in the Mixed Swamp Forest.

- 128 -

"Liberation Thinning" is based on the identification of as many as possible

desirable species, and the selection and liberation of the best of them

from competition, as well as the removal of the overstorey trees. It is

hoped that this treatment will permit the best of the desirable trees to

grow at their maximum rate, yielding the next harvest in as short a time as

possible. It does not seek to eliminate any particular species or species

group, and the only trees which are removed, are those which restrain the

growth of a selected tree. Trees of undesirable species, which appear not

to compete with a reserved tree are therefore left untouched.

To provide the required data, an elaborate set of measurements was taken

throughout several hundred hectares of forest. More than 117,000

individual trees were measured and most of them annually for several years.

The studies demonstrated that:-

1 ) the residual stand contains a useful number of trees of desirable

species which, with silvicultural treatment, are capable of

producing a harvest on a short felling cycle.

as long as selective harvests remain of moderate intensity and

damage to the residual stand is within acceptable limits, the MDF

can be expected to maintain naturally the regeneration of

sufficient stems of desirable species to warrant silvicultural

treatment and management of the natural forest and that neither

enrichment nor replacement planting will be needed.

from a simulated time span of about 20 years, most trees except

large ones with very poor crowns, can be expected to react

positively to release.

Overstorey Removal, by eliminating the large crowns from the upper canopy

and improving illumination to the forest as a whole, may not provide

sufficient release to all trees of desirable species or form. Furthermore,

Overstorey Removal does not necessarily release the best trees. Yields

will therefore be less and the felling cycles longer than can be attained

if a slightly heavier treatment, favouring individually selected trees, is

applied for a moderate increase in investment.

The positive effects of releasing individual trees is evident in Liberation

Thinning and more so in the Modified Malayan Uniform System. Both systems

provide overhead illumination which results in considerable increased mean

diameter growth. Under, the Modified Malayan Uniform System, however, a

greater number of trees are eliminated, resulting in a stand containing a

lower number trees of commercial value. Many of these eliminated trees are

of good log grade, which if left standing, could be of good marketable

value in future.>

- 128 -

"Liberation Thinning" is based on the identification of as many as possible

desirable species, and the selection and liberation of the best of them from competition, as well as the removal of the overstorey trees. It is hoped that this treatment will permit the best of the desirable trees to grow at their maximum rate, yielding the next harvest in as short a time as possi~ble. It does ~ not seek to eliminate any particular species or species group, and the only trees which ~are removed, are those which restrain the grow th of a selected tree. Trees of undesirable speCies, which appear not to compete with a reserved tree are therefore left untouche~

To provide the required data, an elaborate set of measurements was taken throughout several hundred hectares of forest. More than 117,000

individual trees were measured and most of them annually for several years. The studies demonstrated that:-

1) the residual stand contains a useful number of trees of desirable

species which, with silvicultural treatment, are capable of producing a harvest on a short felling cycle.

2) as long as selective harvests remain of moderate intensity and

damage to the residual stand is within acceptable limits, the MDF

can be expected to maintain naturally the regeneration of

sufficient stems of desirable species to warrant ail vicul tural treatment and management of the natural forest and that neither enrichment nor replacement planting will be neede~

3) from a simulated time span of about 20 years, most trees except large ones with very poor crowns, can be expected to react posi tively to release.

Overstorey Removal, b:( eliminating the large crowns from the upper canopy and improving illumination to the forest as a whole, may not provide suffic':'ent release to all trees of desirable speCies or form. Furthermore,

Overstorey Removal does not necessarily rel.ease the best trees. Yields will therefore be less and the felling cycles longer than can be attained if a slightly heavier treatment, favouring individually selected trees, is applied for a moderate increase in investment.

The positive effects of releasing individual trees is evident in Liberation Thinning and more so in the Modified Malayan Uniform System. Both systems provide overhead illumination which results in considerable increased mean diameter growth. Under. the Modified Malayan Uniform System, however, a greater number of trees are eliminated, resulting in a stand containing a lower number trees of commercial value. Many of these eliminated trees are of good log grade, which if left standing, could be of good marketable value .in future.

Liberation Thinning

Under Liberation Thinning, those trees if not competing with reserved

trees, will be left, thus protecting species diversity and giving more

freedom of choice to respond to changes in the market in the future.

Because only individually selected trees are liberated from competition,

Liberation Thinning maintains a high forest canopy. Its ecological effects

are thus not as traumatic. Shade remains as a silvicultural tool, by which

the species composition of the natural regeneration can be influenced by

discouraging the establishment and growth of vines and light-demanding

pioneer species. The sequence of operations is as shown in Table 32:-

Table 32

Sequence of Operations in Liberation Thinning

- 129 -

F 1 + 0

Fi +1

F 1 + 30

F2 + 1

Year Operation

Selective harvesting to a limit of 60 cm dbh.

Liberation thinning of residual forest.

seclecting final crops trees in the diameter

range 10 - 59 cm dbh.

Second selective harvest.

Liberation thinning of residual forest.

(Trees which were seedlings in open spaces

created by the first harvest will be liberated

at this time).

Liberation Thinning it was therefore concluded would be the most

appropriate type of silvicultural treatment for MDF (FAO, 1981b). Under

present conditions, although it is premature to appraise the method in all

its aspects, Liberation Thinning has demonstrated results which are

sufficiently promising to suggest that it be applied as a routine treatmentin Sarawak Mixed Dipterocarp Forest.

- 129 -

Liberation Thinning

Under Liberation Thinning, those trees if not competing with reserved trees, will be left, thus protecting species diversity and giving more freedom of choice to respond to changes in the market in the future. Because only individually selected trees are liberated from competi tion,

Liberation Thinning maintains a high forest canopy. Its ecological effects are thus not as traumatic. Shade remains as a silvicultural tool, by which the species composi tion of the na tural regeneration can be influenced by discouraging the establishment and growth of vines and light-demanding pioneer species. The sequence of operations is as show n in Table 32:-

Year

F 1 + 0

F 1 + 1

F 1 + 30

F 2 + 1

Table 32

Sequence of Operations in Liberation Thinning

Operation

Selective harvesting to a limit of 60 cm dbh.

Liberation thinning of residual forest.

seclecting final crops trees in the diameter

range 10 - 59 cm dbh.

Second selective harvest.

Liberation thinning of residual forest.

(Trees which were seedlings in open spaces created by the first harvest will be liberated at this time).

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Liberation Thinning it was therefore concluded would be the most appropriate type of ail vicul tural treatment for MDF (FAO, 1981 b). Under present conditions, although it is premature to appraise the method in all its aspects, Liberation Thinning has demonstrated results which are suffiCiently promiSing to suggest that it be applie'd as a routine treatment in Sarawak Mixed Dipterocarp Forest.

- 130 -

The sequence of field procedures for Liberation Thinning in Sarawak is

. described below (Hutchinson, 1979 a)-

Crverstorey Removal

Poison-girdle all 'listed' trees 60 cm.s dbhob and larger, except those

standing within 30 metres of the edge of a landing or other large area

of hare soil. Poison-girdle all other trees 50 erne dbhob and larger,

regardless of where they stand.

Identification of "Reserved" Trees

In the residual stand, identify all suitable 'listed' trees, in the

specified diameter range (usually 10-59 cms dbhob). These will be the

"reserved", or "potential final-crop" trees.

"Reserved" trees must not stand closer than two metres from one

another. Whenever two possible "reserved" trees are found standing

closer than two metres, the inferior tree is to be poison-girdled.

Removal of Current Conaelj.ttón

Poison-girdle all trees (except other reserved trees) which are found

to overtop a reserved tree.

Poison-girdle all trees (except other reserved trees) which actively

compete with a reserved trees.

_Removal of F 'iLeereetition

All trees (except other reserved trees) which are considered likely to

offer future competition for any reserved 'tree are poison-girdled. A

Distance Table is used for this, (refer to Table 33). The Distance

'Table is based upon the relationship between the diameter of a reserved

tree, and the diameter of each of the trees standing around it. The

Distance rests upon the premise that growth in a uniform stand in which

all trees are 11 cm dbh will decrease after the total basal area per

hectare exceeds 14 square metres. The limit is assumed to increase

linearly to 28 square metres at 61 ems dhh. Unless stands are uniform,

the Distance Table leads to ba.sal areas lower than the limit, because

trees within the 'distance' from a reserved trees are removed

automatically in sPite of any compensating ga.ps which may exist in the

cano. Even though it may be modified in years to come, the Distance

Table in its present form anticipates future eompetition and also

serves as a means of making the task of thinning less liable to error

and omission by providing supervisors with objective checks upon the

treatment of trees around each "reserved" tree.

- 130 -

The sequence of field procedures for Liberation Thinning in Sarawak is

described below (Hutchinson, 1979 a):-

a) Oyerstorey Removal

Poison-girdle all 'listed' trees 60 cms dbhob and larger, except those standing within 30 metres of the edge of a landing or other large area of bare soil. Poison-girdle all other trees 50 cms dbhob and larger, regardless of where they stan~

b) Identification of "Reserved" Trees

In the residual stand, identify all sui table 'listed' trees, · in the specified diameter range (usually 10-59 cms dbhob). These will be the "reserved", or "potential final-crop" trees.

-Reserved" trees must not stand closer than two metres from one

another. · Whenever two possible "reserved" trees are found standing closer than two metres, the inferior tree is to be poison-girdle~

c) RemoYal of Current Competition

Poison-girdle all trees (except other reserved trees) which are found to over top a reserved tre~

Poison-girdle all trees (except other reserved trees) which actively compete with a reserved tree~

d) Remoyal of Future Competition

All trees (except other reserved trees) which are considered likely to offer future competition for any reserved tree are poison-girdle~ A Distance Table is used for this, (refer to Table 33). The Distance

·Table is based upon the relationship between the diameter of a reserved tree, and t.he diameter of each of the trees standing around it. The Distance rests upon the premise that growth in a uniform stand in which

all trees are 11 cm dbh will decrease after the total basal area per

hectare exceeds 14 square metres. The limit is assumed to increase linearly to 28 square metres at 61 ems dbh. Unless stands are uniform,

the Distance Table leads to basal areas lower than the limit, because trees within the 'distance' from a reserved trees are removed

automatically in spite of any compensating gaps which may exist in the

canopy. Even though it may be modified in years to come, the Distance Table in· its present form anticipate.s future vumpetit10n and also serves as a means of making the task of thinning less liable to error and omission by providing supervisors with objective checks upon the

treatment of trees around each "reserved" tree.

- 131 -

When considering prescriptions for silvicultural treatment,. it is helpful

to recognise that, immediately after logging, the forest consists of two

major elements which are dissimilar. There are, (a) the residual forest,

containing surviving trees, advance growth, and seedlings, and, (b) open

spaces created by logging. These will develop to carry regeneration of

desirable species beneath a c_a.nopy of even-aged, light-demanding pioneer

species.. Before prescribing silvicultural treatment, it is necessary to

consider separately each of these two elements.

Stand table projections for recently-exploited forest, indicate the number

of years after loggin,g required to produce a second harvest. Projection of

the stand table 10-59 ems dbhob gives the following results:

Silvicultural Projection Mean Total Number of Trees per

treatment period hectare Produced for the Second

Harvest, (Desirable Species,

Control. 55 years 4 trees

(No Treatment)

Liberation Thinning,

15 + cm dbhob

10 year 10 trees

Guideline enumeration of MDF heavily logged 23 and 27 years previously,

indicates that stems of desirable species 10-59 ems dbhob comprise 30

percent of the mean total number of stems per hectare - a higher proportion

than in unlogged forest. Deteriorating crown form suggests these stems

have endured a period of considerable competition, relieved at this time by

the death of some light-demanding pioneer species. That is, liberation

thinning at F+30 would occur before natural competition begins to reduce

significantly the stocking of desirable species.

The information above suggests that a suitable regime for silvicultural

treatment in Sarawak MDF could be as follows:-

Liberate selected potential final-crop trees in the residual

forest not later than two years after logging, while access for

men and supplies remains clear, and while it is possible to see

clearly injuries inflicted by logging. 'Trees "reserved" at this

time will form the nucleus of the second harvest to be made 30

years after the first,

- 13 1 -

When considering prescriptions for silvicultural treatment,. it is helpful

to recognise that, immediately after logging, the forest consists of two major elements which are dissimilar. There are, (a) the residual forest, containing surviving trees,. advance growth, and seedlings, and, (b) open spaces created Qy loggin~ These will develop to carry regeneration of desirable species· beneath a canopy of even-aged, light-demanding pioneer species. Before prescribing silvicultural treatment, it is necessary to

consider separately each of these two elements.

Stand table projections for recently-exploited forest, indicate the number of years af);er logging required to produce a second harvest. Projection of the stand table 10-59 cms dbhob gives the following results:

Sl1 vicul tural treatment

Control. (No Treatment)

Liberation Thinning, 15 + em dbhob

Projection period

55 years

10 year

Mean Total Number of Trees per hectare Produced for the Second Harvest, (Desirable Species, 60+ ems dbhob)

11 trees

10 trees

Guideline enumeration of MDF heavily logged 23 and 27 years previously, indicates that stems of desirable · species 10-59 cms dbhob comprise 30 percent of the mean total number of stems per hectare - a higher proportion than in uclogged forest. Deteriorating crown form suggests these stems have endured it period of considerable competi tion, relieved at this t{me Qy

the death of ·some light-demanding pioneer species. That is, liberation thinning at F+30 would occur before ca tural competition begins to reduce significantly the stocking of desirable species.

The information above suggests that a sui table regime for sil vicul tural treatment in Sarawak MDF could be as follows:-

1. Liberate selected potential final-crop trees in the residual

forest not later than two years after logging, while access for men and supplies remains clear, and while it is possible to see cle·arly injuries inflicted by logging. Trees "reserved" at this time will form the nucleus of the second harvest to be made 30 years after the first.

- 132 -

2. At F+30, when the forest residual ftom the first logging is ready

to yield the second harvest, the areas which were open spaces

created by the first logging, will be stocked with approximately

200 stems per hectare of desirable species in the diameter range

10-59 ems dbhob. The second harvest will leave most of these as

residuals. They may then be released by liberation thinning

immediately following the second harvest.

- 132 -

2. At F+30, when the forest residual from the first logging is ready to yield the second harvest, the ar·eas which were open spaces created by the first logging, will be stocked with approximately 200 stems per hectare of desi r able species in the diameter range 10-59 cms dbhob. The second harvest will leave most of these as residuals. They may then be released by liberation thinning immediately following the second harvest .

- 1.33 -

Table 11

The Distance Table

(Table of Minimum Distance permitted from a Reserved Tree to any Neighbouring

Tree which is NOT Reserved Tree)

(Meters)

Reserved

Tree Neighbouring Tree (Not a Reserved Tree) - Diameter bhob (cms)

(0)CZ) LC)

1:71

0E6.5 Cd (1) C

W 4-) 1'0

7.0 cts.z;CL) 4-7.5 0- 5- 0

Cn7.5 T,

-4-) a) cr,8.08.5 7,17, -2 II)

(1:3 4-)8.5 w 4-)

r-- C.- 4-9.0 .7_ (clj o

9.5 ;')ct 0)u)

I c 5.-

9.5 g10.0 12 3 Eo0- -0 I./3 r-)

Poison-girdle all trees

50+ cms dbhob NOT "Listed"

Notes: a) In the forest, distance obtained from this table should be

measured in the horizontal plane.

b) Do not apply this table to trees smaller than 10 cms diameter

dbhob.

0 Do not apply this table to other reserved trees.

Source: Hutchinson, 1979 b.

Diameter

(9cm) CD

1-1

("n

CJ

CO CO(NJ

4",-)

CO CZ)LO)

1 0 - 1 2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.013-17 17 3.0 3.5 14.0 ¿1.0 14,5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.518-22 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.023 - 27 14.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5

w 28.-32 24.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 7-533-37 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0

1:1 38-42 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.5> 43-47 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.5 8.5a), 48-52 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.5 8.5 9.0--r" 53-57 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.5

58-59 6.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.5 9.5

- 133 -

Table 33 The Distance Table

(Table of Minimum Distance permitted from 'a Reserved Tree to any Neighbouring Tree which is NOT Reserved Tree)

Reserved Tree

Diameter ( 9em)

10-12 13-17 18-22 23-27

QJ 28-32 QJ ... 33-37 .....

"C 38-42 QJ > 43-47 s-QJ 48-52 '" QJ o:: 53-57

58-59

Notes:

(Meters)

Nei ghbouri ng Tree (Not a Rese rved Tree) - Di ameter bhob (ems)

N . ..... N ..... N ..... N ..... N ..... '" ..... ..... N N ..., ..., ... ... '" LO '" + , , , , , , , , , , , 0 0 <"'> co <"'> co ..., co ..., co ..., co "" ..... ..... ..... N N ..., <"'> ... ... '" '" .

'" '" 0:::

'" o:::.~

2. 5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 6. 5 E .~ '" u '" .<:: 0:::

QJ ...,'" 3.0 3.5 4.0 4. 0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 + .~ .~~

ou J<

3.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6. 0 6. 5 7.0 "" QJ 4-

7.5 0. ... ° QJV1 '" 4.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 7. 5 QJ QJ ... '" '" '" 4. 0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 ""QJ '" '" ..., 0::: QJ

~ '" .~

4. 5 5.0 5. 5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7. 0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.5 ~.~ '" QJ ",--, 0::: .<::

5.0 5.5 6.0 6. 0 6.5 7.0 7. 5 7.5 8.0 8.5 8.5 "'..., QJ"" ~ ~ 0. 4-

5.5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.5 8.5 9.0 "C .QJ c: ° ... u ° 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.5 .~ x '" "'QJ 0 ' QJ , c: s-

6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.5 9. 5 c: .. ............ O~ '0 QJ

6.5 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8. 5 8.5 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 "'oc: E .~ .<:: '" O..c+-JO 0.. '0 '" <"'>

Poison-girdle all trees 50+ ems dbhob NOT "Listed"

a) In the forest, distance obtained from this table should be measured in the horizontal plane.

b) Do not apply this table to trees smaller than 10 ems di ame ter dbhob.

c) Do not apply this table to other reserved trees.

Source: Hutchinson, 1979 b.

- 134 -

Shifting Cultivation and the Co-operative Forestry Concept

The extent of agricultural encroachment into the hill forest land of

Sarawak is formidable and it is a most important topic which can overwhelm

plans for future yields of the hill forest. It has been reported that some

42,000 families are practising shifting cultivation. This leads to a roughassessment that each year the area of new forest used for shifting

cultivation amounts to 34,000 hectares.

A Workshop on Shifting Cultivation held in December 1978 with the

cooperation of six government departments and the State Planning Unit,examined the dimension and gravity of the problem. It recommended an

interdepartmental programme of immediate action covering a comprehensive

set of directives aimed at offering the farmers opportunities of shifting

towards stabilized agriculture for a better future. The contribution of

forestry can be manifold in the areas of agro-forestry and cooperative

forestry.

Efforts of the research programme raay give major attention to some

qualities of trees which can directly benefit the farmer. Three important

aspects can be cited in which the Forest Department has already scheduled

research efforts, arad whic.b deserve expansion:

a) The soil. improvement aspect.

The soil improvement qualities of certain tree species of the

Leguminosae are known. The Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) is

an example. If successful this could serve in the reforestation

programme of areas where shifting cultivation exhausted the soil.

If the soil fertility can be regenerated the production of wood

may be an additional benefit.

13) The production of alternative products.

The production of stems arid leaves for fodder, or fruits and nuts

for food or folder may be a valuable complement for the farmer

especially if the tree, as with the Leguminosae, were a soil

improver, be it with the leaves as compost or with the root-

nodules as a nitrogen-fixer.

e) The soil stabilisation properties.

Trees as a means of action against soil erosion, or for areas with

steep slopes, for fixing the soil and terraces cannot be

overlooked. -

The major objective of Lhese efforts would be to assist the farmer ratherthan ultiaztately to produce wood.

- 134 -

Shifting Cultivation and the Co-operative Forestry Concept

The extent of agricultural encroachment into the hill forest land of Sarawak is formidable and it is a most important topic which can overwhelm plans for future yields ·of the hill forest. It has been reported that some 42,000 families are practising shifting cultivation. This leads to a rough assessment that each year the area of new forest used for shifting cultivation amounts to 34,000 hectares.

A Workshop on Shifting Cultivation held in December 1978 with the cooperation of six government departments and the State Planning Unit, examined the dimension and gravity of the problem. It recommended an l.nterdepartmental programme of immediate action covering a comprehensive set of directives aimed at offering the farmers opportunities of shifting

towards stabilized agriculture for a better future. The contribution of forestry can be manifold in the areas of agro-forestry and cooperative forestry.

Efforts of the research programme may give major attention to some quali ties of trees which can directly benefit the farmer. Three important aspects can be c1 ted in which the Forest Department has already scheduled

research efforts, and ~Ihich deserve expansion:

a) The soil improvement aspect.

The soil improvement qualities of certain tree species of the Leguminosae are known. The Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) is

an example. If successful this could serve in the reforestation programme of areas where shifting cultivation exhausted the soil. If the soil fer'tility can be regenerated the production of wood may be an additional benefit.

b) The production of al terna tive products.

The production of stems and leaves for fodder, or fruits and nuts

for food or folder may be a valuable complement fcr the farmer especially if the tree, as with the Leguminosae, were a soil improver, be it with the leaves as compost or with the root­nodules as a nitrogen-fixer;

cl The soil stabilisa tion properties. Trees as a means of action against soil erOsion, or for areas with steep slopes, for fixing the soil and terraces cannot be overlooked.

The major objective of these efforts would be to assist the farmer rather than ultimately to produoe wood.

- 135 -

For generations these farmers have lived from the forests. Now a series of

industrial complexes are scheduled to be built and will generate sizeable

benefits, It is natural that these farmers should expect to participate in

some of these benefits. Under the cooperative forestry concept, several

aspects can be considered from the institutional, the commercial and other

points of view. These could include:-

' Shareholding

The chiefs, or some of them, representing the people, could be made

cooperative or pseudo-active, business partners with a participa-

tion in the revenue related to total roundwood production, or

similar systems.

Employment

They could be offered, in preferential entry to the labour force

of the industrial complexes, or be in a certain labour input

relationship with the company that would provide some returns.

Ttd.s would help alleviate their struggle for physical survival.

Assistance

For some of the concessions particularly threatened by the

shifting cultivators, agreements, mig,ht be sought so as to

allocate in cooperation with the authorities of the respective

government departments some (cut-over) lands in the vicinity of

the concession areas. There, the concessionaires would assist

them in their efforts to shift over to a settled food and cash

crop oriented agriculture,.

The assistance of the companies could range from physical assistance such

as terratairg, housing construction, to financial support in offering

fertilizer, improved tools and seeds. The state would contribute with

agricuitural extension, schools, dispensaries, subsidies etc..

- 135 -

For generations these farmers ·have lived from the forests. Now a series of

industrial complexes are scheduled to be buil t and w 111 generate sizeable benefits. It is natural that these farmers should expect to participate in some of these benefits. Under the cooperative forestry concept, several aspects can be considered from the institutional, the commercial and other points of view. These could include:-

a)' Shareholding

The chiefs, or some of them, representing the people, could be made cooperative or pseudo-active, business partners with a participa­tion in the revenue related to total roundwood production, or similar systems.

b) Employment

They could be offered, in preferential entry to the labour force of the industrial complexes, or be in a certain labour input relationship with the company that would provide some returns.

This would help alleviate their struggle for physical survival.

c) Assistance

For some of the concessions particularly threatened by the

shifting cultivators, agreements, might be sought so as to

allocate in cooperation with the authorities of the respective government departments some (cut-over) lands in the vicini ty of the concession areas. There, the concessd.onaires would assd.st

them in their efforts to shift over to a settled food and cash crop oriented agricul ture.

The assd.stance of the companies could range from physical assd.stance such as~, housing construction, to financial support in offering

fertilizer, improved tools and seeds. The state would contribute with agricultural extension, schools, dispensaries, subsidies ete.

- 136 -

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Malaysia is faced not only with a new dimension in developing silvicultural

and management techniques fully adapted toenvironmental conditions, but also

the dilemma of ensuring that these techniques guarantee a sustained and

uninterrupted flow of timber for the highly capitalised, sophisticated

multiple-product industries. Any optimism about the potential of the hill

forests was based on the premise that a wider range of species and tree sizes

would be commercially harvested and that a system to ensure an adequate

proportion of the good quality growing stock would be retained for latter

cutting. The forestry sector in Malaysia is thus beset with many problems.

However, these problems can be traced back to three root problems which can be

identified as follow:-

Rapid rate of resource depletion

High rate of resource wastage

Slow rate of resource replacement.

Steps have been taken to reduce the socio-economic impacts of the impending

shortage of high quality timber, with the following measures:-

Establishment of Permanent Forest Estate

Reduction of the present rate of logging

Establishment of forest plantations with quick-growing species to

augment the timber supply during the deficit years

Intensification of research activities on forest management and

development.

Under the present situation, research activities in Malaysia have to be geared

towards developing and formulating necessary research strategies and

identifying priority projects in accordance with current problems affecting

the forests. The Forest Research Institute, Kepong has identified three main

areas of research, namely, to undertake and support an intensive research

programme in forest development aimed at achieving maximum yield; maximum

direct and indirect benefits from harvesting and utilisation and, above all,

maximum financial return on investment in forest development activities.

Some of the major research projects which has been identified in relation to

its current problems, research activities undertaken and achievements or

benefits anticipated are outlined below (FR1,1984)-

- 136 -

RFBEARCH AND DEVELOPKmT

Malaysia is faced not only with a new dimension in developing sllvicultural

and management techniques fully adapted to ,environmental conditions, but also the dilemma of ensuring that these techniques guarantee a sustained and uninterrupted flow of timber for the highly capitalised, sophisticated mul tipl&-product industries. Any optimism about the potential of the hill forests was based on the premise that a wider range of species and tree sizes would be commercially harvested and that a system to ensure an adequate proportion of the good quali ty growing stock would be retained for latter cutting. The forestry sector in Malaysia is thus beset with many problems. However, these problems can be traced back to three root problems which can be

identified as follow:-

i) Rapid rate of resource depletion ii) High rate of resource wastage iii) Slow rate of resource replacement.

Steps have been taken to reduce the socio-economic impacts of the impending shortage of high quality timber, with the following measures:-

i) Establishment of Permanent Forest Estate

11) Reduction of the present rate of logging iii) Establishment of forest plantations with quick-growing species to .

augment the timber supply during the defici t years iv) Intensification of research activities on forest management and

development.

Under the present situation, research activities in Malaysia have to be geared towards developing and formulating necessary research strategies and identifying priority projects in accordance with current problems affecting the forests. The Forest Research Instit~te, Kepong has identified three main

areas of research, namely, to undertake and support an intensive research programme in forest development aimed at achieving maximum yield; maximum direct and indirect benefits from harvesting and utilisa tion and, above all, maximum financial return on investment in forest development activities.

Some of the major research projects which has been identified in relation to its current problems, research activities undertaken and achievements or benefits antiCipated are outlined below (FRI,1984)-

- 137 -

a) Natural Forest Management

Current Problems

I) Inadequate stocking and distribution of natural regeneration and

residual stand of the main economic species particularly in the

hill forests.

Inadequate knowledge of the response after logging of residual

trees to damage as well as to post-logging stand conditions.

Changing "marketability" status of timber tree species with time,

causing problems on choice of species to be treated.

Increasing expectation levels of the yield of future forests with

increased cultural inputs.

Inaccessibility of hill forest for treatment and management

purposes after logging due to the inherent hilly and rugged

terrain.

vi) Inadequate knowledge of the silvics of commercial species and high

cost of artificially regenerating logged over forest.

21se_ailgh_Agtly_LtLes

Studies on variation of cutting limits in relation to original and

residual stand composition and structure, especially in the

implementation of the Selective Management System.

Studies on logging wastage and damage to residual stand.

Determination of growth and yield of residual stands especially

after treatment (including logging).

Determination of relevant post-felling silvicultural treatments.

Development of natural regeneration e.g. recruitment, survival,

development etc., following logging.

Development of techniques of artificial regeneration of poor areas

e.g.planting, spacing, planting techniques, selection of species,

treatments, etc.

Time and cost-Studies of various management and silvicultura].

operations.

- 137 -

a) Natural Forest Management

Current Problems

'i) Inadequate stocking and distribution of natural regeneration and

residual stand of the main economic species particularly ;l.n the hill forests.

ii) Inadequate knowledg'e of ,the response after logging of reSidual

trees to damage as well as to post-logging stand conditions.

11i) Changing "marketability" status of timber tree species with time, causing problems on choice of species to be treated.

iv) Increasing expectation levels of the yield of future forests with increased cultural inputs.

v) Inaccessibility of hill forest for treatment and management purposes after logging ,due to the inherent hilly and rugged terrsin.

vi) Inadequate know ledge of the sil vies of commercial species and high cost of artificially regenerating logged over forest.

Research Activities

i) Studies on variation of cutting limits in relation to original and residual stand' composi tion and structure, especially in the

implementation of the Selective Management System.

ii) Studies on logging wastage and ,damage to residual stand.

ii';') Determination of grow th and yield of residual stands especially

after treatment (including logging).

iv) Determination of relevant post-felling silvicultural treatments.

v) Development of natural r egeneration e.g. recruitment, survival,

develoIJllent etc., following logging.

vi) Development of techniques of artificial regeneration of poor areas

e.g.planting, spacing, planting techniques, selection of speCies, treatments, etc.

vii) Time and cost-studies of various management and sil vicul tural operations.

- 138 -

Benefits Anticipated

The ecology and dynamics of the Hill Forest are much more complex thanthose of the Lowland Forests and much less understood, although Hill Forestresearch started as far back as 1947. More studies it is hoped will leadto a better understanding of the processes involved. Studies of theresponse of regeneration and residual stands to logging damage and post-felling conditions, should then enable the most cost effective systems tobe developed for establishing the future forests and increasing theirproductivity.

b) isatiQr1

Slarrent Problems

Wood residues generated from logging activities and primary woodprocessing industries are estimated to be 6.1 and 3.1 million m3per annum respectively. Milling residues which includes sawdust,offcuts, edgings, slabs and trimming, etc. have no economicaloutlet except as boiler fuel. Wastes from agricultural/resettle-ment schemes are also considerable in amount.

The depletion of good quality ttmber in large and long sizesnecessitates the search for innovative ways of producing usefulproducts from short lengths.

The crux of the problem is to convert these currently wastedresidues into saleable and value-added products economically.

Research Activities

To determine the physical, chemical and fibre morphologicalproperties of available materials.

To assess the suitability of available materials for themanufacture of pulp and paper, and wood-based panel products.

To convert woodwaste into gaseous, liquid and solid fuelseconomically and to design efficient stoves.

To design and fabricate mobile sawEuills for the efficientconversion of small diameter logs into timber.

"

- 138 -

Benefits Anticipated

The ecology and dynamics of the Hill Forest are much more complex than those of the Lowland Forests and much less understood, although Hill Forest research started as far back as 1947. More studies it is hoped will lead to a better understanding of the processes involved. Studies of the response of regeneration and residual stands to logging damage and post­felling conditions, should then enable the most cost effective systems to

be developed for establishing the future forests and increasing their productivity.

b) Wood-Waste Utilisation

CurrentProblem§

i) Wood residues generated from logging activities and primary wood processing industries are estimated to be 6.1 and 3.1 million m3

per annum respectively. Milling residues which includes sawdust, off cuts, edgings, slabs and trimming, etc. have no economical outlet except as boiler fuel. Wastes from agricultural/resettle­ment schemes are also considerable in amount.

11) The depletion of good quality timber in large and long sizes necessitates the search for innovative w~s of producing useful

products from short lengths.

iii) The crux of the problem is to convert these currently wasted residues into saleable and value-added products economically.

Research Actiyities

i) To determine the physical, chemical and fibre morphological properties of available materials.

11) To a'3sess the suitability of available materials for the manufacture of pulp and paper, and wood-based panel products.

iii) To convert woodwaste into gas'eous, liquid and soU.d fuels economically and to design efficient stoves.

IV) To design a nd fabricate mobile sawmills for the efficient

conversion of small diameter logs into timber.

- 139 -

sr) To develop techniques for utilising timbers of short length in

long span and large members through glue lamination processes.

Denfit Anticipated

i) Development of appropriate technologies for conversion of these

available cellulosic materials into various useful and marketable

products, wouldmodmise the economic and social return from the

natural resources. At the same time it would facilitate the

establishment of a wider range of forest products industries.

Rattan Research

Current Problems

Shortage in the supply of commercial rattans to supply the

industry with the raw material.

Lack of plantations of commercial rattans to supplement the

supply.

No standard processing and preservation techniques for rattan

sticks and no standardised grading rules the processed rattans.

Research Activities

Tissue culture for producing large-scale superior seedlings.

Establishment of seed orchards and trial plots.

Collection and storage of seeds.

Nursery techniques to raise seedlings.

v). Silvicultural treatments in plantations for faster growth.

Standardisation of processing techniques and development of

preservation techniques against insect and fungi.

Development of standard grading rules for classifying processed

canes.

Charaterization of properties of lesser-known rattan species so

that they could also be utilized.

- 139 -

v) To develop techniques for utilising timbers of short length in long span and large members through glue lamination processes.

Benfit Anticipated

i) DeVelopment of appropriate technologies for conversion of these available cellulosic materials into 'various useful and marketable products, would nmcimise the economic and social return from the natural resources. At the same time it would facili tate the

establishment of a wider range of forest products industries.

Rattan Research

Current Probl ems

i) Shortage in the supply of commercial rattans to supply the industry with the raw material.

ii) Lack of plantations of commercial rattans to supplement the supply.

iii) No standard processing and preservation techniques for rattan

sticks and no standardised grading rules the processed ·rattans.

Research Actiyities

i) Tissue .culture for producing large-scale superior seedlings.

ii) Establishment of seed orchards and trial plots.

iii) Collection and storage of seeds.

iv) Nursery techniques to raise seedlings.

v) . Sl1 vicul tural treatments in plantations for faster grCMth.

vi) Standardisation of processing techniques and development of preservation techniques against insect and fungi.

vii) Development of standard grading rules for classi~ing processed canes.

viii) Charaterization of properties of lesser--known rattan species so that they could also be utilized.

- 140 -

Achievements and Benefits Anticipated

Development of technical capability in establishing largescale

plantations and their proper management.

Development of uniform method for processing and protecting canes.

Establishment of a grading system for processed canes.

Preparation of manual on silviculture and processing of rattans.

Promotion of rattan planting by small-holders.

d) Watershed Management

Current Problems

Forested watersheds play a vital role in perpetuating consistent

water resources of good quality for domestic, agricultural,

industrial and recreational uses. Most of these watersheds are

situated in uphill areas (slopes > 30%). Presently mechanical

logging operations are encroaching into these sensitive areas.

The activities can lead to increased surface runoff resulting in

accelerated soil erosion and sediment transport. The end-result

is lower water quality and reduced stream capacities with

increased tendency to flooding. Increased surface runoff also

results in lower river yields because these are derived mainly

from subsurface systems.

The present dearth of quantitative infonnation on hydrologic

behaviour of disturbed forested catchments, inhibits the

development of guidelines to minimise the consequences of timber

harvesting.

Research Activities

1) In 1978 two experimental basin studies were initiated by the

Forest Research Institute with New Zealand assistance under the

New Zealand Bilateral Aid Programme. Sites of study are Jengka in

Tekam, F.R., Pahang and Berembun F.R., Negeri Sembilan. The

studies yield ,climatological and hydrological data in forested

catchments before and after logging operations. Based on these,

guidelines will be developed for reducing disturbance during

logg,ing operations.

- 140 -

Achieyements and Benefits Anticipated

i) Development of technical capability in establishing largescale plantations and their proper management.

11) Development of uniform method for processing and protecting canes.

11i) Establishment of a grading system for processed canes.

iv) Preparation of manual on silviculture and processing of rattans.

v) Promotion of rattan planting by small-holders.

d) Watershed Management

Current Problems

i) Forested watersheds play a vital role in perpetuating consistent

water resources of good quality for domestic, agricultural, industrial and recreational uses. Host of tl).ese watersheds are

situated in uphill areas (slopes> 30:C). Presently mechanical logging operations are encroaching into these ·sensitive areas. The activi ties can lead to increased surface runoff resulting in accelerated soil erosion and sediment transport. The end-resul t is lower water quality and reduced stream capacities with

increased tendency to flooding. Increased surface runoff also results in lower river yields becaul;le these are derived mainly from subsurface I:IYstems.

ii) The present dearth of quantitative information on hlfdrologic behaviour of disturbed forested catchments, inhibits the development of guidelines to minimise the consequences of timber harvesting.

Research Actiyities

i) In 1978 two e)!:perimental basin studies were initiated by the

Forest Research Institute with New Zealand assistance under the New Zealand Bilateral Aid Programme. Sites of stuc(y are Jengka in

Tekam, F.R., Pahang and Berembun F.R., Negeri Sembilan. The studies yield .climatological and hydrological data in forested

catchments before and after logging operations. Based on these, guidelines will be developed for redUcing disturbance during logging operations.

- 141 -

At both sites, stream weirs and equipment for measuring numerous

hydrological and climatological parameters have been installed.

Based on research data so far, preliminary guidelines to logging

in hill forests have been prepared.

Achievements and Benefits Anticipated

As a result of information and experience gained from this study, better

logging practices and preventive measures in logging road construction can

be implemented. They in turn will lead to reduced soil erosion and surface

runoff, reduced deterioration of water quality, reduced adverse effects on

water yield and control over flooding or drying up of rivers.

e) Fpret and Tree Crop Plantation

Although plantation activities are not strictly speaking a component of

natural management systems for tropical mixed forests, they are in Malaysia

closely integrated with or related to the implementation of those systems.

The compensatory forest plantation programme is aimed at filling the gap in

supplies of industrial wood expected in Peninsular Malaysia within the next

decade or so. Agro-forestry programmes in conjunction with compensatory

plantations are moving from experimental to operational stages with some

crop-fores"c. combinations e.g. cocoa and Pinus, Araucaia, and Gmelina. A

considerable research programme covering species trials, agro-forestry

combinations and practices, and silvicultural regimes, is therefore

included in the national research effort.

idith approximately 9.7 million m3 of rubberwood potentially available each

year, the contribution to the wood supply from this resource is something

that must be integrated with national and state planning and forest

management. Oil palm stems could also become a significant resource in the

national context. Research to widen the range of possibilities for

rubberwood and to facilitate oil palm stem utilisation is therfore an

important component of the forest products research programme.

FUTURE PROSPECTS

Tropical forest ecosystems are both complex and fragile, with the various

processes within the climate-soil-vegetation complex held in a delicate

dyna.mic balance. It is on this delicate balance that the productivity of

tropical forests depends. Tropical forests will recover when subjected to

disturbances within their limits of tolerance; disturbances beyond such limits

can disrupt long-term productivity and related benefits.

- 141 -

ii) At both sites, stream weirs and equipment for measuring numerous

hydrological and climatological parameters have. been installe~

iii) Based on research data so far, preliminary guidelines to logging in hill forests have been prepare~

Achieyements and Benefits Anticipated

As a resul t of information and experience gained from this stuc\y, better logging practices and preventive measures in logging road construction can be implemente~ They in turn will lead to reduced soil erosion and surface runoff, reduced deterioration of water quality, reduced adverse effects on water yield and control over flooding or drying up of rivers.

e) Forest and Tree Crop Plantation

Although plantation activities are not strictly speaking a component of natural management systems for tropical mixed forests, they are in Malaysia closely integrated with or related to the implementation of those systems. The compensat·ory forest plantation programme is aimed at filling the gap in

supplies of industrial wood expected in Peninsular MalaySia within the next decade or so. Agro-forestry programmes in conjunction with compensatory

plantations are moving from experimental to operational stages with some crop-fores~ combinations e.g. cocoa and Pinus, Araucaia, and Gmelina. A considerable research programme covering species trials, agro-forestry

combinations and practices, and silvicultural regimes, is therefore included in the na tional research effort.

With approximately 9.7 million m3 of rubberwood potentially available each

year, the contribution to the wood supply from this resource is something

that must be integrated with national and state planning and forest management. Oil palm stems could also become a significant resource in the national context. Research to widen the range of possibilities f::r

rubberwood and to facilitate oil palm stem utilisation is therfore an important component of the forest products research programme.

FUroRE PROSPECTS

Tropical forest ecosystems are both complex and fragile, with the various processes within the climat&osoil-vegetation complex held in a delicate

dynamic balance. It is on this delica te balance that the productivity of tropical forests depends. Tropical forests will recover when subjected to disturbances within their limits of tolerance; disturbances beyond such limits can disrupt long-term productivity and related benefits.

- 142 -

Tropical rain forest management seems to be entering a new phase with the

trend along the conservation line in which methods are being developed to

reduce injurious effects on the natural ecosystems aiMed at achieving a more

judicious use of the forests as well as increasing productivity. In

principle, the prospects in tropical rain forest management should be good in

view of the favourable physical environment for the crops. Those prospects can be

enhanced by positive and innovative policies and strategies and integrated

programmes for land use. Plantation forestry has gained recognition but that

does not mean substituting plantations for existing natural forests. In the

Malaysian context, at least, they are not really competitive but

complementary. Plantations may serve to produce long fibred pulpwood or

general utility timbers products ladle natural forests produce high quality

veneer and sawlogs.

The future trend in forest management in Malaysia is therefore the emphasis on

forest conservation and the conservative approach towards forest harvesting.

Various strategies are designed to have the following effects:-

conserve the dwindling forest resources

ensure sustention of the resource base

minimize re-investment

preserve environmental quality

reduce excessive damage

reduce excessive wastage

induce optimal utilisation.

The future prospect and development for forest managemnet in Malaysia can be

considered in 3 phases, (Mok, 1977);-

Phase I: Conservation, Research and Development, with emphasis on (i) very

conservative harvesting of the potential Permanent Forest Estate through

the selective management system and strict yield regulation, and (ii)

forest management and operations research studies to obtain data for the

development and formulation of optimaa forest management regimes and

guidelines for their implementation.

Phase II: Training. Extension and Planning, with emphasis on (i)

retraining of staff and the dissemination of information and guidelines for

the formulation of sound forest management practices and (ii) preparation

and implementation of forest management plans consistent with the concepts

of sustained yield and the generation of maximum social and economic

benefits.

- 142 -

Tropical rain forest management seems to be entering a new phase with the trend along the conservation line in which methods are being developed to reduce injurious effects on the natural ecosystems aimed at achieving a more judicious use of the forests as well as in9reasing productivity. In principle, the prospects in tropical rain forest management should be good in view of the favourable physical environment for the crops. Those prospects can be enhanced by positive and innovative poliCies and strategies and integrated programmes for land use. Plantation forestry has gained recognition but that does not mean substituting plantations for existing natural forests. In the Malaysian context, at least, they are not really competitive but complementary. Plantations may serve to produce long fibred pulpwood or general utility timbers products while na tural forests produce high quality veneer and sawlog~

'Ibe future trend in forest management in Malaysia is therefore the emphasis on forest conservation and the conservative approach towards forest harvesting. Various strategies are designed to have the follOWing effects:-

1) conserve the dwindling forest resources 2) ensure sustention of the resource base 3) minimize re-investment 4) preserve enviromental quality 5) reduce excessive damage 6) reduce excessive wastage

7) induce optimal utilisation.

'Ibe future prospect and development for forest managemnet in Malaysia can be considered in 3 phases, (Mok, 1977);-

Phase I: Conservation. Research and Deyelopment, with emphasis on (i) very conservative harvesting of the potential Permanent Forest Estate through the selective management system and strict yield regulation, and (ii) forest management and operations re&~arch studies to obtain data for the development and formulation of optimal forest management regimes and guidelines for their implementation.

Phase 11: Training, Extension and Planning, with emphasiS on (i) retraining of staff and the dissemination of int"ormation and guidelines for the formulation of sound forest · management practices and (ii) preparation and implementation of forest management plans consistent wi th the concepts of sustained yield and the generation of maximum social and economic benents.

- 143 -

Phase III: Consolidation. Refinement and Sophistication, with emphasis on

(i) defining clear-cut objectives for the Permanent Forest Estate based onthe concept of optimal use, (ii) improving the efficiency and effectiveness

of forest management through the introduction of industrial and business

techniques, and (iii) increasing the productivity and productive capacity

of the Permanent Forest Estate through purposive, positive and dynamic

investment programmes.

The present forest management systems as practiced in Peninsular Malaysia,

Sabah and Sarawak are not without problems and unanswered questions.

Growth and mortality data, realistic estimates of timber extraction cost

and silvicultural costs are needed on regional basis. New techniques of

managing the forest resource under these systems should be studied. To

those ends the following fields need further investigation and continuing

refinement:-

the economics of logging under the various systems.

the economic and marketing strategies for under utilised or lesser

know n species,

determination of regional minimum stocking standards,

continuing evaluation of studies concerned with growth, defect, wastage

and logging damage,

compilation of regional volume tables,

the application of photogrammetric techniques,

development of complementary silvicultural systems before and after

logging and an appraisal system or diagnostic technique to guide when

an..1 where, silvicultural treatment should be applied and how to

evaluate the results of the treatment,

standardisation of data collection and processing of all forest for

compilation purposes.

Jabil (1983), proposed relevant measures that would need to be taken in the

future development of forest managment in South East Asia and the Pacific

to ensure successful implementation of forest management and development

activities in achieving sustained yield. They include:-

a) a rational and far-sighted socio-economic development policy and

strategy;

- 143 -

Phase III: Consolidation. Refinement and Sophistication, with emphasis on

(i) defining clear-cut objectives for the Permanent Forest Estate based on the concept of optimal use, (ii) improving the efficiency and effectiveness of forest management through the introduction of industrial and business techniques, and (11i) increasing the productivity and productive capacity

of the Permanent Forest Estate through pur po.sive, positive and dynamic investment programmes.

The present forest management systems as practiced in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak are not without problems and unanswered questions. Growth and mortality data, realistic estimates of timber extraction cost and silvicultural costs are needed on regional basis. New techniques of managing the forest resource under these systems should be studied. To those ends the following fields need further investigation and continuing refinement:-

1) the economics of logging under the various systems.

2) the economic and marketing ·strategies for under utilised or lesser know n speCies,

3) determination of regional minimum stocking standards,

4) continuing evaluation of studies concerned with growth, defect, wastage and logging damage,

5) compilation of regional volume tables,

6) the application of photogrammetric techniques,

7) development of complementary silvicultural systems before and after logging and an appraisal system or diagnostic technique to guide when anJ where, silvicultural treatment should be applied and how to

evaluate the resul ts of the treatment,

8) standardisation of data collection and processing of all forest for compilation purposes.

Jabil (1983), proposed relevant measures that would need to be taken in the future development of forest managment in South East Asia and the Pacific

to ensure successful implementation of forest management and development

activities in achieving sustained yield. They include:-

a) a rational and far-sighted socic-economic development policy and strategy;

- 144 -

b) a sound, clearly defined and integrated land-use policy and master plan;

e) a pragmatic and dynamic forestry policy and strategy;

an adequate and effective forest estate;

a strong and positive forestry legislation;

a comprehensive perspective forestry plan;

an efficient and dedicated forestry organisation;

an objective forestry research and development programme;

a systematic forestry manpower development programme; and

a continuing forestry education and extension programme.

CONcLusIon

In spite of considerable experience gained in the management of tropical

forest through the years, serious gaps in information on the resources and

their characteristics, particularly of hill forest and lesser-known species,

are obvious. Information is also lacking in the use of approriate technology,

particularly in respect of cost-effectiveness and the impact on the forest

enviromnent.

It is envisaged that in the near future there will be a Change in the basis of

the regeneration and management systems used from being primarily biologically

justified to being also financially justified. Research and development

activities must clearly be stepped up to provide the information needed for

this Change.

Natural regeneration has always been the basis for the sustained yield

management of tropical high forests in the region. The silvicultural systems

which have been developed for these forests have relied upon either advanced

growth or seedling regeneration. It is essential that the validity of the

assumptions underlying these systems are continually reviewed in relation to

the condition of the forests which are currently being managed. Should the

basic assumptions be found to be no longer applicable, alternative

silvicultura' systems will have to be considered. It has been noted that

retention of advance growth has become the basis of regeneration in forest

management in Malaysia. However, the following conditions must be fulfilled

(Tang, 1 980 ):-

the residual stand after logging must contain an adequate stocking

of undamaged advanced growth of good form and vigour of the

'regeneration' species.

the undamaged advance grow th must be 'able to respond vigorously to

the 'release 'provided by the logging operations.

- 144 -

b) a sound, clearly defined and integrated land-use policy and master plan;

c) a_ pragmatic and dynamic forestry policy and strategy; d) an adequate and effective forest estate; e) a strong and positive forestry legislation; f) a comprehensive perspective forestry plan; g) an efficient and dedicated forestry orgaoisation; h) an objective forestry research and development programme; i) a systematic forestry manpower development programme; and j) a continuing forestry education and extension programm~

CORCLUSION

In spite of -considerable experience gained in the management of tropical

forest through the years, serious gaps in information on the resources and their characteristics, particularly of hill forest and lesser-known species, are obvious. Information is also lacking in the use of approriate technology, particularly in respect of cost-effectiveness and the impact on the forest enviromnent.

It is envisaged that in the near future there will be a change in the basis of the regeneration and rmnagement systems used from being primarily biologicallY

justified to being also financially justified. Research and development activities must clearly be stepped up to provide the information needed for

this change.

Natural regeneration has always been the basis for the sustained yield

management of tropical high forests in the region. The silvicultural systems which have been developed for these forests have relied upon ei ther advanced growth or seedling regeneration. It is essential that the validity of the assumptions underlying these systems are continually reviewed in relation to

the condition of the forests which are currently being managed. Should the basic assumptions be found to be no longer applicable, al terna ti ve silvicultural systems will have to be considered. It has been noted ~hat retention of advance growth has become the basis of regeneration in forest management in Malaysia. However, the following condi tions must be fulfilled

(Tang, 1980):-

a) the reSidual stand after logging must contain an adequate stocking of undamaged advanced growth of good form and vigour of the 'regeneration' species.

b) the undamaged advance growth must be -able to respond vigorously to

the 'release 'provided by the logging operations.

- 145 -

The selection of regeneration systems cannot be based on biological or

silvicultural considerations only. It must be made in relation to the

respective national land-use and timber production strategies. A large part

of the remaining "productive" forest resources of the region will lie on steep

or generally inaccessible land. The more accessible and suitable parts of

this area Should be identified for intensive natural forest management

practices, aimed at producing maximum yields of timber of high quality and

value on a sustained yield basis. It is envisaged that artificial

regeneration will play a prominent role in such forest. The remaining forest

should be managed under an essentially extensive management system, although

varying degrees of management intensity may still be used. It is envisaged

that natural regeneration will play the dominant role here.

The feasibility of managing tropical high forests on a Sustained yield basis

haz become increasingly questioned in recent years. Many tropical countries have

turned away from natural forests management to plantation forests management

and tropical forestry itself is increasingly become a matter of establishing

and managing plantations in the tropics rather than of managing tropical

forests as natural forests (Leslie 1977). The main cause of this trend is

economic. However, the establishment of the Compensatory Plantations in

Malaysia is not to convert a greater part of our natural forests to open

plantation of fast-growing species. Compensatory forest plantations are aimed

to overcome the anitcipated domestic timber Shortages. The natural forests

have very important traditional, social, conservational, and scientific roles

to play which cannot be provided adequately be plantation forests.

Finally, in the opinion of Leslie (1979), the more the professional foresters

know about the technical requirements for sustained yield the better their

Chances of successsfully implementing such policies. Unfortunately,

*standing of that level is hard to come by in tropical forestry; our knowledge

of the stand dynamics of tropical forests, even after a century or more of

so called management is still too rudimentary, too inconclusive and too

ambiguous for it to be otherwise".

- 145 -

Ibe selection of regeneration systems cannot be based ·on biological or

sil vicul tural considerations only. It must be made in relation to the . respective national land-use and timber production strategies. A large part of the remaining "productive" forest reso~ces of the region will lie on steep or generally inaccessible land. The more accessible and suitable parts of

this area should be identified for intensive natural forest management practices, aimed at producing maximum yields of timber of high quality and

value on a sustained yield basis. It is envisaged that artificial regeneration will play a prominent role in such forest. The remaiiling forest

should be managed under an essentially extensive management system, although varying degrees of management intensity may still be used. It is envisaged that m tural regeneration will play the dominant role here.

Ibe feasibility of managing tropical high forests on a sustained yield basis has become increasingly questioned in recent years. Many tropical countries have turned away from natural forests management to plantation forests management

and tropical forestry itself is increasingly become a matter of establishing and managing plantations in the tropics rather than of managing tropical forests as natural forests (Leslie 1977). The main cause of this trend is economic. However, the establishment of the Compensatory Plantations in Malaysia is not to convert a greater part of oUr natural forests to open plantation of fast-growing species. Compensatory forest plantations are aimed

to overcome the anitcipated domestic timber shortages. The natural forests have very important traditional, social, conservational, and scientific roles to play which cannot be provided adequately be plantation forests.

Finally, in the opinion of Leslie (1979), the more the professional foresters know about the technical requirements for sustained yield the better their chances of successsfully implementing such policies. Unfortunately,

·standing of that level is hard to come by in tropical forestry; our knowledge of the stand dynamics of tropical forests, even after a century or more of so called management is still too rudimentary, too inconclusive and too ambiguous for it to be otherwise".

- 146 -

_CEIAPTER V

THE MANAGEMENT OF MIXED TROPICAL HARDWOOD FORM

IN .THE PHILIPPRIES

HI_STORICAL OVERVIEW

The management of the Philippine forests is believed to date back to earlier

than the 15th century. At the time the archipelago was not yet a country in

the sense of a unified government but a series of territories occupied by

different tribes. It is believed that individual governments of these tribes,

which usually consisted of a duly recognized "datu" or chieftain advised by a

council of elders, set norms for the extraction of forest products and the use

of the forest within the tribe's sphere of ownership. The tribe's forests

were communally owned, and the chieftain prescribed what to do and what not to

do regarding these forests. In general the forests were associated with the

tribal gods, and activities relating to the forests were such that the gods of

or in the forests were not to be angered, if only to assure bountiful

agricultural harvests, abundant wild game for food and a beneficial

relationship with the forces of nature.

Spanish Colonial Era

The colonizing influence of the Spaniards eventually changed the state of the

tribal man-forest relationship. Over about 400 years the Philippine forests

were transferred into a source of vital trade commodities to support the

undertakings of the government in Spain and the Spanish civil government in

the Philippines. Timber, resins, wildlife, e tc. were freely shipped to Spain

and Mexico through the galleon trade route.

During the four-century period of Spanish colonization, forest products were

likewise traded by the tribes to occasional Chinese, Japanese and Dutch

traders.

The first official act to administer the forests by the Spanish colonial

government was made only in 1863 with the creation of the "Inspection General

de Montes", an administrative body which was intended to intervene in all

matters pertaining to cutting and extracting of timber, resins, etc.; to open

up virgin lands; to give concessions over mountain lands, and transact

business related to lands and forests. As part of its functions the office

was required to gather data on the forests of the state and those owned by

corporation, town, churches and universities. Eventually, this office

expanded its activities to the conduct of reconnaissance of the country's

- 146 -

CHAPTER Y

mE HARAGFlm!'T OF KIXED TROPICAL HARDWOOD FQRF$T

III mE PBn.IPPIHF$

JJi HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

The management of the Philippine forests is believed to date back to earlier than the 15th century. At the time the archipelago was not yet a country in the sense of a unified government but a series of territories occupied by different tribes. It is believed that individual governments of these tribes, which usually consisted of a duly recognized "datu" or chieftain advised by a council of elders, set norms for the extraction of forest products and the use of the forest within the tribe's sphere of ownership. The tribe' s forests were communaily owned, and the chieftain prescribed what to do and what not to do regarding these forests. In general the forests were associated with the tribal gods, and activities relating to the forests were such that the gods of

or in the forests were not to be angered, if only to assure bountiful agricultural harvests, abundant wild game for food and a beneficial relationship with the forces of nature.

Spanish Colonial Era

The, colonizing influence of the Spaniards eventually changed the state of the

tribal man-forest relationship. Over about 400 years the Philippine forests were transferred into a source of vital trade commodities to support the undertakings of the government in Spain and the Spanish civil government in the Philippines. Timber, reSins, wildlife, ete. were freely shipped to Spain and Mex1c~ through the galleon trade route.

During the four-century period of Spanish colOnization, forest products were likewise traded by the tribes to occasional Chinese, Japanese and Dutch traders.

The first official act to administer the forests tiy the Spanish colonial

government was made only in 1863 with the creation of the "Inspection General de Montes", an administrative body which was intended to intervene in all matters pertaining to cutting and extracting of timber, resins, ete.; to open up virgin lands; to give concessions over mountain lands, and transact business related to lands and forests. As part of its functions 'the office was required to gather data on the forests of the state and those owned by corporation, town, churches and universities. Eventually, this office expanded its activities to the conduct of reconnaissance of , the country's

- 147 -

forest lands, the determination of the suitablity of native timber species for

civil and naval works, the prevention of trespass and encroachment into the

forests, and the prevention of illegal timber cutting. Rules and regulations

on cutting of t-ees and the classification, delimitation and demarcation of

forest lands were promulgated. While all timber cutting was supposed to be

for puposes of the colonial government, the free use of timber by the people

was allowed under gratuitous licences. Kaingin-making (the primitive

agriculture system of slash-and-burn) in forest lands was officially

prohibited, and the cutting of trees for commercial purposes in the island

provinces of Cebu and Bohol was considered a crima, in reaction, presumably,

to the denudation of the forests in these major maritime outposts. (Today

these islands no longer have significant tracts of natural forests).

American Regime

The science of forestry as known in the Philippines traces its roots mainly

to the influence of American forestry. Forest land administration, timber

managment systems, management concepts, and procedures, are all influenced by

the American system.

One of the first major acts of the United States Military Government in the

Philippines, when the US took over from Spain, was the organization of a

Forestry Bureau in 1900 ostensibly to harness the forest resources for

military logistics. This bureau was later renamed Bureau of Forestry. The

passage of the Forest Act in 1904 signalled the development of forestry as a

science in the Philippnes. This Act enacted, among others, a forest

policy which was to form the basis of forest resource management in the

Philippines.

The period from 1900 to 1942 saw the institutionalization of forestry

practices that were to determine the present state of Philippine forestry.

Extensive forest mapping and delineation were undertaken; the Philippine flora

and fauna were identified and catalogued, which classifications are ?till the

basis of floral and faunal characterization in the country. It was during

this period when mechanized timber extraction and processing was introduced:

the steam-driven "donkey" engines, rail-and truck-transport systems, and

sawmills became part of the forest management environment. These were all

patterned after North America forestry practice. The first entrepreneurs in

timber oPerations were mostly Americans with a few carried over from the

Spanish era. To this day Philippine logging and wood processing

terminologies, procedures and standards still retain the strong influences of

the period.

- 147 -

forest lands, the determination of the suitablity of native timber species for

civil and naval works, the prevention of trespass and encroachment into the forests, and the prevention of illegal timber cutting. Rules and regulations on cutting of trees and the classification, delimitation and demarcation of forest lands were promulgated. While all timber cutting was supposed to be for puposes of the colonial government, the free use of timber by the people was allowed under gratuitous licences. Kaingin-making (the primitive agricul ture system of slash-and-burn) in forest lands was officially

prohibited, and the cutting of trees. for commercial purposes in the island provinces of Cebu and Bohol was considered a crime, in reaction, presumably, to the denudation of the forests in these major maritime outposts. (Today these islands no longer have significant tracts of na tural forests).

Ameri.caD Regime

The science of forestry as know n in the Philippines traces its roots mainly to the influence of American forestry. Forest land administration, timber managment systems, management concepts, and procedures, are all influenced by

the American system.

One of the first major acts of the United States Military Government in the Philippines, when the US took over from Spain, was the organization of a

Forestry Bureau in 1900 ostensibly to harness the forest resources for military logistics. This bureau was later renamed Bureau of Forestry. The passage of the Forest Act in 1904 signalled the development of forestry as a

science in the Philippnes. This Act enacted, among others, a forest

policy which was to form the basis of forest resource management in the Philippines.

The period from 1900 to 1942 saw the insti tutionalization of forestry practices that were to determine the present state of Philippine forestry. Extensive forest mapping and delineation were undertaken; the Philippine flora and fauna were identified and catalogued, which classifications are ~till the basis of floral and faunal characterization in the country. It was during this period when mechanized timber extraction and processing was introduced:

the steam-driven "donkey' engines, rail-and truck-transport systems, and sawmills became part of the forest management environment. These were all

patterned after North America forestry practice. The first entrepreneurs in timber operations were mostly Americans with a few carried over from the Spanish era. To this day Philippine logging and wood processing terminologies, procedures and standards still retain the strong influences of

the period.

- 148 -

The Bureau of Forestry was extensively involved in the classification of the

public domain, the grant and regulation of operations of forestry licenses,

measurement of forest products, the development of a national system of forest

management, forest protection, and the conservation of wildlife and some

hardwood species, and the initiation of forest parks management. Jurisdiction

and management of pasture and grazing lands were later placed under the

Bureau.

Forestry practice was expanded to include education and training of

technically-capable Filipinos to handle the growing activities of the forest

service. In 1910, a school of forestry under the Bureau of Forestry was

established. This later became the Forestry School under the University of

the Philippines in 1916 which was to become the forerunner of various forestry

colleges and schools throughout the country.

Japanese War Occupation

During the war years of 1942 to 1945 all forestry activities were placed under

the Japanese military government. The Bureau of Forestry was changed to the

Bureau of Forestry and Fisheries under the Ministry of Agriculture and

Commerce. Forest districts and stations within or near the territories

controlled by the occupation forces were allowed to continue operating,

although in general the forestry administrative organisation was non,existent

because of the absence of a nationally accepted civil government.

In this period, forest based industries virtually came to a standstill except

for a few logging and processing operations undertaken or supervised by the

oc6upying military forces. In the confusion and destruction during these war

years invaluable documents, records, research and specimens relating to the

Philippine forest resources were lost or destroyed.

Two enactments related to forestry were promulgated by the Japanese military

government during this period. In 1943, an Act prohibited the cutting of

trees within public or private lands where a spring existed which could be

used for irrigation or water supply purposes. In 1944, an Act was enacted

limiting the maximum areas to be devoted to pasture and reforestation or tree

plantations to 2,000 hectares. The areas to be devoted to fishponds,

salt works, nipa, palm and other swamp species, as well as for rights-of-ways,

was limited to 200 hectares.

- 148 -

The Bureau of Forestry was extensively involved in the classification of the

public domain, the grant and regulation of operations of forestry licenses, measurement of forest products, the development of a national system of forest

management, forest protection, and the con;J8rvation of wildlife and some hardwood species, and the initiation of forest parks managemen~ Jurisdiction and management of pasture and grazing lands were later placed under the Bureau.

Forestry practice was expanded to include education and training of

technically-capable Filipinos to handle the growing activities of the forest service. In 1910, a school of forestry under the Bureau of Forestry was established. This later became the Forestry School under the University of

the Philippines in "916 which was to become the forerunner of various forestry colleges and schools throughout the country.

Japapere War OccupatiOQ

During the war years of 1942 to 1945 all forestry activities were placed under the Japanese mili tary governmen~ The Bureau of Forestry was changed to the Bureau of Forestry and Fisheries under the Minist·ry of Agriculture and Commerce. Forest districts and stations within or near the territories

controlled by the occupation forces were allowed to continue operating,

although in general the forestry administrative organisation was non-existent because of the absence of a nationally accepted civil government.

In this period, forest based industries virtually came to a standstill except

for a few logging and processing operations undertaken or supervised by the occupying military forces. In the coofusion and destruction during these war years invaluable documents, records, research and specimens relating to the

Philippine forest resources were lost or destroyed.

Two enactments related to forestry were promulgated by the Japanese military government during this periOd. In 1943, an Act prohibited the cutting of trees within public or private lands where a spring existed which could be

used for irrigation or water supply purposes. In 1944, an Act was enacted

limiting the maximum areas to be devoted to pasture and reforestation or tree plantations to 2,000 hectares. The areas to 00 devoted to fishponds,

salt works, nipa, palm and other swamp specfes, as well as for rights-of-ways, was limited to 200 hectares.

- 149 -

1945 - 1953

The postwar years created conciitions which were to have long-lasting effects

on the Philippine forest management scene. Immediately after resuming its

functions as a civil government, the Philippine Commonwealth, even then under

the umbrella of the US government, declared that all forestry activities,

terms, conditions or stipulations involving public lands, forest and mineral

concessions existing in 19142 were recognized and would continue as such. The

Bureau of Forestry was reconstituted and expanded by creating more divisions

and field offices. In 1953, the Parks and Wildlife Commission was created,

and all functions pertaining to Parks and Wildlife Management previously under

the Bureau of Forestry were transferred to this Commission.

A significant development during this period was the emergence of the forest-

based industries. The war had caused great damage to the country's economy;

the industries were at a standstill. The reconstruction boom urgently needed

capital and raw materials. It was this need that caused the opening up of

extensive forest lands to logging and thus the emergence of the forest

industries as a major contributor to the economy. Cut and yield regulations

were minimal, if ever imposed. The export of logs was unrestricted, and

anybody who had the capability to go into the forests and bring out logs could

get concessions for the asking. The only forest management control imposed

at the time was the "diameter limit" on trees to be cut; a diameter of 50cms.

was set as the minimum cutting diameter. At the time, however, the natural

forest growth was dominated by the trees way beyond this minimum limit.

This generated a substantial portion of the capital needs of the other sectors

of the economy. Ironically, it was this liberalism during the reconstruction

years that was to be felt by forest managers twenty years af ter.

1953 - 1972

In the 1 950's the selective logging system was developed in the Philippines.

This is a modification of the selection cutting adopted by some European and

North American countries. The system was the culmination of research

conducted in the southern island province of Basilan. From field

observations of post-logging spatial and size distributions and the analysis

of periodic annual growth increment measurements, it was possible to obtain

estimates of size and volume distribution in the future, i.e., at the end of

the first cutting cycle.

In the desire to reconcile the volume and size distribution of the unmanaged

natural forest and the managed forest at the beginning and end of the first

cutting cycle, respectively, rules, regulations and procedures were

prescribed. This set of rules, regulations, and procedures became what is now

known as the Philippine Selective Logging System (see Silvicultural System for

a description of the system.)

- 149 -

] 945 ] 953

The postwar years created conditions which were to have long-lasting effects

on the Philippine forest management scene. Immediately after resuming its

functions as a civil government, the Philippine Commonweal th, even then under

the umbrella of the US government, declared that all forestry activi ties,

terms, conditions or stipulations invol ving public lands, forest and mineral

concessions existing in 1942 were recognized and would continue as such. The

Bureau of Forestry was reqonsti tuted and expanded by creating more divisions

and field offices. In 1953, the Parks and Wildlife Commission was created,

and all functions pertaining to Parks and Wildlife Management previously under

the Bureau of Forestry were transferred to this Commission.

A significant development during this period was the emergence of the forest­

based industries. The war had caused great damage to the country's economy;

the industries were at a standstill. The reconstruction boom urgently needed

capi tal and raw materials. It was this need that caused the opening up of

extensive forest lands to logging and thus the emergence of the forest

industries as a major contributor to the economy. Cut and yield regulations

were minimal, if ever imposed. The export of logs was unrestricted, and

anybody who had the capabili ty to go into the forests and bring out logs could

get concessions for the asking. The only forest management control imposed

at the time was the "diameter limi t" on trees to be cut; a diameter of 50cms.

was set as t.he minimum cutting diameter. At the time, however, the natural forest growth was dominated by the trees way beyond this minimum limi t .

This generated a substantial portion of the capital needs of the other sectors of the economy. Ironically, it was this liberalism during the reconstruction

years that was to be fel t by forest managers twenty years after.

1953 - 1972

In the 1950's the selective logging system was developed in the Philippines.

This is a modification of the selection cutting adopted by some European and

North American countries. The system was the culmina tion of research

conducted in the southern island province of Basilan. From field

observations of post-logging spa tial and size distributions and the analysis

of periodic annual growth increment measurements, it was possible to obtain

estimates of size and volume distribution in the future, i.e., at the end of

the first cutting cycle.

In the desire to reconcile the volume and size distribution of the unmanaged

natural forest and the managed forest at the beginning and end of the first

cutting cycle, respectively, rules, regulations and procedures were prescribed. This set of rules, regulations, and procedures became what is now

known as the Philippine Selective Logging System (see Silyicultural System for

a description of the system.)

- 150 -

In essence the system prescribes details for pre-logging inventory, road

location guidelines, felling, yarding and skidding procedures, post-logging

inventory, and silvicultural treatment of the residual or logged-over areas.

Cognizant of the need to have more detailed information on the forest

resources particularly the country's timber resources, the first

comprehensive forest resources inventory was conducted in 1961 to 1967. This

inventory consisted of photopoint sampling on aerial photographs coupled

with ground plot sampling. (See National Foreal Resources Inventory).

This national inventory provided much-needed data on the actual extent and

location of the forest resources of the country. Area estimates of various

vegetative cover types were derived and volume estimates of the old growth

forests in various geographical regions were made.

Efforts were directed to the determination of prediction equations and tables

for volume estimation of standing trees. A set of such prediction equations

and tables was derived for each of the major geographical zones.

In 1967 a Presidential Directive required the consolidation of small logging

concessions into working units of at least 20,000 hectares in size.

Contiguous but independent small concessions were merged into working units,

and the nature of management of these areas changed from predominantly singly-

owned operations to corporate management This action gave impetus to the

efforts of government to rationalize the management of the timber resources,

and paved the way to greater government control of logging operation& A more

significant effect of this consolidation move was the elimination of the small

"cut-fast-and-get-out" logging operators, and the replacement of these with

corporate or semi-corporate organizations which had the capability for long-

term planning and the capital requirements for long-range management of the

timber lands under license to them.

1971 -_-__1935A

The period of the 1970's and 1980's was characterized by a noticeable shift in

the direction of natural resources policy. In the forestry sector such policy

redirection was very apparent. Where the previous decades were characterized

by the general attitude that the forest resources were inexhaustible and could

naturally replenish whatever volume was extracted, it was now realized that

the rate at which the timber resources were being extracted at that time could

in fact lead to a total loss of such resources'before the end of the 20th

century. In the 1970's pressure for a re-study of natural resource management

perspectives built up. This re-evaluation was prompted by many factors:

growing concern for the environment, the friction in the international energy

scene, and worldwide recession. In the Philippines there grew the imwession

that past beneficiaries of the forest resources were only a privileged

minority, contrary to the constitutional pronouncement that these resources

- 150 -

In essence the system prescribes details for pre-logging inventory, road location guidelines, felling, yarding and skidding procedures, post-logging inventory, and silvicultural treatment of the residual or logged-over areas.

Cognizant of the need to have more detailed information on the forest resources particularly the country's timber resources, the first comprehensive forest resources inventory was conducted in 1961 to 1967. This inventory consisted of photopoint sampling on aerial photographs coupled with ground plot sampling. (See National Forest Resources Inventory). This national inventory provided much-needed data on the actual extent and location of the forest resources of the country. Area estimates of various vegetative cover types were derived and volume estimates of the old growth forests in various geographical regions were made.

Efforts were directed to the determination of prediction equations and tables for volume estimation of standing trees. A set of such prediction equations and tables was derived for each of the major geographical zones.

In 1967 a Presidential Directive required the consolidation of small logging concessions into working units of at least 20,000 hectares in size. Contiguous but independent small concessions were merged into working units, and the nature of management of these areas changed from predominantly singly­owned operations to corporate management. This action gave impetus to the efforts of government to rationalize the management of the timber resources, and paved the way to greater government control of logging operations. A more significant effect of this consolidation move was the elimination of the small "cut-fast-and-get-out" logging operators, and the replacement of these with corporate or semi-corporate organizations which had the capability for long­term planning and the capi tal requirements for long-range management of the timber lands under license to them.

1973 - 1984

The period of the 1970's and 1980's was characterized by a noticeable shift in the direction of natural resources policy. In the forestry sector such policy redirection was very apparent. Where the previous decades were characterized by the general attitude that the forest resources were inexhaustible and could naturally replenish whatever volume was extracted, it was now realized that the rate at which the timber resources were being extracted at that time could in fact lead to a total loss of such resources ·before the end of the 20th century. In the 1970's pressure for a re-study of natural resource management perspectives built up. This re-evaluation was prompted by many factors: growing concern for the environment, the friction in the international energy scene, and worldwide recession. In the Philippines there grew the impression that past . beneficiaries of the forest resources were oniy a privileged minority, contrary. to the constitutional pronouncement that these resources

- 151 -

are owned by the State and that these would be enjoyed by all the people and

by future generations. Four policies on the forest resources were

enunciated:

The multiple uses of forest lands shall be oriented to the development and

progress requirements of the country, the advancement of science

and technology and the public welfare;

Forest land classification and survey shall be systematized and hastened;

e) The establishment of wood processing plants shall be encouraged and

rationalized; and

d) The protection, development and rehabilitation of forest lands shall

be emphasized so as to ensure their continuity in productive condition.

Forest management emphasis was shifted from timber harvesting and utilization

to the protection, development and rehabilitation of the forest lands. While

timber management remained the major field of concern, the management of the

soil and water resources, range resources, wildlife, and recreation resources

were given greater attention.

Within the framework of multiple-use forest management, the mixed hardwood

forests of the Philippines were managed intensively. The selective logging

system remained as the silvicultura], system for these forests, but

modifications in the field procedures and harvesting requirements were

introduced to satisfy the multiple-use requirements.

During this period four factors affected timber resources management in the

Philippines. These were:

The imposition of severe restrictions on the export of raw logs, which was

intended to encourage the development of the domestic wood processing

industry;

The withdrawal of large tracts of forest lands from commmercial

exploitation and placing these lands under reserve category, either as

buffer stocks for future timber production requirements, or as watersheds

to support various hydro-power facilities and irrigation infrastructures;

e) The acceleration of the development of industrial tree plantations, agro-

forest plantations and tree farms, which are intended to produce timber

to augment the expected shortfalls in production from natural hardwood

forests; and

- 151 -

are owned by the State and that these would be enjoyed by all the people and by future generations. Four policies on the forest resources were enunciated:

a) The -multiple uses of forest lands shall be oriented to the development and progress requirements of the country, the advancement of science and teChnology and the public welfare;

b) Forest land classification and survey shall be systematized and hastened;

c) The establishment of wood processing plants shall be encouraged and rationalized; and

d) The protection, development and rehabilitation of forest lands shall be emphasized so as to ensure their continuity in productive condition.

Forest management emphasis was shifted from timber harvesting and utilization to the protection, development and rehabilitation of- the forest lands. While timber management remained the major field of concern, the management of the soil and water resources, range resources, wildlife, and recreation resources were given greater attentio~

Within the framework of multiple-use forest management, the mixed hardwood forests of the Philippines were managed intensively. The selective logging system remained as the sil vicul tural system for these forests, but modifications in the field procedures and harvesting requirements were introduced to sa Usfy the multiple-use requirements.

During this period four factors affected timber resources management in the Philippines. These were:

a) -The imposi tion of severe restrictions on the export of -raw logs, which was intended to encourage the development of the domestic wood processing industry;

b) The withdrawal of large tracts of forest lands from commmercial explOitation and placing these lands under reserve category, either as buffer stocks for future timber production requirements, or as watersheds to support various hydro-power facilities and irrigation infrastructures;

c) The acceleration of the development of industrial tree plantations, agro­forest plantations and tree farms, which are intended to produce timber to augment the expected shortfalls in production from natural hardwood forests; and

- 152 7

d) Imposition of strict performance standards for timber licensees; the

periodic assessment of forest development performance of these licensees

by the government, and the imposition of appropriate penalties and

administrative sanctions - raaging from fines to suspension of operations

or cancellation of license - for unsatisfactory performance. The concern

of timber resources management was broadened from purely silvicultural and

economic considerations to the broader concerns of environmental

stabilization, future resources requirements,socio-economic welfare and

national development. This is the framework within which the mixed

tropical hardwood forests of the Philippines are now being managed.

THE PHILIPPINE SELECTIVE LOGGING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Development of the System

Logging in the Philippines at the very start was done in the most primitive

way. Felling, bucking and squaring of logs were done by axe and hauling was

done by manpower and carabao. The logs were usually squared in the forest

and hauled to the nearest river or beach for transportation to market. This

system was inefficient and only the smaller diameter of high quality trees

were taken as these are light enough to be pulled by one or two carabaos.

Thus, big, mature and overmature trees were left in the forest, eventually to

die and rot.

During the Spanish colonization era a few sawmills were established in Manila

and neighboring provinces, but these were unable to compete with lumber

handsawn by the Chinese. The Americans, who aame with logging and sawmilling

expertise, immediately discerned that the timber stand presented a lucrative

opportunity for the development of a lumber industry. However, the antiquated

method of logging could not adequately supply the mills established by the

Americans; eventually machinery and steam donkey logging were introduced.

As the system of logging developed, the sawmills were also improved. New band

mills were built; several mills with improved operational designs and

equipment powered by electricity were established. Only a few were left using

the steam engine, while the bulk of the smaller mills were powered by diesel

engine.

The employment of mechanical logging, skidding and highlead yarding and

combinations of the over head (skyline) system with powerful logging engines

posed a great threat to-the natural forests. With powerful machines and

careless loggers, logging became more of a clear-cutting system despite the

imposition of a diwmeter limit.

-- 15 2 :-

d) Imposition of strict performance standards for timber licensees; the

periodic assessment of forest development performance of these licensees by the government, and the imposition of appropriate- penal ties and administrative sanctions - ranging from fines to suspension of operations or cancellation of license - for unsatisfactory performance. The concern of timber resources management was broadened from purely sil vicul tural and economic consider&tions to the broader concerns of environmental stabilization, future resources requirements, socio-economic welfare and na-tional development. This is the framework within which the mixed

tropical hardwood forests of the Philippines are now being managed.

THE PHn.IPPIHE SELECTIVE LOGGING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Development of the System

Logging in the Philippines at the very start was done in the most primitive way. Felling, bucking and squaring of logs were done by axe and hauling was done by manpower and carabao. The logs were usually squared in the forest and hauled to the nearest river or beach for transportation to market. This system was inefficient and only the smaller diameter of high quality trees were taken as these are light enough to be pulled by one or two carabaos.

Thus, big, mature and overmature trees were left in the forest, eventually to die and rot.

During the Spanish colonization era a few sawmills were establ-ished in Manila and neighboring provinces, but these were unable to compete with lumber

handsawn by the Chinese. The Americans, who came with logging and saw milling expertise, immediately discerned that the timber stand presented a lucrative opportuni ty for the development of a lumber industry. However, the antiquated method of logging could not adequately supply the mills established by the

Americans; eventually machinery and steam donkey logging were introduced.

As the system of logging developed, the sawmills were also improved. New band

mills were buil t; several mills with improved operational designs and equipment powered by electricity were established. Only a few were left using

the steam engine, while the bulk of the smaller mills were powered by diesel engine.

The employment of mechanical logging, skidding and highlead yarding and combinations of the over head (skyline) system with powerful logging engines posed a great threat to·the natural forests. With powerful machines and careless loggers, logging became more of a clear-cutting .system despite the imposi tion of a diameter l _imi t.

- 153 -

The diameter limit, paired with a rough estimate of the yearly cut, was then

used as a measure of token control over forest operations. The system,

however, proved to be ineffective, hence the development of the selective

logging system with the promulgation of Forestry Administrative Order No. 23

in 1954. The system basically required that 60% of the total number of

healthy commercial residuals in the 20-70 centimeter diameter classes in a

given set-up be retained as growing stock for future harvest. This residual

stand requirement was later increased to 70% of the total number of commercial

residuals in the 20-60 cm. diameter classes under Forestry Administative Order

£74, Series of 1974. This is the stand requirement being used at present in

determining the authorized cut.

IlicriplasELsgLII&LI&LissIlmekoggif_m__stgg

Selective logging is the removal of mature, over-mature and defective trees in

such a manner as to leave uninjured an adequate number and volume of healthy

residual trees of the commercial species and other tree species to assure the

future crop of timber, and to maintain adequate forest cover for the

protection and conservation of soil and water.

The objective of selective logging is, in a strict sense, the conservation of

the forest by cutting only enough trees and leaving an adequate growing stock

of different size classes which will progressively grow into harvestable sizes

at predetermined periods with yield approximately equal to the volume of the

cumulative growth increment within a cutting cycle.

Selective logging as it is now being implemented involves three principal

phases, i.e.: tree marking, residual inventorv and timber stand improvement.

Tree marking is a means to ensure that the number of trees for future crops

and seed trees shall be left and protected from logging damages. Logging

operations are guided by marking trees that shall be cut and those that shall

be left, and protected from logging damages, and directional felling marks

are made so that felling of trees is done in such a manner as to cause the

least injury to residual commercial trees. The objective of marking trees

are: to acquaint loggers and licensees on the kind, condition and quality of

trees needed for residual growing stock; to facilitate forecasting of future

crop yields based on recorded marked trees; and, to have a basis for the

imposition of regulatory fines and penalties on damage to the residual stand.

- 153 -

The diameter limit, paired with a rough estimate of the yearly cut, was then

used as a measure of token control over forest operations. The system, however, proved to be ineffective, hence the development of the selective logging system with the promulgation of ~orestry Administrative Order No. 23 in 1954. The system basically required that 60~ of the total number of heal thy commercial residuals in the 20-70 centimeter diameter classes in a given set~up be retained as growing stock for future harvest. This residual

stand requirement was later increased to 70% of the total number of commercial residuals in the 20-60 cm. diameter classes under Forestry Administative Order £74, Series of 1974. This is the stand requirement being used at present in determining the authorized cut.

DeScrJ.ptiOD of the Selective Loggi ng stste.

Selective logging is the removal of mature, over-mature and defective trees in such a manner as to leave uninjured an adequate number and volume of healthy residual trees of the commercial species and other tree species to assure the future crop of timber, and to maintain adequate forest cover for the

protection and conservation of soil and water.

The objective of selective logging is, in a strict sense, the conservation of the forest by cutting only enough trees and leaving an adequate growing stock of different size classes which will progressively grow into harvestable sizes

at predetermined periods with yield approximately equal to the volume of the cumulative growth increment within a cutting cycle.

Selective logging as it is now being implemented involves three principal phases, i.e.: ~ marking. residual inventory and timber stand improvement.

Tree marking is a means to ensure that the number of trees for future crops

and seed trees shall be left and protected from logging damages. Logging operations are guided by marking trees that shall be cut and those that shall be left, and protected from logging damages, and directional fellinb marks are made so that felling of trees is done in such a manner as to cause the least injury to residual commercial trees. The objective of marking trees are: to acquaint loggers and licensees on the kind, condition and quality of trees needed for residual growing stock; to facilitate forecasting of future

crop yields based on recorded marked trees; and, to have a basis for the imposition of regulatory fines and penalties on damage to the residual stan~

- 154 -

Residual inventory involves the physical examination and count of marked

residuals left in a set-up after logging. It is in this phase of selective

logging that the activities of the timber licensees are evaluated as to

whether or not they have exercised care in.avoiding damage to marked trees and

to determine the condition, size, and number of healthy residials based on

criteria set for the purpose. The healthy residuals will be the basis in

predicting the volume to be harvested in the next cutting cycle (yield

projection).

Timber stand improvement is the post-logging phase of the system. It seeks to

improve the growth, quality and composition of the growing residual stock. It

consists of those treatments applied before and after the major harvest and

intermediate thinnings for the purpose of attaining maximum timber quality and

quantity, composition, growth rate and condition. It has two main phases,

namely refining and liberation. The former implies cutting of climbers and

girdling of over mature non-commercial trees and other badly shaped or

defective trees. Removal cutting is concentrated on the inferior elements of

the stand. Liberation, on the other hand, involves eliminating competition

from inferior trees which impede crown development of the potential crop

trees.

The cutting intensity in selective logging is prescribed by an annual

allowable cut formula. The annual allowable cut is determined to meet the

sustained level of production. The formula (prescribed in FAO No. 74, Series

of 19714) is as follows:

For areas with approved Timber Management Plan:

AAC = VoA + VrA

2 cc

For areas without approved Timber Management Plan:

AAC = VoAof 75%

2cc

Where:

AAC = Annual Allowable cut

A = Total Operable Area

Vo = Allowed harvestable volume within the virgin forest,

equivalent to 25% of the 60 cm. DBH, 55% of 70 n cm.

DBLI and 100% of 80% cm and larger DBH classes.

- 154 -

Residual inventory involves the physical examination and count of marked

residuals left in a set-up after logging. It is in this phase of selective logging that the activities of the timber licensees are evaluated as to

whether or not they have exercised care in, avoiding damage to marked trees and to detexomine the condition, size, and number of heal thy residials based on

criteria set for the purpose. The healthy residuals will be the basis in predicting the volume to be harvested in the next cutting cycle (yield proj ecti on).

Timber stand improvement is the post-logging phase of the system. It seeks to improve the grow th, q uali ty and composi tion of the growing residual stock. It consists of those treatments applied before and after the major harvest and intermediate thinnings for the purpose of attaindng maximum timber quality and quanti ty, composi tion, grow th rate and condi tion. It has tw 0 main phases, namely refining and liberation. The former implies cutting of climbers and

girdling of over mature no~commercial trees and other badly .shaped or defective trees. Removal cutting is concentrated on the inferior elements of , the stand. Liberation, on the other hand, involves eliminating competi tion from inferior trees which impede crown development of the potential crop trees.

The cutting intensity in selective logging is prescribed by an annual

allowable cut formula. The annual allowable cut is determined t o meet the sustained level of production. The formula (prescribed in FAO No. 74, Series

of 1974) is as follows:

For areas with approved Timber Management Plan:

AAC = yoA + V~ f 2 cc

For areas without approved Timber Management Plan:

AAC = ~ f 75% 2cc

Where:

AAC = Annual Allowable cut

A = Total Operable Area

Vo = Allowed harvestable volume within the virgin forest, equivalent to 25% of the 60 cm. DBH, 55% of 70 n cm. DBH and 100% of 80% cm and larger DBH classes.

- 155 -

Vr= Harvestable volume from the residual forest, determined

by yield prediction.

cc = Cutting cycle, i.e., 30, 35, 40, 45 years depending on

the climatic regional location.

f = Recovery factor based on timber utilization efficiency

of the parti_ular .A.censee.

75% = Reduction factor to give allowance for mortality of

residual trees due to breakages during logging.

Logging Systems Employed

The logging systems commonly used in the country are:

Truck Logging - Also known as the "Bataan System", involves the use of

converted trucks equipped with a winch to pull out the logs, bring it to

the landing point, land the log in the truck and transport it to the

processing plant. The main block of the cable is fastened to a spar tree

about 3 - 5 metres high depending on the yarding distance, usually not

exceeding 100 metres because of the limited power of the truck. For the

same reason the logs are usually bucked to 10 metres (2 log lengths). On

reaching the loading point the logs are loaded by skilful manoeuvering of

the truck and manipulation of the block and choker.

In view of the limited yarding distance, the system requires a dense

network of roads, which if not properly constructed results in severe

erosionn. This necessity constitutes the main handicap of this system.

Also, logs with diameter exceeding 120 cm. are usually left due to the

limited winch power of the trucks. Damage to the residuals is however

slight and hardly noticeable after a year. This system is mainly practiced

by sma11 concessionaires who are not in a position to invest in powerful

logging equipment.

Tractor Logging - a system characterized by a mobile unit on traction

chains or tyres equipped with winches with our without log arches, to bring

the logs from the stump to the landing area. To avoid excessive damage to

residuals and regeneration, tractor routes are laid out beforehand. The

loading area in a tractor logging set-up is usually located downhill of the

tractor routes, otherwise the tractor will be forced to follow a zigzag

course uphill in bringing logs to the landing point, thereby requiring more

power and increasing the damage to residuals.

If care is exercised, the use of tractor logging may cause low residual

damage and a relatively small area of destruction.

- 155 -

Vr= Harvestable volume from the residual forest, determined by yield prediction.

cc" Cutting cycle, Le., 30, 35, 40, 45 years depending on the climatic regional location.

f = Recovery factor based on timber utilization efficiency of the parti u ll3.r ... :..censee.

75% = Reduction factor to give allowance for' mortality of residual trees due to breakages during logging.

Logging Systems Employed

The logging systems commonly used in the country are:

Truck Logging- Also known as the "Bataan System", involves the use of converted trucks equipped with a winch to pull out the logs, bring it to the landing point, land the log in the truck and transport it to the processing plant. The main block of the cable is fastened to a spar tree about 3 - 5 metres high depending on the yarding distance, usually not

exceeding 100 metres because of the limited power of the truck. For the same reason the logs are usually bucked to 10 metres (2 log lenglhs). On reaching the loading point the logs are loaded by skilful manoeuvering of the truck and manipulation of the block and choker.

In view of the limited yarding distance, the system requires a dense network of roads, which if not properly constructed results in severe

erosion. This necessity constitutes the main handicap of this system. Also, logs with diameter exceeding 120 cm. are usually left due to the limited winch power of the trucks. Damage to the residuals is however slight and hardly noticeable after a year. This system is mainly practiced by small concessionaires who are not in a position to invest in powerful logging equipment.

Tractor Logging - a system characterized by a mobile uni t on traction chains or tyres equipped with winches with our without log arches, to bring the logs from the stump to the landing area. To avoid excessive damage to residuals and regeneration, tractor routes are laid out beforehan~ The loading area in a tractor logging set-up is usually located downhill of the tractor routes, otherwise the tractor will be forced to follow a zigzag course uphill in bringing logs to the landing point, thereby requiring more power and increasing the damage to residual~

If care is exercised, the use of tractor logging may cause low residual damage and a relatively small area of destruction.

- 156 -

High-lead Yarding - a cable system of logging which makes use of a

stationary "donkey" engine yarder, which brings the logs from the stump to

the log landing with cables combined with an assortment of blocks, a butt

chain assembly, chokers and other accessories.

The yarding unit is usually stationed at the spar tree which may be a large

straight boled tree, whOse crown has been removed by high-climber before

rigging to avoid branches falling on the equipment.

The yarding distance is usually limited to 250 - 300 metres to avoid

excessive logging damage, thus the maximum area of 20 hectares for a high

lead set-up. The larger the set-up, the larger the area of the log landing

where vegetation is always totally destroyed. Also, in a large set-up,

there is usually heavy damage along the cableways near the log landing. In

practice, the log landing size is restricted to be no larger than a circle

of 40 m. radius which in a 20 ha. set-up means 2.5% of the area. The

cableways should take up no more than 4-5% of the area of the set-up.

In rough terrain where set,ups are not situated on a logging road, interior

set-ups are connected by a skyline switch to the landing at the road side.

In some cases, when the topography permits, high-lead logging comtlned with

tractor skidding is practised. Gently sloping areas are logged by tractor

while steeper ones are logged by high-lead.

EValuation of the Selective Logging System

Selective logging if properly implemented is still regarded as the best

silvicultural system applicable to the Philippine dipterocarp forest.

Studies show that for the period 1974-1983, forest destruction occurred

over an average of 21% of the area logged per year, leaving an adequately

stocked logged over area of 79% (Table 1). These adequately stocked

residual forests, if given the needed protection and appropriate post-

logging silvicultural treatment would make possible another economic cut

after a cutting cycle of 30, 35, 40 or 45 years.

The damage to residuals is related to the logging method employed. A study

conducted by the RP-German Rain Forest Development Project in Mindanao

showed that damage to residuals in high-lead yarding is higher than that

where tractor skidding was used with 514.5% of the residuals of all species

being saved whereas only 43.3% was saved with the use of high lead yarding

(Table 2). Efforts to save dipterocarp residuals also proved to be more

successful in the case of tractor-logging rather than in high lead yarding.

- 1"56 -

High-lead Yarding - a cable system of logging which makes use of a

stationary "donkey" engine yarder, which brings the logs from the stump to the log landing with cables combined with an assortment of blocks, a butt chain assembly, chokers and other accessories.

The yarding uni t is usually stationed at the spar tree which may be a large straight baled tree, whose crown has been removed by high-climber before rigging to avoid branches falling on the equipment.

The yarding distance is usually limited to 250 - 300 metres to avoid excessive logging damage, thus the maximum area of 20 hectares for a high

lead set-up. The larger the set-up, the larger the area of the log landing where vegetation is always totally destroyed. Also, in a large set-up,

there is usually heavy damage along the cableways near the log landing. In practice, the log landing size is restricted to be no larger than a circle of 40 m. radius which in a 20 ha. set-up means 2.5% of the area. The cableways should take up no more than 4-5% of the area of the set-up.

In rough terrain where set-ups are not situated on a logging road, interior set-ups are connected by a skyline switch to the landing at the road side. In some cases, when the topography permits, high-lead logging combined with tractor skidding is practised. Gently sloping areas are logged by tractor

while steeper ones are logged by high-lead.

Evaluation of the Selective Logging System

Selective logging if properly implemented is still regarded as the bes·t sil vicul tural system applicable to the Philippine dipterocarp forest. Studies show that for the period 1974-1983, forest destruction occurred over an average of 21% of the area logged per year, leaving an adequately stocked logged over area of 79% (Table 1). These adequately stocked residual forests, if given the needed protection and appropriate post­logging silvicultural treatment would make possible another economic cut after a cutting cycle of 30,35,40 or 45 years.

The damage to residuals is related to the logging method employed. A study

conducted by the RP-German Rain Forest Development Project in Mindanao

showed that damage to residuals in high-lead yarding is higher than that where tractor skidding was used with 54.5% of the residuals of all species being saved whereas only 43.3% was saved with the use of high lead yarding (Table 2). Efforts to save dipterocarp residuals also proved to be more successful in the case of tractor-logging rather than in high lead yarding.

Source: Bureau of Forest Development

Table 19

Residual Stands After Tractor Skidding and Highlead Logging

- 157 -

Table 'VI

Sustained Yield Management and Residual Forest Activity Data

FY 1974-75 62,660 28 45,100 14,000CY 1976 73,840 28 53,165 16,000

77 67,260 25 50,445 33,00078 64,090 24 48,700 47,00079 57,275 20 45,820 44,00080 66,932 19 54,215 53,00081 58,416 19 47,310 49,20082 52,596 18 43,130 56,30083 51,993 16 43,670 33,900

High-Lead Tractor Skidding

Percent (%) of Residuals : Percent of Residuals

:Undamaged : Damaged : Undamaged : Damaged

Number of Trees

All species 43.3 56.7 54.5 45.5Dipterocarp 44.5 55.5 64.8 35.2Non-dipterocarp 41.9 58.1 46.7 53.8

Basal ArQa

All species 43.2 56.8 63.1 36.9Dipterocarp 43.9 66.1 71.2 28.8Non-dipterocarp 41.5 58.5 52.3 47.7

Source: RP-German Rain Forest Development Project Report.

Adequately Stocked

Year Area Logged Destruction Residual Forests Silviculturally

(HA.) (%) (HA.) Treated (HA.)

- 157 -

Table 34 Sustained Yield Management and Residual Forest Actiyity Data

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Year Area Logged (HA. )

Destruction ( %)

Adequately Stocked Residual Forests Silviculturally

(HA. ) Trea ted (HA.)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------FY 1974-75 62,660 28 45,100 14,000 CY 1976 73,840 28 53,165 16,000

77 67,260 25 50,445 33,000 78 64,090 24 48,700 47,000 79 57,275 20 45,820 44,000 80 66,932 19 54,215 53,000 81 58,416 19 47,310 49,200 82 52,596 18 43,130 56,300 83 51,993 16 43,670 33,900

------------------------------------------------------------------------------Source: Bureau of Forest Development

Table 35 Residual Stands After Tractor Skidding and Highlead Logging

Number of Trees All species Dipterocarp Non-dipterocarp

Basal Area Al.l species Dipterocarp Non-dipterocarp

High-Lead . . Percent (:c) of Residuals :

: Undamaged

43.3 44.5 41.9

43.2 43.9 41.5

Damaged

56.7 55.5 58.1

56.8 66.1 58.5

:

Tractor Skidding Percent of Residuals Undamaged Damaged

54.5 64.8 46.7

63.1 71.2 52.3

45.5 35.2 53 . 8

36.9 28.8 47.7

------------------------------------------------------------------------------Source: RP-German Rain Forest Development Project Report.

Table :36

Felling and Yarding Damage by High-Lead and

Tractor Skidding Under Gentle and Rough Topographical Conditions

Logging Method

Tractor skidding,

flatter terrain

Felling damage

Yarding damage

High-lead flatter

terrain

Felling damage

Yarding damage

High-lead, rough

terrain

Felling damage

Yarding damage

- 158 -

DAMAGE

: Residual Dipterocarps : Residual Non-Dipterocarp

: Trees : Basal Area : Trees : Basal Area

: (%) (%) (%) (%)

13.1 11.5

22.1 17.4

16.7 17.6

38.7 38.5

14.1 14.6

52.0 50.9

Source: AP German Rain Forest Development Project Report.

53.3 47.7

58.0 58.5

62.3 58.9

- 158 -

Table 36 Felling and Yarding Damage by High-Lead and

Tractor Skidding Under Gentle and Rough Topographical Conditions

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Logging Me thod

. .

DAMAGE Residual Dipterocarps Residual Non-Dipterocarp Trees Basal Area : Trees Basal Area

(%)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Tractor skidding, flatter terrain

Felling damage Yarding damage

High-lead flatter terrain

Felling damage Yarding damage

High-lead, rough terrain

Felling damage Yarding damage

13.1 22.1

14.1 52 . 0

11.5 17.4

17.6 38.5

14.6 50.9

53.3

58.0

62.3

Source: jjp German Rain Forest Development Project Report.

47.7

58.5

58.9

limber Stand

- 159 -

t TS The RP ;en .n TSI Project

The RP-German Timber Stand Improvement (TSI) Project, a project under a

bilateral agreement between the Republic of the Philippines and the Federal

Republic of Germany is primarily aimed at determining the growth rates in

logged-over areas and applicable treatments to improve the quality and

quantity of the residual forest. It started with its experimental phase in

August 1975 under the RP-Germ-n n Forest Development Project in four major

timber license areas in Eastern Mindanao. Results of these experiments are

embodied in BFD Circular No. 32, Series of 1981 known as Guidelines for the

iMPlementation of TSI in logged-over dicterocarp forest within tiMber license

areas.

Under the project, a Shift from the traditional timber stand improvements

applied to the existing dipterocarp forest to a well planned TSI treatment

following the guidelines set forth in the aforementioned circular was made

possible.

The TSI treatment as prescribed by the project is basically a potential tree

crop concept wherein the best of the most promising trees of valuable species

are selected as potential crop tree (PCT's).

Trees to be classified as PCT, should have the following features:

belong to the preferred species which, in the Philippines, are the

Dipterocarps like Red lauan (Shore?. =amps...a:Us.), White lauan

(Shorea oontorta), Tanguili (Shorea polysperma), Bagtikan (Shorea

Plicata), Almon (Shorea almon), etc.

be in the diameter range of 5-20 cm. DBH and occuring at an

interval of not less than 6 metres.

have well developed crowns.

have cylindrical, straight and healthy boles.

be stable and in a vigorous oondition.

No fixed number of potential crop tree per hectare is prescribed as the number

thereof depends on the silvicultura], needs of the area. However, as a rule

of thumb, it is suggested, until research proves otherwise, that for the

first liberation thinning 10-15 years after selective logging, 160 PCT's per

ha. be retained. An area is considered to be adequately stocked for TSI

operations if there are at least 40 PCT's per hectare.

- 159 -

Timber Stand Improvement (TSI); The RP Gel'lDan TSI Profect

The RP-German Timber Stand Improvement (TSI) Project, a project under a

bilateral agreement between the Republic of the Philippines and the Federal Republic of Germany is primarily aimed at determining the growth rates in

logged-over areas and applicable treatments to improve the quality and quantity of the residual forest. It started with its experimental phase in August 1975 under the RP-Germ~n 'l a...n Forest Development Project in four major

timber license areas in Eastern Mindanao. Results of these experiments are embodied in BFD Circular No. 32, Series of 1981 know n as Guidelines for the implementation of TS! in logged-oyer dipterocarp forest within timber license areas.

Under the project, a shift from the traditional timber stand improvements applied to the existing dipterocarp forest to a well planned TSI treatment following the guidelines set forth in the aforementioned circular was made possible.

The TSI treatment as prescribed by the project is basically a potential tree crop concept wherein the best of the most promising trees of valuable species are selected as potential crop tree (PCT's).

Trees to be classified as PCT, should have the following features:

belong to the preferred species which, in the Philippines, are the Dipterocarps like Red lauan (Shorea negrosensis), White lauan (Sborea contorta), Tanguili (Shorea ,polysperma), Bagtikan (Shorea Dlicata), Almon (Shorea almon), etc.

be in the diameter range of 5-20 cm. DBH and occuring at an

interval of not less than 6 metres.

have well developed ' crowns.

have cylindrical, straight and healthy boles.

be stable and in a vigorous condition.

No fixed number of potential crop tree per hectare is prescribed as the number thereof depends on the sil vicul tural 'needs of the area. However, as a rule of thumb, it is suggested, until research proves otherwise, that for the

first liberation thinning 10-15 years after sele,ctive logging, 160 PCT's 'per ha. be retained. An area is considered to be adequately stocked for TSI operations if there are at least 40 PCT's per hectare.

- 160 -

The first TSI treatment is conducted when the second growth has reached a

stage that permits movement on the forest floor after the blanket of vines

has been lifted from the ground by the growth of young trees; this is

usually reached 10-15 years after logging., At least two TSI treatments

between cutting cycles are recommended as follows:

Years in Cutting

Cycle Operation

o

10 - 15

20 - 25

25 - 45

Reidual and Continuous Inventory Assessments

In the final analysis the success of the selective logging systems depends

on the survival without excessive damage of the planned residual stand after

logging and its subsequent growth. The system therefore includes two sets of

inventory procedures to provide this information and at the same time monitor

the performance of the licencee and the progress of the forest.

The Residual Inventory

The objectives of residual inventory are:

to determine the extent and causes of damage done to the residuals, so

that corrective measures could t.--; instituted.

to gather information on the appraisal of residual growing stock for

yield prediction, mortality and silvicultura], treatments.

to quantify the number and volume of damaged residuals for the

determination of the penalties that shall be imposed to the licensee.

The timber management personnel of the BFD, who have jurisdiction over the

concession area, conduct the residual inventory. The inventory is done by

set-up and all residuals that were marked before the logging operations are

accounted for. The criteria in describing the condition of the residual

trees after logging are as follows:

Logging of virgin forest

(first major harvest)

First TSI treatment

Second TSI treatment

Second Major Harvest

(cutting cycle)

- 160 -

The first TSI treatment is conducted when the second growth has reached a stage that permits movement on the forest floor after the blanket of vines has been lifted from tbe ground by the growth of young trees; this is usually reached 10-15 years after logging. , At least two TSI treatments between cutting cycles are recommended as follows:

Years in Cutting Cycle

10

20 25

o

15 25 45

Operation

Logging of virgin forest (first major harvest) First TSI treatment Second TSI treatment Second Major Harvest (cut ting cycle)

Residual and Continuous Inventory Assessments

In the final analysis the success of the selective logging systems depends on the survival without excessive damage of the planned residual stand after logging and its subsequent growth. The system therefore includes two sets of inventory procedures to provide this information and at the same time monitor the performance of the licencee and the progress of the forest ,

the Residual Inyentory

The objectives of residual inventory are:

to determine the extent and causes of damage done to the residuals, so that corrective measures could C~ instituted •

. to gather information on the appraisal of residual growing stock for yield prediction, mortality and sil vicul tural treatments.

to quantify the number and volume of damaged residuals for the determination of the penalties that shall be imposed to the licensee.

The timber management personnel of the BFD, who have jurisdiction over the concession area, conduct the residual inventory. The inventory is done by

··set-up and all residuals that were marked before the logging operations are accounted for. The criteria in describing the condition of the residual trees after logging are as follows:

- 161 -

Healthy Residual - must be sound, thrifty, with straight cylindrical

bole and uninjured or slightly injured, to wit:

Not more than 1/6 of the crown is severed or damaged.

Any injury on the trunk reaching the wood (beneath the cambium)

should not be more than 5 cm wide and 50 cm long along-a straight

line parallel to the longitudinal axis of the trunk..

- Not more that 1/2 of the circumference at any place on the trunk is

girdled and deeply indented by wire rope.

Not more than 1/3 of the number of buttresses is badly battered.

Not more than 1/6 of the root system is removed or disturbed.

Sub-standard Residual - the magnitude of the injury is:

More than 1/6 but not more than 1/2 of the crown is severed or badly

damaged.

Any injury on the trunk reaching the wood, over 5cm wide to 1/3 of the

circumference and not more than 2 metres long along a straight line

parallel to the longitudinal axis of the trunk.

More than 1/2 but not more than 2/3 of the circumference of the trunk

is girdled or seriously indented by wire rope.

Over 1/3 but not more than 1/2 of the number of buttresses are

battered.

Over 1/6 but not more than 1/4 of the root system is removed or

disturbed.

Damaged Residual - the injury is so much beyond sub-standard that it is

likely that the tree will not survive or if it does that the bole will no

longer be usable.

Continuous Forest Inventory (CFI)

This is a method for predicting growth and mortality rates of trees based

on the results of repetitive measurements of the same trees found within

permanent sample plots established in the residual forest.

- 161 -

Healthy Residual - must be sound, thrifty, with straight cylindrical bole and uninjured or slightly injured, to wit:

Not more than 1/6 of the crown is severed or damaged.

Any injury on the trunk reaching the wood (beneath the cambium) should not be more than 5 cm wide and 50 cm long along - a straight line parallel to the longitudinal axis of the trunk.

Not more that 1/2 of the circumference at any place on the trunk is girdled and deeply indented by wire rope.

Not more than 1/3 of the number of buttresses is badly battere~

Not more than 1/6 of the root system is removed or disturbed.

Sub-standard Residual - the magnitude of the injury is:

More than 1/6 but not more than 1/2 of the crown is severed or badly damaged.

Any injury on the trunk reaching the wood, over 5cm wide to 1/3 of the

circumference and not more than 2 metres long along a straight line parallel to the longi tudinal axis of the trunk.

More than 1/2 but not more than 2/3 of the circumference of the trunk

is girdled or seriously indented by wire rope.

Over 1/3 but not more than 1/2 of the number of buttresses are battered.

Over 1/6 but not more than 1/4 of the root system is removed or disturbed.

Damaged Residual - the injury is so much beyond sub-standard that it is likely that the tree will not survive or if it does that the bole will no longer be usable.

Continuous Forest Inventory (CFIl

This is a method for predicting growth and mortality rates of trees based on the results of repetitive measurements of the same trees found within permanent sample plots established in the residual forest.

- 162 -

Initially, the total number of sample plots for a particular concession is

calculated from a desired degree of accuracy and a pre-determined

coefficient of variation. The CFI plots are located and established on the

ground based from easily recognizable starting points i.e. curve of river,

junction of roads, permanent bridges, culverts, etc. The direction and

horizontal distance from the starting point to the centre of the plot are

noted an the field sheet. The plot centre is marked with a strong pole

where the corresponding plot number is indicated. Likewise, the centre is

"witnessed" by two known trees whose distances, directions and DBH/DAB are

measured and printed with two yellow or white horizontal bands facing the

plot centre.

The trees within the CFI plots are categorized into four size classes.

These are:

T. Reproduction - all trees below 5 cm in diameter and at least 1.3 m

(30 cm for Pine) in height. Me reproduction is enumerated in four

The data and information that shall be determined or mea.sured from trees

classified as sapling, pole timber and saw timber are: species, stump class

(except sapling), crown class, tree quality, DBH/DAB and merchantable

height (except sapling).

Stump Class - indicates the point where the mercantable height of the tree

starts and the portion where the tree shall be cut which is called stump

height Generally, there are three stump classes:

.Normal Stump - when the tree has no basal flanges or is without

butt swell. The stump height under this category is 0.5 m for all

species (except pine which is 0.2 m) above the ground as measured on

the uphill side of the tree.

Buttressed - if the tree is naturally swell-butted or with high basal

flanges. The stump height for buttressed trees is at the termination

of the pronounced swell.

Forked - if the tree does not have at least 3 ra log below the base of

the fork. The stump height will be at the crotch and each prong shallbe considered a separate tree.

subplots with a radius of one meter and established 5 m from the plot

centre along the cardinal directions.

2. Saplings - trees whose DBH is between 5 and 14.9 cm.

3. Pole Timber - trees whose DBH/DAB ranges from 15 to 34.9 cm.

4. LaRtAmLerD - all trees with DBH/DAB of 35 cm or larger.

- 162 -

Initially, the total number of sample plots for a particular concession is

calculated from a desired degree of accuracy and a pre-determined coefficient of variatio~ The CFI plots are located and established on the ground based from easily recognizable starting points i.e. curve of river, junction of roads, permanent bridges, culverts, ete. The direction and

horizontal distance from the starting point to the centre of the plot are noted on the field sheet. The plot centre is marked with a strong pole where the corresponding plot number is indicated. Likewise, the centre is·

·witnessed" by two known trees whose distances, directions and DBH/DAB are measured and printed with two yellow or white horizontal bands facing the plot centre.

The trees within the CFI plots are categorized into four size classes.

These are:

1. Reproduction all trees below 5 cm in diameter and at least 1.3 m (30 cm for Pine) in height. The reproduction is enumerated in four subplots wi th a radius of one meter and established 5 m from the plot centre along the cardinal directions.

2. Saplings trees whose DBH is between 5 and 14.9 cm.

3. Pole Timber trees whose DBH/DAB ranges from 15 to 34.9 cm.

4. Sawtimber all trees with DBHlDAB of 35 cm or larger.

The data and information that shall be determi.ned or measured from trees classified as sapling, pole timber and saw timber are: speCies, stump class (except sapling), crown class, tree quality, DBHlDAB and merchantable height (except sapling).

Stump Class - indicates the point where the mercantable height of the tree starts and the portion where the tree shall be cut which is calleci stump height. Generally, there are three stump classes:

1. Normal Stump - when the tree bas no basal flanges or is wi thout butt swell. The stump height under this category is 0.5 m for all

species (except pine which is 0.2 m) above the ground as measured on the uphill side of the tree.

2, Buttressed - if the tree is naturally swell-butted or with high basal flanges. The stump height for buttressed trees is at the termination of the pronounced swell.

3. Forked - if the tree does not have at least 3 m log below the base of the fork. The stump height will be at the crotch and each prong shall be considered a separate tree.

- 163 -

- the tree crowns are categorized as follows:

Dominant - Trees with crown extending above Uae general level of the

crown cover and receiving full light from above and partly from the

side; larger than the average trees in the stand and with well-

developed crowns but somewhat crowded on the sides.

Co-domimant Tres with rown forming the general level of the crown

cover and receiving fua light from above, but little from the sides.

Intrmediate - Trees with crown either below or extending into the

crown cover formed by co-dominant and dominant trees, receiving little

direct light from above, but none from the sides.

Overtopped - Trees with crowns entirely below the general level of

the crown cover receiving no direct light either from above or from the

sides.

Tree Quality - There are two broad classes of tree quality based on the

present or potential merchantability of trees for sawlogs. A tree 35 cm

DBH or larger is considered "sound" if it meets the merchantability

requirements for sawlogs; and a smaller tree is "sound" if it is expected

to attain a diameter of 35 cm, or more and meet the merchantability

requirements for sawtimber at that time. Trees not qualifying as sound

trees are classed as cull trees.

A tree 35 cm DBH or larger must meet the following requirements to be

considered sound:

it must contain at least one merchantable sawlog 5 metres or

longer, or contain WO or more sawlogs 3 or 4 metres in length,

except that one 3 meter log will qualify dangula, molave tindalo,

tambulian, or narra.

The sawlog portion (from stump to upper limit of merchantability)

must be at least 50 percent sound. In other words, it must be

possible to saw out at least 1/2 the volume of lumber taat could

be sawed if the section were smooth, straight, and sound.

e Each log making up the sawlog portion must meet the following

requirements to be considered merchantable:

Minimum length - it must be at least 3 metres in length.

Maximum size of limbs and knots - the sum of the diametres

of the limbs and knots in any 1/4 metre section of the log

cannot exceed 1/2 the diameter of the log at that point.

- 163 -

Crown class the tree crowns are categorized as follows:

Dominant - Trees with crow n extending above th", general level of the crown cover and receiving full light from above and partly from the , side; larger than the average trees in the stand and with well­

developed crowns but somewhat crowded on the sides.

Co-domimant - Tre )s !4ith ~own forming the general level of the crow n cover and receiving ful~ light from above, but little from the side~

Intermediate - Trees with crown either below or extending into the crown cover formed by co-dominant and dominant trees, receiving little direct light from above, but none from the sides.

QvertOpped - Trees with crowns entirely below the general level of the crown oover receiving no direct light either from above or from the sides.

Tree Quality - There are two broad classes of tree quality based on the present or potential merchantability of trees for sawlog~ A tree 35 cm DBH or larger is considered "sound" if it meets the merchantability requirements for sawlogs; and a smaller tree is "sound" if it is expected

to attain a diameter of 35 cm. or more and meet the merchantability requirements for saw timber at that time. Trees not qualifying as sound trees are classed as cull trees.

A tree 35 cm DBH or larger must meet the following requirements to be

considered sound:

a) it must contain at least one merchantable sawlog 5 metres or longer, or contain two or more saw logs 3 or 4 metres in length, except that one 3 meter log w ill qualify dangula, mol aye tindalo. tambulian, or narr~

b) . The saw log portion (from stump to upper limit of merchantability) must be at least 50 percent soun~ In other words, it must be possible to saw out at least 1/2 the volume of lumber that could be sawed if the section were smooth, straight, and soun~

c) Each log making up the sawlog portion must meet the following requirements to be considered merchantable:

1) Minimum length - it must be at least 3 metres in length.

2) Maximum size of limbs and knots - the sum of the diametres of the limbs and knots in any 1/4 metre section of the log cannot exceed 1/2 the diameter of the log at that point.

- 164 -

3) Maximum cull volume - volume loss from sweep, crook, decay and

other defects cannot exceed 50 percent of the gross log

volume. It must be possible to produce at least 1/2 as much

lumber 3 metres or longer as could be produced if the log were

smooth, straight and sound.

Six classes of tree quality are provided for sound trees and one for cull

trees. The first 14 classes were designed to identify the healthy, vigorous

trees of medium to high quality that might be managed for future crops of

sawlogs or veneer logs. A tree is considered sawtimber when it reaches 35

cm DBH. Nevertheless, in classifying the quality of small trees, the

future diameter of 55 cm should be used in projecting estimates of

merchantable length, clearness of stem, cull volume, etc. providing that

the tree can be expected to reach that size by maturity.

Class 1 - High Quality Future Crop Trees

Sound dominant or co-dominant trees less than 75 cm DBH (145 cm for pine)

having now or potentially at least 10 metres of clear sawlog containing no

more than 10% cull. To be classed as clear, a sawlog must have three of

its four 90 degree quadrants (faces) free of limbs, knots or deep wounds

one cm or more in diameter. The foliage must be dark green or normal color

for the species, the crown must be normal to large in size with no more

than 25% of the crown destroyed, and it must not be spike-topped or contain

upper limbs that are dead. No surface wound can be as large as 15 cm by 15

cm or as wide as 1/2 the stem diameter; no girdling wound can cover as

much as 1/2 the circumference of the stem, and the centre of the main stem

must not be rotten or hollow. The tree must be firmly rooted and the root

system must not be more than slightly damaged.

Class 2 - Medium Quality Future Crop Trees

Requirements for this class are the same as for Class 1 trees, except that

length of clear sawlog is 5 metres but less than 10 metres and the trees

must be less than 55 cm DBH (145 cm for pine).

Class 3 - High Quality Potential Crop Trees

Sou.nd intermediate for overtopped trees less than 55 cm DBH (145 cm for

pine) having now or potentially at least 10 metres of clear sawlog

containing no more than 10% cull. The foliage must be normal in color for

the species, the crown must be normal to large in size with no more than

25% of the crown destroyed, and it must not be spike-topped or contain

upper limbs that are dead. No surface wound can be as large as 15 cm or as

wide aa 1/2 the circumference of the stem, and the centre of the stem must

not be rotten or hollow. The tree must be firmly rooted and the root

system must not be more than slightly damaged.

- 164 -

3) Maximum cull volume - volume loss from sweep, crook, decay and

other defects cannot exceed 50 percent of the gross log volume. It must be possible to produce at least 1/2 as much lumber 3 metres or longer as could be produced if the log were smooth, straight and soun~

Six classes of tree quality are provided for sound trees and one for cull trees. The first 4 classes were designed to identify the heal thy, vigorous trees of medium to high quality that might be managed for future crops of sawlogs or veneer logs. A tree is considered saw timber when it reaches 35 cm DBH. Nevertheless, in classifying the quality of small trees, the future diameter of 55 cm should be used in projecting estimates of merchantable length, clearness of stem, cull volume, etc. providing that the tree can be expected to reach that size by maturi ty.

Class 1 - High Quality Future Crop Trees

Sound dominant or co-dominant trees less than 75 cm DBH (45 cm for pine) having now or potentially at least 10 metres of clear sawlog containing no

more than 10% cull. To be classed as clear, a sawlog must have three of

its four go degree quadrants (faces) free of limbs, knots or deep wounds

one cm or more in diameter. The foliage must be dark green or normal col or for the species, the crown must be normal to large in size with no more than 25% of the crow n destroyed, and it must not be spike-topped or contain upper limbs that are dea~ No surface wound can be as large as 15 cm by 15

cm or as wide as 1/2 the stem diameter; no girdling wound can cover as much as 1/2 the circumference of the stem, and the centre of the main stem must not be rotten or hollow. The tree must be firmly rooted and the root system must not be more than . slightly damage~

Class 2 - Medium Quality Future Crop Trees

Requirements for this class are the same as for Class 1 trees, except that

length of clear saw log is 5 metres but less than 10 metres and the trees must be less than 55 cm DBH (45 cm for pine).

Class 3 - High Quality Potential Crop Trees

Sound intermediate for overtopped trees less than 55 cm DBH (45 cm for pine) having now or potentially at least 10 metres of clear sawlog

containing no more than 10% cull. The foliage " must be normal in color for the speCies, the crow n must be normal to large in siz e with no more than 25% of the crown destroyed, and it must not be spike-topped or contain upper limbs that "are dead. No surface wound can be as large as 15 cm or as wide as 1/2 the circumference of the stem, and the centre of the stem must

not be · rotten or hollow. The tree must be firmly rooted and the root system must not be more than slightly damage~

- 165 -

Class 4 - Medium Quality Potential Crop Trees

Requirements for this class are the same as for Class 3 trees, except that

length of clear sawlog is 5 metres but less than 10 metres.

Class 5 - Merchantable Mature Trees

Sound trees 55 cm DBH (45 cm for pine) or larger that do not qualify as

Class 1 trees.

Class 6 - Dpubtful Residuals

Sound trees less than 55 cm DBH (45 cm for pine) that do not qualify as

Class 1,. Class 2, Class 3 or Class 4 trees.

Class 7 - Cull Trees

Live trees that do not qualify as sound trees, Classes 1 through 6.

Measurements of Diameter and Heights

The DBH/DAB and merchantable height of each tree, including visible defects

shall be measured and recorded. The DBH is measured 1.3 m from the uphill

side of the tree, while DAB is 0.3 m from the swell or highest flange. The

merchantable height is reckoned from the stump height up to the first main

branch. However if there is clear length of 3 m or more beyond the 1st

main branch the merchantability limit is up to the second main branch or

top end diameter of 30 cm (20 cm for Pine).

Frequency of Measurement

Each tree measured and tagged in a CFI plot Shall be measured yearly for

the first five years and once every five years thereafter up to ths 15th

year. During the next re-measurement, all trees that will reach 5 cm DBH

in each plot shall be tagged and measured and shall be classified as

ingrowth trees and recorded separately. Likewise, all tagged trees that

have died shall be noted.

- 165 -

Class 4 - Medium Quality Potential Crop Trees

Requirements for this class are the same as for Class 3 trees, except that length of clear saw log is 5 metres but less than 10 metres.

Class 5 - Merchantable Mature Trees

Sound trees 55 cm DBH (45 cm for pine) or larger that do not qualify as

Class 1 trees.

Class 6 - Doubtful Residuals

Sound trees less than 55 cm DBH (45 cm ' for pine) that do not qualify as

Class 1" Class 2, Class 3 or Class 4 trees.

Class 7 - Cull Trees

Live trees that do not qualify as sound trees, Classes 1 through 6.

Measurements of Diameter and Heights

The DBHlDAB and merchantable height of each tree, including visible defects

shall be measured and recorded. The DBH is measured 1.3 m from the uphill

side of the tree, while DAB is 0.3 m from the swell or highest flange. The merchantable height is reckoned from the stump height up to the first main

branch. However if there is clear length of 3 m or more beyond the 1st main branch the merchantabili ty limi t is up to the second main branch or top end diameter of 30 cm (20 cm for Pine).

Frequency of Measurement

Each tree measured and tagged in a CFI plot shall be measured yearly for the first five years and once every five years thereafter up to tee 15th

year. During the next re-measurement, all trees that will reach 5 cm DBH in each plot shall be tagged and measured and shall be classified as ingrowth trees and recorded separately. Likewise, all tagged trees that have died shall be noted.

- 166 -

INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR MANAGEMENT

a) Forest Types

Very little is known regarding the assessment and inventory of the

forest resources during the Spanish period (1521-1898). However, some

publications and reports reveal that forest species identification and

nomenclature were undertaken by Spanish botanists during their

exploration and reconnaissance trips in several areas of the country.

During the American regime (1899-1941) the work begun by the Spaniards

was continued by pioneer American and Filipino foresters. Information

on forest types and important timber species was collected, including

volume estimates. From the studies of these early botanists and

foresters a classification of the forest types of the Philippines was

eventually established.

The indigenous vegetation consists of about 1 500 genera of flowering

and seed-bearing plants, representing more than 8,000 species of which

about 3800 are trees. Most of the tree species are found in all the

major islands, except Pinus kesiya (Benguet Pine) and Pinus merkusii

(Miradoro Pine), which are only found in the provinces of Benguet,

Ifugao, Kalinga-Apayao, Mt. Province and in patches of Abra, Mindoro

Occidental, Nieva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya and Zambales.

Generally, the forest vegetation is classified into six broad types:

Mangrove

Beach

3 Molave

Dipterocarp

Pine

Mossy

Ilangrove Forest' Toe - found in tidal flats at the mouth of

streams and in the shores of sheltered bays. The most important

species are: Druguieera gymnorthi7,7a (Busaing), aruguierm

narviflora (Langarai), Cerioos tapa (Tangal), Bajauboraavioulata (Bakawan lalaki) and Rhizoohora mucronata (Bakawan

babae). To date, large areas of this forest have been converted

to fishponds and other uses.

- 166 -

.IHFORKAIION SYSTEMS FOR MANAGEMENT

a) Forest Types

Very little is known regarding the assessment and inventory of the forest resources during the Spanish period (1521 -1898). However, some publications and reports reveal that forest species identification and nomenclature were undertaken by Spanish botanists during their

exploration and reconnaissance trips in several areas of the country.

During the American regime (1899-1941) the work begun by the Spaniards was continued by pioneer American and Filipino foresters. Information

on forest types and important timber species was collected, including volume estimates. From the studies of these early botanists and foresters a classification of the forest types of the Philippines was

eventually establishe~

The indigenous vegetation consists of about 1500 genera of flowering and seed-bearing plants, representing more than 8,000 species of which about 3800 are trees. Most of the tree species are found in all the major islands, except Pinus kesiya (Benguet Pine) and Pinus merkusii

(Mindoro Pine), which are only found in the provinces of Benguet,

!fugao, Kalinga-Apayao, Mt. Province and in patches of Abra, Mindoro Occidental, Nieva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya and Zambales.

Generally, the forest vegetation is classified into six broad types:

1 •

2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

Mangrove Beach

Molave Dipterocarp

Pine Mossy

Mangroye Forest Type - found in tidal flats at the mouth of streams and in the shores of sheltered bays. The most important

species are: Bruguieera gymnorthizza (Busaing), Bruguierra paryiflora (Langarai), Ceriops tagal (Tangal), Rhizophora apiculata (Bakawan lalaki) and Rhizophora mucronata (Bakawan

babae). To date, large areas of this forest have been converted to fishponds and other uses.

- 167 -

Beackl Type --: found in dry and sandy beaches; the principal species

are: Barringtonia asiatiea (Botong), Calophyllum ipophylluM(Bitaog), Casaur¡na gouisetifolia (Agoho) and Ierminalia caatappa

(Talisai). Presently, the beach forest is almost gone, bUt the

principal species are still found singly or in small patches on

some sea shores.

liolave Tyne - this type fr-quently occurs in areas with a distinct

dry season and limesto e soils at low to medium elevation. The

wood of the tree species under this type are noted for durability

and beauty, and hence are used mainly for furniture. The most

important species are: Afzelia rhomboidea (Tindalo), Intsia

bijuga (Ipil), Fterocarpus indious (Narra), Serialbizia acle

(Akle), Vitex parviflora (Molave) and Wal aceodendron celebicum(Banuyo). The remaining area of the molave forest is integrated

with the Dipterocarp type considering that it occurs in small

patches or singly in association with dipterocarps.

Dinterocaro Type - this forest type is heterogenous in

composition. The species belonging to the family Dipterocarpaceae

are the most important (known in the world market as "Philippine

Mahogany") and predominates in terms of volume, comprising about

70-80% of the total timber stand. The principal species are:

Dipterocarpus grandifloras (Apitong), Dipterocarpus grandiflorus

(Apitong), Dipterocarpus gracilis (Panau), ipterocarpus warbugii(Hagakhak), Hopea pnilippinensis (Gisok-gisok), Shorea contorta

(white lauan), Shorea gisok (Yakal), Shorea RUiS0 (Guijo), Shorea

pegrosensis (Red lauan), Shorea almon (Almon), Shorea polysperma

(Tanguile), Shorea squamata (Mayapis), etc.

Pine Type - found in the mountain regions of high altitude in

Northern Philippines particularly in the province of Benguet,

Ifugao, Kalinga-Apayao, Mt. Province and in smaal patches in Abra,Mindoro, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya and Zambales. There are only

two species under this type: Finu_o_leljeyea (Benguet Pine) and linus

merkusii (Mindoro Pine).

Mossy Forest Type - found on steep and high mountains, whose aides

are cut in ridges by deep canyons, usually at elevation of 1,200

metres and above. This forest type haz no commercial value, butit serves as protection forest. The trees are dwarfed, with clearbole of less than five metres in length, and the trunks,' branchesand leaves are covered by moss, liverworts and other epipnytes.

- 167 -

Beach ~ ..; found in dry and sandy beaches; the principal species are: Barringtonia asiatica (Botong), Caiophyllum inophyllum (BHaog) , Casaurina equisetifolia (Agoho) and Terminalia caatappa (Talisai). Presently, the beach forest is almost gone, but the principal species are still found singly or in small patches on some sea shores.

Molaye Type - this type fr'lquently occurs in areas with a distinct dry season and limesto le soil s at low to medium elevation. The

wood of the tree species under this type are noted for durability and beauty, and hence are used mainly for furniture. The most important species are: Afzelia rhomboidea (Tindalo), Intsia bi1uga (Ipil), Pterocarpus indicus (Narra), Serialbizia ~

. (Akle), yitex paryiflora (Molave) and Wallaceodendron celebicum (Banuyo). The remaining area of the molave forest is integrated with the Dipterocarp type considering that it occurs in small patches or singly in association with dipterocarps.

Dipterocarp Type - this forest type is heterogenous in composition. The species belonging to the family Dipterocarpaceae are the most important (known in the world market as "Philippine

Mahogany") and predominates in terms of volume, comprising about 70-80% of the total timber stand. The principal species are: Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (Apitong), Dioterocarpus grandiflorus (Apitong), Dipterocarpus gracilis (Panau), Dipterocarpus warbugii (Hagakhak), Hopea philippinensis (Gisok-gisok), Shorea contorta (white lauan), Shorea gisok (Yaksl), Shorea guiso (Guijo), Shorea negrosensis (Red lauan), Shorea almon (Almon), Shore a polysperma (Tanguile), Shorea squamata (Mayapis), et~

Pine Type - found in the mountain regions of high altitude in Northern Philippines particularly in the province of Benguet, If'ugao, Kalinga-Apayao, Mt. Province and in small patches in · Abra,

Mindoro, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya and Zambales. There are only two species under this type: Pinus kesiya (Benguet Pine) and Pinus

'merkusii (Mindoro Pine).

Mos::W Forest Type - found on steep and high mountains, whose sides are cut in ridges by deep canyons, usually at elevation of 1,200 metres and above. This forest type has no commercial value, but it serves as protection forest. The trees are dwarfed, with clear

bole of less than five metres in l ·ength, and the trunks, ' branches and leaves are covered by moss, liverworts and other epiphytes.

- 168 -

Land Classification Survey

This survey pertains to the classification of the public domain into

two broad categories, eg. timberland and alienable or disposable land

(A or D). The former category is for forestry purposes, while the

latter is for agriculture and other non-forestry uses. The criterion

for determining A or D is primarily based on the slope gradient, which

is zero to eighteen percent (0-18%) slope, except those areas within 140

metres from the shoreline measured during high tide and 20 metres from

both sides of rivers or streams having a width of 5 metres or more.

Another basis for A and D classification is that the volume of timber

content of the area which should not be more than 40 cubic metres per

hectare.

The areas classified as A or D and timberlands are indicated on maps

with scale of 1:20,000. The technical desriptions of each

classification are also incorporated on the map. In addition, a

certification is prepared for the approval of the Director of Forest

Development and Minister of Natural Resources. Once approved, the

boundary between the A or D and timberland becomes permanent.

Forest Surveys and Resource Inventories

Forest inventory is the series of processes whereby relevant data and

information about the forests (forest types, stand size, extent,

condition and location) are gathered, analysed, compiled and presented

for policy formulation and the preparation of forest management plans

and programmes.

The first official volume estimates of important timber species were

made in 1910 by Forester H.N. Whitford, who stated in his report that

the forests of the Philippines contained about 200 billion bord feet

(approximately 1470 million m3). Compilation of results from the

reconnaissance and valuation surveys conducted by foresters in the

district offices in the various provinces before the outbreak of the

2nd world war revealed that the volume of standing timber was 2164

billion board feet (approximately 1.1 billion m3).

After the war, when peace and order were re-established in the

Philippines,forestry activities expanded tremendously due to the

reconstruction and rehabilitation of areas ravaged by the war. As a

corollary, various surveys and inventories were conducted within the

forest lands. These have by now developed into a suite of surveys and

inventories to provide information pertaining to forest management at

all levels and phases. Although they are all inter-related and

sequential three sets can be, for convenience recognized. They are:

- 168 -

b) Land Classification Survey

This survey pertains to the cl assifica tion of the public domain into two broad categories, ego timberland and alienable or disposable land (A or D). The former ca tegory is for forestry purposes, while the latter is for agriculture and other non-forestry Uses. The criterion for determining A or D is primarily based on the slope gradient, which is zero to eighteen percent (0-18%) slope, except those areas within 40

metres from the shoreline measured during high tide and 20 metres from both sides of rivers or streams having a width of 5 metres or more. Another basis for A and D classification is that the volume of timber content of the area which should not be more than 40 cubic metres per hectare.

The areas classified as A or D and timberlands are indica ted on maps wi th scale of 1 :20,000. The technical desriptions of each classifica tion are also incorporated on the map. In addi tion, a certification is prepared for the approval of the Director of Forest

Development and Minister of Natural Resources. Once approved, the boundary between the A or D and timberland becomes permanen~

c) Forest Surveys and Resource Inyentories

Forest inventory is the series of processes whereby relevant data and information about the forests (forest types, stand size, extent,

condition and location) are gathered, analysed, compiled and presented for policy formulation and the preparation of forest management plans and programmes.

The first official volume estimates of important timber species were made in 1910 by Forester ILN. Whi tford, who stated in his report tha t the forests of the Philippines contained about 200 billion bo"rd feet (approximately 470 million m3). Compilation of results from the reconnaissance and valuation surveys conducted by foresters in the district offices in the various provinces before the outbreak of the

2nd world war revealed that the volume of standing timber was 464 billion board feet (approximately 1. 1 billion m3).

After the war, when peace and order were re-established in the Philippines,forestry activities expanded tremendously due to the reconstruction and rehabilitation of areas ravaged by the war. As a corollary, various surveys and inventories were conducted w1 thin the

forest lands. These have by now developed into a s ui te of surveys and inventories to provide information pertaining to forest management at all levels and phases. Although they are all inter-related and sequential three sets can be, for convenience recognized. They are:

- 169 -

Surveys and inventories related to harvesting

Inventories related to future

National forest inventories

Pre-Investment Survev

This survey is done to determine the profitability of utilizing the

resources within a specific forestland area. It involves the

identification of the area wherein a permit or lease may be issued,

including the kind and volume of resources that may be allowed for

utilization.

Delimitation and Inventory of Forest Concessions.

The portions of the forest lands that are licensed to qualified private

individuals or corporations for purposes of harvesting the mature and over-

mature timber stand in accordance with prescribed laws, rules and

regulations are delimited and inventoried prior to the conduct of logging

operations. Tbe boundaries of the licensed area or concession are

established on the ground. The technical. descriptions from this survey are

indicated on the concession map and approved by the Director of Forest

Development and Minister of Natural Resources.

A forest inventory is also conducted within the concession area, the

intensity of which is at least five percent (5%) of the forested area. The

width of the strip is 20 metres, while the length is determined by the

extent of the forest. The number of strips, distance between strips and

sampling intensity are computed as follows:

Area to be cruised = Total forest area x % estimate

No. of strips = Area to be cruised

1ength x width of strip

10,000

or

= Area to be cruised

Area of one strip

Distance between strips = width of strip

% estimate

Sampling intensity = Ire cruised

Total.forest area x 100

- 169 -

a) Surveys and inventories related to harvesting

b) Inventories related to future c) National forest inventories

Pre-Inyestaent Survey

This survey is done to determine the profitability of utilizing the resources within a specific forestland area. It involves the identification of the area wherein a permit or lease may be issued, including the kind and volume of resources that may be allowed for

utiliz ati on.

Del:1aitati.on and Invent on of Forest Concessions

The portions of the forest lands that are licensed to qualified private individuals or corporations for purposes of harvesting the mature and over­mature timber stand in accordance with prescribed laws, rules and

regulations are delimited and inventoried prior to the conduct of logging operations. The boundaries of the licensed area or concession are established on the ground. The technical· descriptions from this survey are indicated on the concession map and approved by the Director of Forest Development and Minister of Natural Resources.

A forest inventory is also conducted within the concession area, the

intensity of which is at least five percent (5%) of the forested area. The width of the strip is 20 metres, while the length is determined by the extent of the forest. The number of strips, distance between strips and sampling intensi ty are computed as follow s:

1. Area to be cruised = Total forest area x % estimate

2. No. of strips = Area to be cruised length x width of atrip

10,000

or

= Area to be cruised Area of one strip

3. Distance between strips = width of strip

:l estimate

4. Sampling intensity = Area cruised Total .forest area x 100

- 170 -

In a systematic strip cruising, the timber cruisers start from a baseline

and run a straight strip on a compass line across the forest tract up to

the boundary of the concessiore While running the line, they identify the

tree species, measure diameters at breast height (DBH) or diameter above

buttress (DA13) and corresponding merchantable height. They also note the

external defects, if any of the sawlog portion, including its dimension,

for purposes of computing the net sawlog volume. The cruisers also note

the extent of the forest type and forest stand size along the strip. These

procedures are done until all the computed number of strips are

established.

The statistical method of sampling is another system of inventory being

adopted in the assessment of the forest resources. The coefficient of

variation is determined by establishing about 30 preliminary sample plots

within each timber concession. The number of circular samples is computed

based on the coefficient of variation and allowable sampling error which is

pegged at 5%. The computed number of sample plots is distributed within

the forest area by calculating the area represented by one plot i.e. divide

the area of the forest by the total number of plots and convert the

quotient in square metres, to enable the calculation of horizontal distance

between plot centres. This is done by multiplying the area represented by

one plot by 10 000 and extracting the square root of the product which is

the distance between plots. The distance between plots is reduced by one

percent (1%) in order that all sample plots shall fall within the boundary

of the concession. A grid pattern with the same scale as the concession

map is prepared based from the calculated distance between plots and then

transferred to the topographic map wherein the boundary of the concession

is" indicated.

The sample plots are established using the natural

the topo map and identified on the ground as guide.

the circular plot, whose radius is 17.814 metres or

identified and measured - their respective DB1-1/DAB

including the external defects, are recorded.

The forest inventory report contains the following:

Area of the commercial and non-commercial forest. The locations of

these factors are indicated on the vegetative cover map;

Timber species, their distribution by size classes and

corresponding number of trees and volume per hectare. These are

shown on a stand and stock table;

Description of the forest as to topography, soil type, climate,

distance to human communities, etc.

features indicated on

All the trees within

an area of O. ha, are

and merchantable heights,

- 170 -

Io a systematic strip cruising, the timber cruisers start from a baseline

and run a straight strip on a compass line across the forest tract up to the boundary of the concession. While running the line, they identify the tree species, measure diameters at breast height (DBH) or diameter above buttress (DAB) and corresponding merchantable height. They also note the exte.rnal defects, if any of the sawlog portion, including its dimension, for purposes of computing the net saw log volume. The cruisers also note the extent of the forest type and forest stand size along the strip. These procedures are done until all the computed number of strips are

established.

The statistical method of sampling is another system of inventory being adopted in the assessment of the forest resources. The coefficient of variation is de termined by establishing about 30 preliminary sample plots within each timber concession. The number of circular samples is computed

based on the coefficient of variation and allowable sampling error which is pegged at 5%. The computed number of sample plots is distributed within the forest area by calculating the area represented by one plot i.e. divide the area of the forest by the total number of plots and convert the quotient in square metres, to enable the calculation of horizontal distance between plot centres. This is done by multiplying the area represented by

one plot by 10,000 and extracting the square root of the product which is the distance between plots. The distance between plots is reduced by one percent (1%) in order that all sample plots shall, fall within the boundary of the concession. A grid pattern wi th the same scale as the concession map is prepared based from the calculated distance between plots and then transferred to the topographic map wherein the boundary of the concession is indicated.

The sample plots are established using the natural features indicated on the topo map and identified on the ground as guide. All the trees within

the circular plot, whose radius is 17.84 metres or an area of 0.1 ha, are identified and measured - their respective DBH/DAB and merchantable heights,

including the external defects, are recorded.

The forest inventory report contains the following: .

Az:ea of the commercial and non-commercial forest. The locations of

these factors are indicated on the vegetative cover map;

Timber species, their distribution by size classes and corresponding number of trees and volume per hectare. These are shown on a stand and stock table;

Description of the forest as to topography, soil type, climate, distance to human communi ties, ete.

- 171 -

Other relevant information.

Inventory

A logging set-up is the smallest subdivision in a forest concession. This

is often referred to as "yarding set-up" or "setting". The boundary and

extent of the set-up must be known from the operations map and surveyed on

the groünd. The factors to be considered in the delimitation of the set-up

are the location of the spar tree, log landing, accessibility from logging

road network, topography and the yarding distance of the yarding unit,

which is limited to a maximum of 2140 to 270 metres for highlead yarding and

75 to 90 metres for truck or tractor skidding.

The intensity of inventory within a set-up is at least 20%, to determine

the number and volume of the preferred timber species to be cut as well as

the residuals to be left for the next cutting cycle- The trees that shall

be cut or left are marked and numbered accordingly. The markings on the

former indicate the direction of fall while on the latter they show the

tree number and the set-up number for the purpose of assessing its

condition after logging of the set-up.

YANuement Inventories

These are of two types, as follows:

Residual inventory which is the physical examination and counting

of the marked and numbered residuals left in a set-up after

logging

Continuous forest inventory for predicting growth and mortality

rates of trees in the residual forest.

They are therefore integral parts of the implementation of selective

logging management in the Tropical Mixed Forest. Accordingly they have

been described in the later discussion of that system.

faher Forest Lands

Forested lands that may be allowed for clear-cutting such as A or D,

private lands, civil reservations, resettlement areas including those under

the jurisdiction of other government agencies are to be inventoried at one

hundred percent (100%). The inventory is to be conducted separately for

each lot covered by title/certificate or other documents of ownership.

However, the trees within 20 m from both sides of streams/rivers at least 5

m wide; 40 m from the shorelines and 60 m from both sides of public

highways; within parks, plazas and school grounds shall be excluded from

the tally of trees to be cut.

- 17 1 -

Other relevant information.

Logd Pg Set-Dp Survey and Inventory

A logging se t-up i s the smallest subdivision in a forest concession. This is ofte n referred to as nyarding set-up" or "setting~ The boundary and extent of the se t-up must be know n from the operations m.ap and surveyed on the groun~ The factors to be considered in the . delimitation of the set-up a re the l ocation of the spar tree, log landing, accessibility from logging r oad network, topography and the yarding distance of the yarding unit, which is limited to a maximum of 240 to 270 metres for highlead yarding and 75 to 90 metres for truck or tractor skidding.

The i ntensi ty of inventory within a se t-up is at least 20%, to de termine the number and volume of the preferred timber species to be cut as well as the residuals to be left for the next cutting cycle. The trees that shall be cut or left are marked and numbered accordingly. The markings on the

former indicate the direction of fall while on the latter they show the tree number and . the set-up number for the purpose of assessing its conditi on after l ogging of the set-up.

tfiUlf! Sement Inventories

These are of two types, as follows:

a) Residual inventory which is the physical examination and counting of the marked and numbered residuals left in a set-up after logging

b) Continuous forest inventory for predicting growth and mortality rates of trees in the residual forest.

They are therefore integral parts of the implementation of select::'ve logging management in the Tropical Mixed Forest. Accordingly they have been descr i bed in the later discussion of that system.

Other Forest Lands

Forested lands that may be allowed for clear-cutting such as A or D, private lands, civil r eservations, r esettlement areas including those under the jurisdiction of other gover nment agencies are to be inventoried at one hundred percent (1 00 %). The i nve ntory is to be conducted separately for

each l ot covered by ti tle/certificate or other documents of ownership. However, t he t rees within 20 m from both sides of streams/rivers at least 5 m wide; 40 m f rom the shorelines and 60 m from both sides of public highways; within parks , plazas and school grounds shall be excluded from the t a lly of trees to be cut .

- 172 -

Other areas that shall be subjected to 100% inventory are areas used by

timber concessionaires as roadways, cableways and log landings.

National Forest Inventories

First National Forest Resowrees Inventory UNFI-I)

NFI-I was undertaken from 1961 to 1 967. A double sampling design,

- consisting of photo-point sampling on aerial photographs and

ground plot sampling was used. The procedures of this inventory

are as follows:

The aerial photographs of the country with an average scale of

1:50,000 taken by the U.S. Air Force from 1947 to 1953 were

obtained. Sometime, from 1962 to 1966, the Bureau of Forestry,

requested the Philippine Air Force to take strip photography at 15

km between trips with an averge scale of 1:12,000. The later

photography was delineated on the former. Both sets of

photographs were interpreted for land use, forest type and forest

stand sizes.

The estimates of the area of the land use classes were determined

by examining and classifying points on every other photograph,

both for the 1 950 and 1963 airphotos with the use of photo

templates. The proportion of points on the 1963 photos within

each class was used to calculate the updated areas.

Ground samples were systematically selected from the forest photo

points and distributed in each forest stand classes based on a

certain level of precision. These field plots were located and

established on the ground with the use of the 1 963 airphotos.

Each ground sample was composed of five variable plots wherein

observation and measurements of the different parameters were

made, such as: tree species, DBH/DAB, merchantable length, tree

quality, forest type, stand size and condition, site quality etc.

Any changes that have occurred within the sample since the date of

photography were also recorded. The volume estimates by stand

size were arrived at by mulitplying the calculated average volume

per hectare by the estimated area of the stand size.

Forest drain was calculated from the results of the timber

utilization stbdies conducted within pre-selected small, medium

and large timber operations as well as from reported timber

production and other forces of forest depletion.

The growth and mortality rates were determined from the results of

the continuous forest inventory.

- 17 2 -

Other areas that shall be subjected to 100% inventory are areas used by

timberconcess1onaires as roadways, cableways and log landings.

c) Rational Forest Inventories

F~rst Rational Forest Resources Ipyeptory «HFl-I)

HFI-I was undertaken from 1961 to 1967. A double sampling design, consisting of photo-point sampling on aerial photographs and

ground plot sampling was used. The procedures of this inventory

are as follows:

The aerial" photographs of the country with an average scale of

' 1:50,000 taken by the U.s. Air Force from 1947 to 1953 were obtained. Sometime, from 1962 to 1966, the Bureau of Forestry, requested the Philippine Air Force to take strip photography at 15 km between trips with an averge scale of 1:12,000'. The later

photography was delineated on the former. Both sets of photographs were interpreted for land use, forest type and forest stand sizes.

The estimates of the area of the land use classes were determined by examining and classifying points on every other photograph,

both for the 1950 and 1963 airphotos with the use of photo

templates. The proportion of points on the 1963 photos within each class was used to calculate the upda ted areas.

Ground samples were systematically selected from the forest photo points and distributed in each forest stand classes based on a

certain level of precision. These field plots were located and established on the ground with the use of the 1963 airphotos. Each ground sample was composed of five variable plots wherein

observation and measuremen::s of the different parameters were made, such as: tree species, DBH/DAB, merchantable length, tree

quality, forest type, stand size and condition, site quality etc. Any changes that have occurred within the sample since the date of

photography were also recorded. The volume estimates by stand size were arrived at Qy mulitplying the calculated average volume per hectare by the estimated area of the stand size.

Forest drain was calculated from the results of the timber

utilization studies conducted within pre-selected small, medium and large timber operations as well as from reported timber production and other forces of forest depletion.

The growth and mortality rates were determined from the results of

the continuous forest inventory.

- 173 -

The inventory data were computed, evaluated and compiled wherein summary

tables on land use, forest areas and timber volume estimates were

prepared. The location of the forest areas could not be determined since

no maps were produced.

Forest Inventory by Aerial Photo Interpretation

Another inventory on the extent and location of the forest was undertaken

- by BFD from 1967 to 1972, with the application of photo-interpretation.

Aerial photographs of the country having an average saale of 1:15,000

flown during the period were obtained and interpreted. The interpretation

was used as basis in the preparation of forest resource condition maps

(FRCM). The photo interpretation codes as indicated on the FRCM and its

description are as follows:

Code Description

A. Forested Lands

22 Mangrove Reproduction

23 Young Growth Mangrove

25 Old Growth Mangrove

12 Reproduction Brush

13 L Residual Dipterocarp

Low Volume

13 E Residual Dipterocarp

High Volume

15 L Old Growth Dipterocarp

Low Volume

15 M Old Growth Dipterocarp

Medium Volume

15 L Old Growth Dipterocarp

High Volume

10 Mossy Forest

30 Unproductive Forest

PL Pine Forest Low Volume

PH Pine Forest High Volume

Forest Plantation

b) Non-Forested Lands

O Open/grasslands

Cultivated lands

Marshlands

Ps Pasture or Rangeland

U Urban, built-up areas

- 173 -

The inventory data were computed, evaluated and compiled wherein summary

tables on land use; forest areas and timber volume estimates were prepared. The location of the forest areas could not be determined since no maps were produced.

Forest Igyentory by Aerial Pboto InterpretaUon

Another inventory on the extent and location of the forest was undertaken by BFP from 1967 to 1972, with the application of photo-interpretatio~

Aerial photographs of the country having an average scale ·of 1:15,000 flown during the period were obtained and interpreted. The interpretation was used as basis in the preparation of· forest resource condi tion maps (FRCM). The photo interpretation codes as indicated on the FRCM and its

description are as follows:

~ A. Forested Lands

22 23 25 12 13 L

13 H

15 L

15 M

15 L

10 30 PL PH P

b) Non-Forested Lands

o C

M Ps U

\

Description

Mangrove Reproduction Young Growth Mangrove Old Growth Mangrove

Reproduction Brush ReSidual Dipterocarp

Low Volume Residual Dipterocarp

High Volume Old Growth Dipterocarp

Low Volume Old Growth Dipterocarp

Medium Volume Old Growth Dipterocarp

High Volume Mossy Forest

Unproductive Forest Pine Forest Low Volume Pine Forest High Volume Forest Plantation

Open/grasslands Cultivated lands Marshlands Pasture or Rangeland Urban, built-up areas

About 15.1 million ha out of the total 17.4 million ha forestlands were

mapped.

Forest :Inventory by LLandsat_./. .0.

In 1978, the Natural Resources Management Centre (NRMC), Ministry of

Natural Resources conducted an inventory of the forestlands through the

analysis of LANDSAT Imageries. The forest classification system was based

- on the spatial and spectral characteristics of the forests, and on the

interpreter's knowledge of the various forest types. The categories

developed with the use of G.E. Image 100 system are:

Forested Land - Partial Canony Closure

Forest composed primarily of dipterocarps, stocked with tree

reproduction or brush. Some agricultural high crops such as

coconuts and bananas were mixed in especially when located in

proximity to forestland.

Forested Land - Obscured by Clouds

This category was created because of the cloud conditions in many

of the Landsat scenes. It encompasses areas believed to be

forested, but obscured by clouds and cloud shadows. The

boundaries of such areas were defined as polygons in the bulk

processors. They were based on information from Landsat ImagerY

for other dates, and from various ground sources.

Forested Land - Mangrove

Forest stands

streams), and

predominantly

Forested Land

Forest stands

the country.

value.

- 174 -

found in swampy tidal areas (mouths of rivers and

along the shores of sheltered bays. Composed

of mangrove (Bakauan) and associated species.

- Mossy or Mid Mountain

found in high and very rough mountainous regions of

Characterized by low growth and small commercial

- 174 -

About 15.1 million ha out of the total 17.4 million ha forestlands were

mapped.

Forest Inyentory by Landsat Imagery Analysis

In 1978, the Natural Resources Management Centre (NRMC), Ministry of Natural Resources conducted an inventory of the forestlands through the analysis of LANDSAT Imageries. The forest classification system was based

on the spatial and spectral characteristics of the forests, and on the interpreter's knowledge of the various forest types. The categories developed with the use of G.E. Image 100 system are:

1. Forested Land - Partial Canopy Closure

Forest composed primarily of dipterocarps, stocked with tree reproduction or brush. Some agricultural high crops such as coconuts and bananas were mixed in especially when located in proximity to forestland.

2. Forested Land - Obscured by Clouds

This category was created because of the cloud conditions in many

of the Landsat scenes. It encompasses areas believed to be forested, but obscured by clouds and cloud shadows. The boundaries of such areas were defined as polygons in the bulk

processors. They were based on information from Landsa t Imagery for other dates, and from various ground sources.

3. Forested Land - Mangroye

Forest stands found in swampy tidal areas (mouths of rivers and streams), and along the shores of sheltered bays. Composed predominantly of mangrove (Bakauan) and associated species.

4. Forested Land - Mossy or Mid Mountain

Forest stands found in high and very rough mountainous regions of

the country. Characterized by low growth and small commercial value.

- 175 -

5. Non-Forest Land - Wetlands, Marsh and Small Water Bodies

This non-forest eategory was included in addition to the forest

classification because of its potential value in the development of the

natural resources base in the Philippines. The category includes wet

areas characterized by partial cover of grass, weeds and brush. It also

includes small water areas, shallow portions of large rivers and the

majority of commercial fishpond areas. Some cultivated lands are flooded

- and planted to rice and also categorized as wetlands.

Present Forest Inventory and Resource Assessment

With the forests becoming more and more devoted to a multiplicity of uses

i.e. water, timber, wildlife, recreation, grazing, protection, etc.,

priorities Will need to be set with the participation of all sectors of

society. It is therefore imperative that reliable and accurate data and

information about the forests are collected, analyzed and interpreted for

the preparation of short, medium and long range forest management plans and

programs.

Sub-classification Survev of Forestlands

The previous system of land classification, based primarily on slope

gradient and timber content has therefore been modified to include not

only the above criteria, but also other factors to satisfy requirements

for socio-economic development and at the same time promoting the

equitable and optimum utilization of the forest resources. Such factors

as physical, biological and ecological aspects are measured quantitatively

and qualitatively. The results therefrom are the basis in determining the

best use of a particular area of the forestlands.

Forest Inventory and Resource Assessment within Timter Lieenaed

jtggALIGQ..agggi_d.13

The procedures in the inventory of concession areas are similar to those

been previously discussed in this paper. Deviations occur only when

recent aerial photographs (not more than 5 years from date of photography)

over the area are available. In such case, the stratified random sampling

proportional to the size f the stratum is applied. This inventory

technique is expeditious and relatively more accurate than the systematic

line plot and strip methods.

The pre-logging and residual inventory within a set-up are also undertakenas described earlier in this paper.

- 175 -

5. Non-Forest Land - Wetlands. Marsh and Small Water Bodies

This non-forest pategory was included in addition to the forest

classification because of its potenti!L!- value in the develo'pment of the natural resources base in the Philippines. The category includes wet

areas characterized by partial cover of grass, weeds and brush. It also includes 'small water areas, shallow portions of large rivers and the majority of commercial fishpond areas. Some cul tiva ted lands are flooded and planted to rice and also categorized as wetlands.

Present Forest Inyentory and Resource AssesSllent

,With the forests becoming more and more devoted to a mul tiplici ty of uses

Le. water, timber, wildlife, recreation, grazing, protection, etc., priorities will need to be set with the participation of all sectors of society. It is therefore imperative that reliable and accurate data and information about the forests are collected, analyzed and interpreted for

the preparation of short, medium and long range forest management plans and programs.

Sub-classification Survey of Forestlands

The previous system of land claSsification, based primarily on slope gradient and timber content has therefore been modified to include not

only the above criteria, but also other factors to satisfy requirements for soeie-economic development and at the same time promoting the equi table and optimum utilization of the for,est resources. Such factors as physical, biological and ecological aspects are measured quantitatively and qualitatively. The results therefrom are the basis in determining the

best use of a particular area of the forestlands.

Forest IDveDtOry and Resource Assessment vith1 D Timber LiceDsed Area/CoDcessioD

The procedures in the inventory of concession areas are similar to those been previously discussed in this pape~ Deviations occur only when recent aerial photographs (not more than 5 years from date of photography) over the area are available. In such case, the stratified random sampling proportional to the' size 'of the stratum is applied. This inventory technique is expeditious and relatively more accurate than the systematic line plot and strip methods.

The pre-logging and residual inventory within a set-up are also undertaken as described earlier in this paper.

- 176 -

Second National Forest Resources Inventory (NFI-II)

NFI-II was planned in 1978 since the data obtained from NFI-I during the

period from 1961 to 1967 were deemed outdated, a a result of the

tremendous changes in the forests due to population pressures and

improvement of accessibility in these areas.

The objective of NFI is the collection, analysis and evaluation of forest

- resources information by region and province relative to the area, as a

volume and dynamics and its interpretation for poliCy formulation and

basis for conservation and progressive forest management.

To attain the above objective, a multi-stage sampling design was adopted

for NFI-II; (1) Analysis of LANDSAT Imagery, (2) Aerial Photo-

Interpretation,and (3) Field Sampling.

Multi date LANDSAT Images are to be analyzed and land use maps at scale

1:250,000 produced. The data and information on the changes and extent of

the forest resources can be obtained rapidly by this method and at lower

cost compared with other sources of information.

Aerial photography is another source of information about the forest

resources. Recent aerial photographs of North-eastern Mindanao and Luzon

at an average scale of 1:25,000 and 1:60,000 respectively are interpreted

to provide a basis in the preparation of forest resources condition maps

(FRCM) at scale 1:50,000. The FRCM contains information on the forest

type, forest stand size, stand density and site quality, particularly

those prepared from the 1:25,000 airphotos, but for the 1:60,000

photographs only forest type and forest stand size are indicated.

Field sampling is indispensable in gathering reliable data on the timber

species and volume estimates based from the measurement of corresponding

DBH/D.'13 and merchantable length. To arrive at a certain desired degree of

accuracy, an optimum number of field samples need to be established within

forestlands by province and region.

The field sampling design in North-eastern Mindanao is based on a camp

centre with four sampling units whose aggregate area is two hectares. The

distance between camp centres is eight kilometres and pre-located within

forestlands. A camp centre, showing the samplill,, units (SU),recording

unit (RU) within SU and subplots with RU is illustrated.

- 176. -

Second National Forest Resources Inventory (NFI-II)

NFI-II was planned in 1978 since the data obtained from NFI-I during the period from 1961 to 1967 were deemed outdated, a a resul t of the tremendous changes in the forests due to population pressures and

improvement of accessibility in these areas.

Tbe objective of NFI is the collection, analysis and evaluation of forest resources information by region and province relative to the area, as a

volume and dynamics and its interpretation for policy formulation and basis for conservation and progressive forest management.

To attain the above objective, a multi-stage sampling design was adopted for NFI-II; (1) Analysis of LANDSAT Imagery, (2) Aerial Phote>­

Interpretation,and (3) Field Sampling.

Multi date LANDSAT Images are to be analyzed and land use maps at scale 1:250,000 produced. Tbe data and information on the changes and extent of the forest resources can be obtained rapidly by this method and at lower

cost compared with other sources of information.

Aerial photography is another source of information about the forest

resources. Recent aerial photographs of North-eastern Mindanao and Luzon at an average scale of 1 :25,000 and 1 :60,000 respectively are interpreted to provide a basis in the preparation of forest resources condition maps

(FRCM) at scale 1 :50,000. Tbe FRCM contains information on the forest type, forest stand size, stand density and site quality, particularly those prepared from the 1 :25,000 airphotos, but for the 1 :60,000 photographs only forest type and forest stand size are indicated.

Field sampling is indispensable in gathering reliable data on the timber species and volume estimates based from the measurement of corresponding DBH/D!~ and merchantable length. To arrive at a certain desired degree of

accuracy, an optimum number of field samples need to be established within forestlands by province and region. ~

Tbe field sampling design in North-eastern Mindanao is based on a camp centre with four sampling units whose aggregate area is two hectares. Tbe

distance between camp centres is eight kilometres and pre-Iocated within forestlands. A camp centre, showing the sampling units (SU),recording

un1 t (RU) within SU and subplots with RU is illus trated.

- 177 -

Sample trees are measured within the 3 subplots. Within the first subplot

having a dimension of 5 m x 50 m, all trees with diameter from 19cm to

29cm are tallied; within the second sub-plot whose dimensions are 10m x

50m trees with DBB/DAB from 30cm to 59 cm are tallied and for the third

sub-plot or whole RU,m with dimensions of 20 m x 50m all trees with

DIU/DAB of 60cm and larger are tallied. Tree regeneration is tallied in

RU 1 within a 10 m x 10 m subplot. Bamboo, erect palms and rattan are

recorded in RU 1, 3 and 5 within a subplot of 10 m x 10 m.

The field sampling design for Luzon and other forestland areas of the

country has been mOdified tO make use of a stratified random sampling.

The different strata are determined from photo-interpretation where an

optimum number of sampling units will be located within each stratum. A

sampling unit is composed of clusters based on horizontal point sampling

(BITTERLICEmethod) with wide-scale relascope.

The estimated total timber stand within the various forest types and stand

sizes will be computed based on the average stand/ha obtained from field

sampling and the area of a particular stratum determined from photo-

interpretation. These data will be analysed with the use of mini-computer

HP 9836 with provision for mass storage and retrieval system.

The Project will also produce land use maps at scale 1:250,000 from

LANDSAT Imagery for macro planning and forest resources condition maps at

scale 1:50,000 for an intensive forest management.,

INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT

Licensing System

All the forest resources of the country are awned by the state. The

government agency entrusted to manage these vast resources is the Bureau of

Forest Development under the Ministry of Natural Resources.

To regulate the cutting, gathering and transporting of timber and other

forest products as well as the occupancy and use of forest lands, the

Bureau of Forest Development issues licenses, leases and permits to

qualified individuals. In the granting of privilege to cut or gather

forest products, or occupy or use forest lands, the financial and technical

capability of the applicants to manage, develop, utilize and protect the

forest resources are taken into consideration.

- 177 -

Sample trees are measured within the 3 subplots. Within the first subplot

having a dimension of 5 m x 50 m, all trees with diameter from 19cm · to 29cm are tallied; within the second sub-plot whose dimensions are 10m x

50m· trees with DBll/DAB from 30cm to 59 cm are tallied and for the third sub-plot or whole RU, m with dimensions of 20 m x 50m all trees wi th

OOll/DAB of 60cm and larger are tallied. Tree regeneration is tallied in RU 1 within a 10 m x 10 m subplot. Bamboo, erect palms and rattan are recorded in RU 1, 3 and 5 within a subplot of 10 m x 10 DJ.

The field sampling design for Luzon and other forestland areas of the

country has been modified to make use of a stratified random sampling. The different strata are determined from photO-interpretation where an optimum number of sampling units will be located within each stratum. A

sampling uni t is composed of clusters based on horizontal point sampling (BITTERLICH-method) with wide-scale relascope.

The estimated total timber stand within the various forest types and stand sizes will be computed based on the average stand/ha obtained from field

sampling and the area of a particular stratum determined from photo­interpretation. These data will be analysed with the use of mini-computer BP 9836 with provision for mass storage and retrieval system.

The Project will also produce land use maps at scale 1 :250,000 from LANDSAT Imagery for macro planning and forest resources condition maps at scale 1 :50,000 for an intensive forest management.

INSTIlVIICWAL ASPECTS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT

Licensi.ng System

All the forest resources of the country are ow ned by the state. The government agency entrusted to manage these vast resources is the Bureau of Forest Development under the Ministry of Natural Resources.

To regulate the cutting, gathering and transporting of timber and other forest products as well as the occupancy and . use of forest lands, the Bureau of Forest Development issues licenses, leases and permits to qualified individuals. In the granting of privilege to cut or gather forest products, or occupy or use forest lands, the financial and technical capability of the applicants to manage, develop, utilize and protect the

forest resources are taken into consideration.

- 178--

IV2s or Permits being Issued

There are at present several types of licenses, leases and permits

being issued by the Bureau. For the occupancy and use of forest lands,

the Bureau issues the following:

Pasture permit or lease for grazing purposes covering an area of

not exceeding 100,000 hectares with a tenure of one year to 25

years.

Industrial Tree Plahtation Lease Agreement for the planting of

tree crops to supply the raw material requirements of wood

processing plants.

Tree Farm Lease Agreement - a long term contract covering any

small forest land or tract of land for purposes of planting tree

crops.

Agro-Forestry Farm Lease Agreement similar to tree farm lease

agreement except that the land is used to produce agricultural

crops, tree crops and forest plants and/or animals simultaneously

or sequentially, and applies management practices which are

compatible with the cultural patterns of the local population.

Stewardship Agreement - a contract entered into by and between an

individual forest occupant or forest community association or

co-operative and the government allowing the farmer the right to

occupation and possession over a designated forest area.

Prospecting Permits - a short term permit authorizing the grantee

to enter and undertake mineral prospecting inside forest lands.

Special Use Permit - a shor.c term permit for the occupancy and use

of a portion of the forest land for purposes other than those

stated in the foregoing leases and permits.

For the cutting/gathering of timber and other forest products, the

following licenses, and permits are issued:

Long-Term licenses (10-25 years)

1. Timber License Agreement - a long term license for the extraction

of timber in forest lands subject to prescribed duties and

responsibilities for forest management imposed on the grantee;

2.. Pulpw000d License Agreement - similar to timber license agreement

except that it is for the cutting of pulpwood species only;

- 178 -

types of Licenses. Leases or Permdts being Issued

There are at present several types of licenses, leases and permits

being issued by the Bureau. For the occupancy and use of forest lands, the Bureau issues the following:

1. Pasture permit or lease for grazing purposes covering an area of not exceeding 100,000 hectares with a tenure of one year to 25

years.

2. Industrial Tree Plantation Lease Agreement for the planting of tree crops to supply the raw material requirements of wood

processing plants.

3. Tree Farm Lease Agreement - a long term contract covering any small forest land or tract of land for purposes of planting tree crops.

4. Agro-Forestry Farm Lease Agreement s;\.m·ilar to tree farm lease agreement except that the land is used to produce agricultural crops, tree crops and forest plants and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially, and applies management practices which are

compatible with the cultural patterns of the local population.

5. Stewardship Agreement - a contract entered into by and between an

individual forest occupant or forest community association or co-operative and the government allowing the farmer the right to occupation and possession over a designated forest area.

6. Prospecting Permits - a short term permit authorizing the grantee

to enter and undertake mineral prospecting inside forest lands.

7 . Special Use Permit - a shoro term permit for the occupancy and use

of a portion of the forest land for purposes other than those stated in the foregoing leases and permdts.

For the cutting/gathering of timber and other forest products, the

following licenses, and permits are issued:

Long-Term licenses (10-25 years)

1. Timber License Agreement - a long term license for the .extraction of timber in forest lands subject to prescribed duties and

responsibilities for forest management imposed on the grantee;

2. · Pulpwoood License Agreement - similar to timber license agreement except that it is for the cutting of pulpwood species only;

- 179 -

Medium and Short-term licenses/permits (less than one (1) year to 5

years)

Provisional Timber License - a short term license issued by the

Minister of Natural Resources over areas previously under ordinary

timber licenses where field evaluation is prevented by fortuitious

circumstances or events such that cancellation of license or its

conversion into a longer term license cannot be done in the

interim;

Softwood Timber License - a license issued by the Minister of

Natural Resources for the cutting of timber species inside forest

lands, which are suitable and used solely for wooden shoes,matchsticks, carving and similar purposes;

Mangrove Timber License - license issued for the cutting and

utilization of mangrove timber species;

Civil Reservation Timber License - license issued for the cutting

and utilization of timber inside civil reservations;

Tree Recovery Permits - a Short term privilege issued for the

gathering, transporting and disposing of trees damaged by

typhoons, floods and other natural calamaties, including those

illegally cut, which otherwise may be laid to waste, as well as

the cutting, gathering, transporting and disposing of naturally

grown trees inside private lands;

Tree Plantation Cutting Permits - a permit issued for the cutting

of trees planted inside private lands;

T. Minor Forest Products License - a license issued for the cutting,

gathering and utiliation of any forest products otherthan timber

inside forest lands; planted inside private lands;

8. . Rattan Cutting Permit - a short term license issued for the

cutting and utilization of rattan poles.

- 179 -

Medium and Short-term licenses/permits (less than one (1) year to 5

years)

1. Provisional Timber License - a short term license issued by the

Minister of Natural Resources over areas previously under ordinary timber licenses where field evaluation is prevented by fortu1 tious circumstances or events such that cancellation of license or its conversion into a longer term license cannot be done in the

interim;

2. Softwood Timber License - a license issued by the Minister of Natural Resources · for the cutting of timber species inside forest lands, which are sui table and used solely for wooden shoes, matchsticks, carving and similar purposes;

3. Mangrove Timber License - license issued for the cut ting and utilization of mangrove timber species;

4. Civil Reservation Timber License - license issued for the cutting and utilization of timber inside civil reservations;

5 •. · Tree Recovery Permits - a short term privilege issued for the gathering, transporting and disposing of trees damaged by typhoons, floods and other natural calamaties, including those illegally cut, which otherwise may be laid to waste, as well as the cutting, gathering, transporting and disposing of ·naturally grown trees inside private lands;

6. Tree Plantation Cutting Permits - a permit issued for the cutting of trees planted inside private lands;

7. Minor Forest Products License - a license issued for the cutting,

gathering and utiliation of any forest products other than timber inside forest lands; planted inside private lands;

8. Rattan Cutting Permit - a short term license issued for the cutting and utilization of rattan poles.

- 180 -

In line with the wood industry rationalization program of the

government, the Bureau and the Ministry of Natural Resources have

stopped the issuance of short-term licenses to cut natural grown timber

inside forest lands covering less than 10,000 hectares. In lieu

thereof, long-term licenses with tenures up to 25 years renewable for a

similar period are being issued to those whose concession areas are at

least 10,000 hectares with a remaining virgin forest stands of not less

than 4,000 hectares. Those whose areas are less than the minimum

requirement are being encouraged to merge with adjacent concessions.

It is envisaged that by providing them security of tenure, holders

thereof would be encouraged to.undertake long range management and

development programs designed to sustain the productivity of the

forest.

Jamitations Under the Constitution

Although the Bureau of Forest Development and the Ministry of Natural

Resources have set the minimum area to be granted under a timber

license to 10,000 hectares,the Philippine Constitution provides that

the maximum area of forest lands that may be granted under a license

lease or permits is only 100,000 hectares. However, a license, lease

or permit covering more than the maximum limit may be granted upon

approval by the National Assembly on the recommendation of the National

Economic and Development Authority. The tenure of licenses, concession

or lease that may be issued has also been limited for a period not

exceeding twenty five years, renewable for not more than twenty-five

years.

Duties and Responsibilities of Timber License Agreement (TLA) Holders

In order that holders of Timber License Agreements can continuously

avail themselves of the privelege granted under their licenses, they

have to comply with certain requirements embodied in the agrement,

among which are the following:

Submission of a complete aerial photo coverage of the forest area

within four years after execution of the agreement;

Submission within one year from the effectivity of the agreement

of an Integrated Forest Management Plan cc,ye_ing all forestry

activities within the concession for the duration of the agreement

and a five-year medium term plan to be supplemented by an annual

operations plan.

Take full responsibility for the protection of the concession

area;

- 180 -

In line with the wood industry rationalization program of the

government, the Bureau and the Ministry of Natural Resources have stopped the issuance of short-term licenses to cut natural grown timber inside forest lands covering less than 10,000 hectares. In lieu thereof, long-term licenses with tenures up to 25 years renewable for a similar period are being issued to those whose concession areas are at least 10,000 hectares with a remaining virgin forest stands of not less than 4,000 hectares. Those whose areas are less than the minimum requirement are being encouraged to merge with adjacent concession&

It is envisaged tha t by providing them security of tenure, holders thereof would be encouraged to·undertake long range management and

development programs designed to sustain the productivity of the forest.

LimitatiOns Under the Constitution

Although the Bureau of Forest Development and the Ministry of Natural Resources have set the minimum area to be granted under a timber

license to 10,000 hectares, the Philippine Constitution provides that the maximum area of forest lands that may be granted under a license

lease or permits is only 100,000 hectare& However, a license, lease or permit covering more than the maximum limit may be granted upon

approval by the National Assembly on the recommendation of the National Economic and Development Authority. The tenure of licenses, concession or lease that may be issued has also been limited for a period not

exceeding twenty five years, renewable for not more than twenty-five years.

Duties and Responsibilities of Ti.mber License Agreement (Ut) Holders

In order that ·holders of Timber License Agreements can continuously avail themselves of the privelege granted under their licenses, they

have to comply with certain requirements embodied in the agre",ment, among which are the following:

1 • Submission of a complete aerial photo coverage of the forest area

within four years after execution of the agreement ;

2. Submission within one year f r om the effectivity of the agreement of an Integrated Forest Management Plan coveri ng all forestry activities within the concession for the dur a tion of the agreement and a five-year medium term plan to be suppl emented by an annual

operations plan.

3. Take full responsibility for the protection of the concession area;

- 181 -

4 To reforest all open areas within the concession. Timber

licensees are given two options, that is to either undertake a

seven year reforestation program or apply for Industrial Tree

Plantation Lease Agreement ove' suitable portions of the licensed

area;

Utilize or remove all woodwaste generated from logging within

three months after primary logging operations have stopped in a

given set-up;

Maintain a forestry department to be headed by a registered

forester on a full time basis to take charge of forestry

activities in the concession.

Sell or offer for sale within four years from the execution of

the agreement at least 10% of the subscribed capital stock to its

employees or Une general public.

Although security of tenure is guaranteed under existing forestry laws

and regulations, the license agreement is subject to review at least

once in every two (2) years to ascertain compliance with the terms and

conditions of the agreement. For breaches of any forest laws, rules

and regulations, committed by the licensee, the Director of Forest

Development or Une Minister of Natural Resources may cancel or suspend

the TLA or the logging operations. Once a license is cancelled, the

area is declared as vacant and may be granted to other qualified

applicants.

Forest Taxation

Taxes imposed on timber and non-timber products cut or gathered from

the forest as well as in the use and occupancy of forest lands

represent the share of the state as owner thereof. In the

Philippines,taxes and fees being imposed on forest products and in the

use of forest lands are either fixed through legislative or

administrative issuances.

Forest Charges and Fees

Until 1982, forest charges levied on timber and nontimber products

covering from forest lands were based on the rates-fixed by

Commonwealth Act No. 466 promulgated in 1939. For timber, the rates

varied from P0.60 per cubic meter for timber belonging to the fourth

group to P1.25, P2.00 and P3.50 for the 3rd, 2nd and 1st group. For

other forest products, the rate was fixed at i0% of the assessed market

value. All forest charges collected accrue to the general government

fund.

- 18 1 -

4. To reforest all open areas wi thin the concession. Timber licensees are given two options, that is to either undertake a seven year reforestation program or apply for Industrial Tree Plantation Lease Agreement over sui table portions of the licensed area;

5 . Utilize or remove all woodwaste generated from logging within three months after primary logging operations have stopped in a given set-up;

6. Maintain a forestry department to be headed by a registered forester on a full time basis to take charge of forestry

activities in the concession.

7. Sell or offer for sale within four years from the execution of

the agreement at least 10~ of the subscribed capital stock to its employees or the general public.

Although security of tenure is guaranteed under existing forestry laws and regulations, the license agreement is subj ect to review at least once in every two (2) years to ascertain compliance with the terms and conditions of the agreement. For breaches of any forest laws, rules

and regulations, committed by the licensee, the Director of Forest

Development or the Minister of Natural Resources maY cancel or suspend the TLA or the logging operations. Once a license is cancelled, the area is declared as vacant and may be granted to other qualified applicants.

Forest Taxa tion

Taxes imposed on timber and non-timber products cut or gathered from the forest as well as in the use and occupancy of forest lands represent the share of the state as owner thereof. In the Philippines,taxes and fees being imposed on forest products and in the use of forest ·lands are e1 ther fixed through legislative or administrative issuances.

Forest Charges and Fees

Until 1982, forest charges levied on timber and non-timber products covering from forest lands were based on the rates · fixed by

Commonweal th Act No. 466 promulgated in 1939. For timber" the rates varied from PO.60 per cubic meter for timber belonging to the fourth group to P1.25, P2.00 and P3.50 for the 3rd, 2nd and 1st group. For other forest products, the rate was fixed at iO% of the assessed market value. All forest charges collected accrue to the general government fund.

Additional charges and fees were later imposed on timber for specific

purpose under the following issuances:

On timber in the first and

second groups

On timber in the third and

fourth groups

On timber used as fuelwood

other than mangrove species

- 182 -

charges based on the

annual allowable cut.

Recognizing the need to increase revenue derived from the forest

resources, the Interim National Assmbly, in 1980, decided to

restructure the antiquated rates to make them more realistic and

attuned to the present economic situation through the passage of

Cabinet Bill No. 38. This was later approved by the President to

become Batas Pambansa Bilang 83 entitled "An Act amending certain

Sections of the National Internal Revenue Code of 1977, as amended,

governing the taxation of Forest Products and for other purposes."

The main features of the new forest tax measure are the following:

a) The various fees and charges such as the regular forest charges,

reforestation fund, forestry information fund, FORPRIDECOM Fund,

Special Deposits under FAO 64 were abolished and consolidated into

one rate of tax and increased as follows:

P30.00/cu.m.

15.00/cu.m.

2.00/cu.m.

b) Charges on gums, resins and other forest products remained at ten

per centum of the actual market value.

Ralg1. Republic Act 115

(Reforestation Fund) P0.50 cuom.

2. Republic Act 3523(Forestry Information Fund) 0.1 0/cu.m.

3. Republic Act 5526(FORPRIDECOM Fund) O .2 5/eu.m.

4. License Application Fee P1.00/hectare

5. License Fee 5% of the average forest

- 182 -

Additional .charges and fees were later imposed on timber for specific

purpose under the following issuances:

1. Republic Act 115 (Reforestation Fund)

2. Republic Act 3523 (Forestry Information Fund)

3. Republic Act 5526 (FORPRIDECOM Fund)

4. License Application Fee

5. License Fee

PO.50 cu.m.

0.10/cu.m.

0.25/cu.m.

P1 .OO/hectare

5% of the average forest charges based on the annual allowable cut.

Recognizing the need to increase revenue derived from the forest resources, the Interim National Assmbly, in 1980 , deci ded to restructure the antiq·uated rates to make them more r ealistic and attuned to the present economic si tua tion through the passage of Cabinet Bill No. 38. This was later approved by the Pr e s ident to become Batas Pambansa Bilang 83 enti Ued "An Act amending certain Sections of the National Internal Revenue Code of 1977, as amended, governing the taxation of Forest Products and for other purposes."

The main features of the new forest tax measure are the following:

a) The various fees and charges such as the regular forest charges, reforestation fund, forestry information fund, FORPRIDECOM Fund, Special Deposits under FAO 64 were abolished and consolidated into one rate of tax and increased as follows:

On timber in the first and second groups

On timber in the third and fourth groups

On timber used as fuelwood other than mangrove species

P30.00/cu.m.

15.00/cu.m.

2.00/cu.m.

b) Charges on gums, resins and other forest products remained at ten per centum of the actual market value.

- 183 -

Charges 011 illegally cut or gathered forest products were

increased by three hundred per centum, and for those discharged

without permit by ay means of transportation the charges were

increased by fifty per centum.

Forest products cut/gathered from forest lands under a gratuitous

license are not subject to tax.

Trees and products removed from public lands under a tree farm

lease are likewise tax exempt:

The charges of forest products are to be paid to the revenue

officer in the municipality where the concession area is located

before the same are removed from the cutting area.. However, pre-

payment of forest charges may be waived by the government if the

concessionaire has filed a bond in the form and amount as

determined by the Bureau of Internal Revenue; provided, the

concessionaire must pay the charges within twenty days after the

end of each quarter. In case the taxes are not paid within the

prescribed period, a surcharge of twenty-five per centum is imposed

and the unpaid charges and surcharges are subject likewise

subject to interest at the rate of twenty per eentum per annum.

Real Property Tax

In addition to the above charges and fees, holders of forestry licenses,

leases or permits are required to pay real property taxes over the area

covered by their license, lease or permmit, Presidential Decree No. 853, as

amended by Presidential Decree No. 888, provides for the classification and

valuation of timber and forest lands for purposes of real property tax

declaratioa. As provided for under said decree, timber and forest lands are

assessed at 40% of their market value as determined by the Provincial/City

Assessor. However, the taxable area for a given year is based on thG

operational area within the conce.ssion as determined by the Bureau of Forest

Development. The rate of levy for all provinces, municipalities and cities

with the annual rate as follows:

For the province, one-half of one percent of the assessed value of

the taxable area of the property;

For the municipality, one-half of one percent of the assessed

value of the taxable area of the property; and

For the city, one percent of the assessed- value of the taxable

area of the property.

- 183 -

c) Charges on illegally cut or gathered forest products were

increased by three hundred per centum, and for those discharged without permit by any means of transportation the charges were increased by fifty per centum.

d) Forest products cut/gathered from forest lands under a gratuitous license are not subject to tax.

e)· Trees and products removed from public lands under a tree farm lease are likewise tax exempt:

f) The charges of forest products are to be paid to the revenue officer in the municipality where the concession area is located

before the same are removed from the cutting area. However, pr~ payment of forest charges may be waived by the government if the concessionaire has filed a bond in the form and amount as determined by the Bureau of Internal Revenue; provided, the concessionaire must pay the charges within twenty days after the end of each quarte~ In case the taxes are not paid within the prescribed period, a surcharge of twenty-five per centum is imposed and the unpaid charges and surcharges are subject likewise subject to interest at the rate of twenty per centum per annum.

Real Property Tax

In addi tion to the above charges and fees, holders of forestry licenses, leases or permits are required to pay real property taxes over the area covered by their license, lease or permmit. Presidential Decree No. 853, as amended by Presidential Decree No. 888, provides for the classification and

valuation of timber and forest lands for purposes of real property tax

declaration. As provided for under said decree, timber and forest lands are assessed at 40% of their market value as determined by the Provincial/City

Assesso~ However, the taxable area for a given year is based on the operational area within the concession as determined by the Bureau of Forest Development. The rate of levY for all provinces, municipalities and cities with the annual rate as follows:

For the province, one-half of one percent of the assessed value of the taxable area of the property;

For the municipality, one-half of one percent of the assessed value of the taxable area of the property; and

For the city, one percent of the assessed· value of the taxable area of the property.

I i

- 184 -

Export Tax

In line with the government's program to encourage the exports of

manufactured and semi-processed wood products, Executive Order No. 558 was

issued by the President of the Republic of the Philippines,

revising/modifying Executive Order No. 4314 by imposing a 20% ad valore tax

on all logs including polea for exports. Semi-finished products such as

lumber and veneer are also subject to 14% ad .yalorem tax in accordance with

the provisions of Republic Act No. 1937, as amended.

FOREST MANAGEMENT AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The ECOLIOMiC Contribution

The forests play a vital role in the industrial and economic development of

the country. They are one of the major sources of foreign exchange earnings

and revenues needed to sustain the various programs and projects of government

designed to uplift to social and economic well-being of the people. They have

provided employment to thousands of skilled and unskilled workers especially

in the rural areas.

From 1 968 to 1982, the forestry sector contributed some P3,559 million

annually to the national economy representing 3.17% of the country's Gross

National Product (GNP). During the same year, exports of major wood products

like logs, lumber, veneer and plywood earned for the country an average of US

$295.97 million per year. In 1983, log, lumber, veneer and plywood and other

forest products exports contributed some US $4147.03 million to the country's

foreign exchange earnings.

In 1982, some 143,500 people with some 200,000 dependents were employed by

various timber licensees in their logging operations. Saw milling, plywood

and veneer manufacture had abOut 53,000 workers with some 2146,000 dependents.

Thousands of skilled and unskilled workers were also employed in other forest-

based industries such as the rattan industry, furniture and fixture

manufacture, builders woodworks, etc.

The operations of timber concessions have opened vast tracts of virgin lands

and facilitated their development for industrial and agricultural purposes.

The thousands of kilometres of road network built by logging companies

connected the once inaccessible areas to population oLres. In areas where

these logging companies operate, new towns or villages were established.

- 184 -

Export Tax

In line with the government's program to encourage the exports of

manufactured and semi-processed wood products, Executive Order No. 558 was issued by the President of the Republic of the Philippines, revising/modifying Executive Order No. 434 by imposing a 20% .ru1 valorem tax on all logs including poles for exports. Semi-finished products such as lumber and veneer are also subject to 4% .all valorem tax in accordance wi th the provisions of Republic Act No. 1937, as amended.

FORm HANAGE!m{T AND SOCI(}"ECOOOHIC DEVELOPHFlfT

'Ibe Economic Contribution

The forests play a vital role in the industrial and economic development of the country. They are one of the major sources of foreign exchange earnings and revenues needed to sustain the various programs and projects of government

designed to uplift to social and economic well-being of the people. They have provided employment to thousands of skilled and unskilled workers especially in the rural areas.

From 1968 to 1982, the forestry sector contributed some P3,559 million

annually to the national economy representing 3.17~ of the country's Gross National Product (GNP). During the same year, exports of major wood products

like logs, lumber, veneer and plywood earned for the country an average of US $295.97 million per year. In 1983, log, lumber, veneer and plywood and other forest products exports contributed some US $447.03 million to the country's foreign exchange earnings.

In 1982, some 43,500 people with some 200,000 dependents were employed by

various timber licensees in their logging operations. Saw milling, plywood and veneer manufacture had about 53,000 workers with some 246,000 dependents. Thousands of skilled and unskilled workers were also employed in other forest­

based industries Iluch as the rattan industry, furniture and fixture manufacture, builders woodworks, ete.

The operations of timber concessions have opened vast tracts of virgin lands and facilitated their development for industrial and agricultural purposes. The thousands of kilometres of road network buil t by logging companies connected the once inaccessible areas to population "e.,t res. · In areas where these lOgging companies operate, new towns or villages were established.

- 185 -

Log. Export Ban

The log export ban had its early beginning with the promulgation of Forestry

Administrative Order No. 5 dated October 29, 1973, effecting a threeyear

schedule allowing 60, 30 and zero percent log export for the years 19714, 1975and 1976, respectively.

The ban on log exportation is designed to pursue the program of the government

to rationalize the development of the wood industry, draw in capital

investment from abroad for wood processing ventures, accelerate the

reforestation program in anticipation of the needs of our local processing

plants, encourage the establishment of industrial tree plantations, process

the logs withdrawn from export into finished products and finally to curb the

alarming destruction and denudation of the forests by destructive logging.

Realizing the impact of the implementation of the program such as the

difficulties of the local concessionaires in fulfilling previously committed

exports, the policy was amended through Presidential Decree No. 1128 issued

in April 19714. Timber licencees were allowed to export a maximum of eighty

percent (80%) of their total log production during the calendar year 19714 and

1975 but the zero percent export to start on January 1976 remained. This was

predicated on the high prices for logs prevailing at that time. The wood

industry, however, suffered a slump in the export prices of logs as well as

cut back on the volume imported by the traditional markets as a result of a

world wide recession. This, in effect, reduced the foreign exchange earnings of

the country causing a problem in the country's balance of payments and also

creating instability in the world industry.

To cushion the impact of the ban on log exportation and forestall any adverse

effect it might have in the country's balance of payments, employment and the

stability of the industry; PD 865 allowing temporarily limited and selective

exportation of logs was promulgated. It allows, among others, the aggrega.te

log export not exceeding Li million cubic metres or roughly 25% of the total

annual allowable cut. Timber licensees allowed to export are those with viable

processing plants, with duly approved processing projects, or have acquired

processing machineries and equipment, and where log exports are in line with

government approved trade agreements.

Impactamo ication of the LogJaan

The Philippines has always been known in the international world trade market

as a supplier of raw materials. Other developing countries have often been

in the same category. This situation has continuously caused the failure of

the local industry to benefit from nvalueadded" accruing to the industry as a

result of manufacturing. Thus there are economic gains foregone in exporting

logs, which include additional income and additional employment.

- 18 5 -

Log Export Ban

The log export ban had its early beginning with the promulgation of Forestry Administrative Order No. 5 dated October 29, 1973, effecting a three-year

schedule allowing 60, 30 and zero percent log export for the years 1974, 1975 and 1976, respectively.

The ban on log exportation is designed to pursue the program of the government to rationalize the development of the wood industry, draw in capital

investment from abroad for wood processing ventures, accelerate the reforestation program in anticipation of the needs of our local processing plants, encourage the establishment of industrial tree plantations, process the logs wi thdrawn from export into finished products and finally to curb the

alarming destruction and de nuda tion of the forests by destructive logging.

Realizing the impact of the implementation of the program such as the

difficul ties of the local concessionaires in fulfilling previously committed exports, the policy was amended through Presidential Decree No. 428 issued in April 1974. Timber licencees were allowed to export a maximum of eighty percent (80%) of their total log production during the calendar year 1974 and 1975 but the zero percent export to start on January 1976 remained. This . was

predicated on the high prices for logs prevailing at that time. The wood industry,. however, suffered a slump in the export prices of logs · as well as cut back on the volume imported by the traditional markets as a result of a

world wide recession. This, in effect, reduced the foreign exchange earnings of the country causing a problem in the country's balance of payments and also creating instability in the world industry.

To cushion the impact of the ban on log exportation and forestall any adverse effect it might have in the country's balance of payments, employment and the stability of the industry; PD 865 allowing temporarily limited and selective exportation of logs was promulgated. It allows, among others, the aggregate log export not exceeding 4 million cubic metres or roughly 25% of th~ total

annual allowable cut. Timber licensees allowed to export are tho~e with viable processing plants, with duly approved processing projects, or have acquired processing machineries and equipment, and where log exports are in line with government approved trade agreement~

Impact/Implicatiop of the Log Bap

The Philippines has always been known in the international world trade market

as a supplier of raw material~ Other developing countries have often been in the same category. This situation has continuously caused the failure of the local industry to ·benefi t from "value-added" accruing to the industry as a result of manufacturing. Thus there are economic gains foregone in exporting logs, whi.ch include addi tional income and addi tional employment.

- 186 -

Before the imposition of the temporary and selective log ban, the growth of

the local wood processing industry had been relegated to the background. The

concentration on exports of raw materials stifled the opportunities for

industrialization in forestry. .However, with the imposition of the export

ban, the establishment of new processing plants was intensified and the

utilization of logging and milling wastes was further enhanced for the

development of new wood product lines.

Annually until 1973,the maiority of the country's log production was

exported,leaving only a very minimal volume of the total annual cut for local

processing. Better quality logs were exported while inferior ones were made

available to domestic manufacturers resulting in the failure to diversify

products and improve quality thereof. But with the development of the wood

processing capacity of the wood industry, the country expects to reap the

benefits in terms of self-sufficiency in processed wood requirements, improved

quality of finished wood products, higher foreign exchange earnings and

cheaper wood products for local consumption.

With the imposition of the log ban,there was a considerable decrease in the

log exports from 5.4 million cubic metres, which is 52% of the total 10.2

million cubic metres log production in 1974 to 0.79 million or 15% of the

total 4.4 million cubic metres log production in 1983. Simultaneously, there

is a continuously increasing annual trend in exports of finished or sime-

finished wood products. The increasing trend in the export of wood products

is a clear indication that under normal market condition our manufactured

exports are gaining acceptance in the world market. Table 36 shows the volume

and value of logs and wood products exports for 1965 to 1983.

Also as a consequence thereof there was a tremendous gain in forest

conservation as indicated in the reduction of the area logged annually and a

marked increase in employment in the forestry secotr, in view of the

diversification of log use and the utilisation of the traditional logging and

milling waste.

Utilization or Lesser-Known anJesser Used Sc1es_aLL.52L

Only about 8% or approximately 300 of the 3800 or so tree species in the

Philippines find their way into the market. Moreover the bulk of the

production and trade comes from the dipterocarp species which are usually

utilized for construction purposes.

The increasing demand for wood based products has put tremendous pressure on

th'e supply of traditionally used commercial species. The pressure is such

that the potential of the lesser-known and lesser-used species has had to be

recognized.

- 186 -

Before the imposition of the temporary and selective log ban, the growth of·

the local wood processing industry had been relega ted to the background. The concentration on exports of raw materials stifled the opportunities for industrialization in forestry •. How ever, w~th the imposition of the export ban, the establishment of new processing plants was intensified and the

utilization of logging and milling wastes was further enhanced for the

development of new wood product lines.

Annually until 1973, the maj ority of the country's log production was exported,leaving only a very minimal volume of the total annual cut for local processing. Better quality logs were exported while inferior ones were made available to domestic manufacturers resulting in the failure to diversify products and improve·· quality thereof. But with the development of the wOod processing capacity of the wood industry, the country expects to reap the benefits in terms of self-sufficiency in processed wood requirements, improved quality of finished wood products, higher foreign exchange earnings and cheaper wood products for local consumption.

With the imposition of the log ban,there was a considerable decrease in the log exports from 5.4 million cubic metres, which is 52% of the total 10.2

million cubic metres log production in 1974 to 0.79 million or 15% of the total 4.4 million cubic metres log production in 1983 . Simultaneously, there is a continuously increasing annual trend in exports of finished or sime­

finished wood products. The increasing trend in the export of wood products is a clear indication that under normal market condition our manufactured

exports are gaining acceptance in the world market. Table 36 shows the volume and value of logs and wood products exports for 1965 to 1983.

Also as a consequence thereof there was a tremendous gain in forest conservation as indicated in the reduction of the area logged annually and a marked increase in employment in the forestry secotr, in view of the diversification of log use and the utilisation of the traditional logging and milling waste.

Utilization of Lesse~Known and LeSser Used Species (L.K.S.)

Only about 8% or approximately 300 of the 3800 or so tree species in the

Philippines . find their way into the market. Moreover the bulk of the prodUction and trade comes from the dipterocarp species which are usually utilized for construction purposes.

The increasing demand for wood based products bas put tremendous pressure on

thti supply of traditionally used commercial species. The pressure is such that the potential of the lesser-known and lesser-used species has had to be recognized.

- 187 -

A few lesser-known species are already identified as being suitable for

manufacture or processing into various wood products. Some of these are

Magabuyo (Celtis )uzonicus) Balobo (Diolodiscus Taniculatus) and Toog

(Combtretodendrom quadrialatum).

At present the government, through te Forest Products Research and

Development Institute (FPRDI) and the Forest Research Institute, is

undertaking a series of resear-h pr sets towards generating technology for

the proper management of lesser-used and lesser-known species in both natural

and plantation forests as well as the utilization and marketing aspects.

Industrial Tree Plantation

In line with the policy for the government provided in Presidential Decree 705

(as amended by Presidential Decree 1559) the establishment of Industrial Tree

Plantations is being implemented nationwide. The policy is primarily aimed

to accelerate the revegetation of the country's open, denuded brushlands and

inadequately stocked areas in order to support the raw material requirements

of the wood-based and related industries, energy generating facilities and at

the same time improve and maintain a desirable environment.

Primary targets of the program are the open, denuded and inadequately stocked

areas within existing concession& Areas outside timber ooncession are also

made available for industrial tree plantation development giving priority to

communities, municipalities, cities and provinces in the form of communal

tree farms.

Forest land areas available for development into an industrial tree plantation

pursuant to Ministry Order No. 5, Series of 1981 are as follows:

Bare, open, denuded or grass-covered tracts of forest lands.

Brushlands.

Open tracts of forest lands interspersed with patches of forest.

Open, denuded, brushland and/or inadequately stocked areas within

timber ooncessions.

Portions of areas covered by pasture leases or permits needing

immediate reforestation.

Government reforestation projects or portion thereof found to be

more suitable for industrial plantation in terms of benefits to the

government and to the surrounding communities.

- 187 -

A few lesser-known species are already identified as being suitable tor

manufacture or processi rig into various wood products. Some of these are .Magabuyo (Celtis luzonicus) Balobo (Diplodiscus paniculatus) and Toog (Combtretodendrom Quadrialatum).

At present the government, through the Forest Products Research and

Development Institute (FPRDI) and the Forest Research Institute, is undertaking a series of resear-h pr _ ects towards generating technology for the proper management of lesser-used and lesser-known species in both natural

and plantation forests as well as the utilization and marketing aspects. ·

Industrial Tree Plantation

In line with the policy for the government provided in Presidential Decree 705 (as amended by Presidential Decree 1559) the establishment of Industrial Tree Plantations is being implemented nationwide. The policy is primarily aimed to accelerate the revegetation of the country's open, denuded brushlands and

inadequately stocked areas in order to support the raw material requirements of the wood-based and related industries, energy generating facilities and at the same time improve and maintain a desirable envirorment.

Primary targets of the program are the open, denuded and inadequately stocked

areas within existing concessions. Areas outside timber concessi-on are also

made available for industrial tree plantation development giving priority to communi ties, municipalities, cities and provinces in the form of communal tree farms.

Forest land areas available for development into an industrial tree plantation pursuant to Ministry Order No. 5, Series of 1981 are as follows:

a) Bare, open, denuded or grass-covered tracts of forest lands.

b) Brushlands.

c) Open tracts of forest lands interspersed with patches of forest.

d) Open, denuded, brushland and/or inadequately stocked areas within timber concessions.

e) Portions of areas covered by pasture leases or permits needing immediate reforestation. -

r) Government reforestation projects or portion thereof found to be more suitable for industrial plantation in terms of benefits to the government and to the surrounding communi ties.

- 188 -

To attract investors to develop industrial tree plantations, a package of

incentives is offered as follows:

Nominal land rental not exceeding one peso per hectare per year.

Payment of only 25% of the regular forest charges on products

harvested from the ITP area.

Exemption from all forms of sales taxes, local, municipal, and real

property taxes.

Tax credit equal to 100% of the amount expended for the establishment,

development and operation of the ITP up to the time the

production stage is reached.

Priority in the granting of long term low interest loans from any

of the government financing institutions.

Allowance to export ti.mber and wood products from the ITP

without restriction in quantity or volume.

The implementation of the program was given impetus through the issuance of

Executive Order No. 725 in 1981 requiring massive implementation of the ITP

program naming the livelihood program as one of the implementing arms of the

ITP establishment.

As of December 1983, a total of 64 ITP leases covering some 2147,900 hectares

was 'awarded, 23 of which are within timber concession areas. The largest

area so far granted covers 514,300 hectares in the provinces of Surigao del Sur

and Agusan del Sur.

The Rationalization Program for the Wood Industry

The wood industry has been recognized as one of the pillars of the country's

economy. However, despite the local wood industry's comparative advantage

in terms of raw materials sufficiency and low cost of labor over log-importing

countries like Japan, South Korea and Taiwan, our wood products can hardly

compete with these countries in the world market in terms of product price and

quality. The non-competitiveness of our products have been attributed to

several factors such as (a) production inefficiency (b) diseconomies of scale;

(c) fragmented processing locations, and (d) inefficient shipping ports and

bottoms.

To correct the. situation, and in order to enable the local wood industry to

meet the keen competition developing in the world's wood products market, and

at the same time conserve the country's remaining forest resources, the

government has launched the wood industry rationalization program.

- 188 -

To attract investors to develop industrial tree plantations, a package of

incentive·s is offered as follows:

. a) Nominal land rental not exceeding one peso per hectare per year.

b) Payment of only 25% of the regular forest charges on products harvested from the ITP area.

c) Exemption from all forms of sales taxes, local, municipal, and real

property taxes.

d) Tax cred! t equal to 100% of the amount expended for the establishment, developme·nt and operation of the ITP up to the time the production stage is reached.

e) Priority in tile granting of long term low interest loans from any

of the government financing institutions.

f) Allowance to export timber and wood products from the ITP without restriction in quantity or volume.

The implementation of the program was given impetus through the issuance of Executive Order No. 725 in 1981 requiring massive implementation of the ITP program naming the livelihood program as one of the implementing arms of the ITP establishmen~

As of December 1983, a total of 64 ITP leases covering some 247,900 hectares was ·awarded, 23 of which are within timber concession areas. The largest

area so far granted covers 54,300 hectares in the provinces of Surigao del Sur and Agusan del Sur.

Ute Rational izatiQQ Program tor the Wood IDdustn

The wood industry has been . recognized as one of the pillars of the country's economy. However, despite the local wood industry's comparative advantage in terms of raw materials sufficiency and low cost of labor over log-importing countries like Japan, South Korea and Taiwan, ou·r wood products can hardly

compete with. these countries in the world market in terms of product price and quality. The non-competitiveness of our products have been attributed to several factors such as (a) production inefficiency (b) diseconomies of scale; (c) fragmented processing locations, arid (d) inefficient shipping ports and bottoms.

To correct the. situation, and in order to enable the local wood industry to meet the keen competition developing in the world's wood products market, and at the same time conserve the country's remaining fprest resources, the government has launched the wood industry rationalization program.

- 189 -

Program Strategies

To attain the objectives of the program the following strategies have been

laid out:

Establishment of integrated wood processing centres and phase-out

of inefficient and uneconomic-sized mills;

Establishment of regional manpower training centres financed by

the private sector to produce products that will meet the

international standards.

e) Utilization of wood for the production of as many industrial wood

products other than those traditionally manufactured products

with emphasis on those using wood fibre, such as paper

fibreboard, etc.

Utilization to the fullest extent of woodwaste for fuel in

consideration of the energy crisis and other needs of other wood

dependent industries;

Improvement of harvesting and processing efficiency by using new

and appropriate technologies;

Encouragement of the utilization of the lesser-known species.

All circular sawmills regardless of capacity and bandmills with capacities

below 10,000 board feet per day, except for a few operated by mining firms,

and those operating in remote areas or servicing the raw material requirements

of cottage industries, have already been phased-out. Likewise, sawmills which

are perennially lacking in raw materials are not allowed to operate.

To encourage local processing of logs, those timber licensees without

prodessing plants and wood processors without back-up concessions are required

jointly to adopt any feasible tie-up scheme to be approved by the Minister of

Natural Resources. Those who fail to comply with the said requirement by 31st

March 1985, will not be allowed to operate.

To ensure local wood processors of adequate raw material supply, the

government has implemented the limited and selective log export ban. The aim

is to totally phase-out log exportation in favour of finished and semi-

finished wood product exports once the economic situation permits.

- 189 -

Program Strategies

To attain the objectives of the program th~ following strategies have been laid out:

a) Establishment of integrated wood processing centres and phase-out of inefficient and uneconomic-sized mills;

b) Establishment of regional manpower training centres financed by

the private sector to produce products that will meet the

interna tional standards.

c) Utilization of wood for the production of as many industrial wood products other than those traditionally manufactured products with emphasis on those using wood fibre, such as paper fibreboard, etc.

d) Utilization to the fullest extent of woodwaste for fuel in consideration of the energy crisis and other needs of other wood dependent industries;

e) Improvement of harvesting and processing efficiency by using new and appropriate technologies;

f) Encouragement of the utilization of the lesse~known species.

All circular sawmills regardless of capacity and bandmills with capacities below 10,000 board feet per day, except for a few operated by mining firms, and those operating in remote areas or servicing the raw material requirements

of cottage industries, have already been phased-out. Likewise, sawmills which are perennially lacking in raw materials are not allowed to operate.

To encourage local processing of logs, those timber licensees without processing plants and wood processors without back-up concessions are required JOintly to adopt any feasible tie-up scheme to be approved by the Minister of Natural Resources. Those who fall to comply with the said requirement by 31st

March 1985, will not be allowed to operate.

To ensure local wood processors of adequate raw material supply, the government has implemented the limited and selective log export ban. The aim

is to totally phase-out log exportation in favour of finished and semi­

finished wood product exports once the economic si tua tion permits.

- 190 -

To maximise the utilization of the timber resource, and at the same time

minimize timber drain, timber licensees and wood processors are being

encouraged to gather and utilize logging and milling wastes. As an incentive,

a minimal forest charge of P2.00 per cubic metre is imposed on logging wastes

gathered and utilized by timber concessionaires for fuel or as raw material

for wood products manufacture.

Research on the propertieS and uses of tne leSser-known and lesser-used

species is being vigorously undertaken by both the government and the private

sector. Initial findings indicate that many of Uaese species are potential

raw material for pulp and paper manufacture br substitutes for commercially

known and premium species for construction purposes, furniture manufacture,

and others.

- 190 -

To maximise the utilization of the timber resource, and at the same time

minimize timber drain, timber licensees and wood processors are being encouraged to gather and utilize logging and milling wastes. As an incentive, a minimal forest charge of P2.00 per cubic metre is imposed on logging wastes gathered and utilized by timber concessionaires for fuel or as raw material

for wood products manufactur~

Research on the properties and uses of the lesser-known and lesser-used species is being vigorously undertaken by both the government and the private sector. lni tial findings indi ca te that many of these species are potential raw material for pulp and paper manufacture or substitutes for commercially known and premium species for construction purposes, furniture manufacture, and others.

Tab

le 3

/ys

ium

_Q_A

nsi_

vauf

_os

Woo

d Pk

'odu

ct E

xpor

l(V

olum

e in

'000

M3

and

Val

ue in

'000

US

t, _F

OB

)

- ...

---

---

----

----

----

---

----

----

---

----

- --

----

---

---

----

--L

)g

Prod

uctio

nL

ogs

Lum

ber

Plyw

ood

.V

enee

rY

ear

:V

olum

e:

Vol

ume

Val

ueV

olum

eV

alue

;V

olum

e;

Val

ue:

Vol

um;

Val

ue

Ref

;C

J7 4

FY 1

96 5

-7 0

:49

592

36 9

590

6,27

1:

--

70-7

1:

106

8084

4322

3.61

7:

--

-7

1-7

2:

8425

7018

17 2

.253

:;

-7

2-7

3:

1011

5169

'19

201.

985

;17

9:

73.7

9169

25

43 4

410

761

8073

714

:10

20 8

5113

1124

0,3

43:

275

;14

8:

353

117

281

178

;30

6 5

7 4-

7 5

:11

156

6 84

02

83,1

6 4

:45

8;

195,

572

:24

932

57 1

135

:12

310

CY

197

6:

8611

823

3 1

135,

222

:49

3:

68.1

1411

:26

1;

1131

65.

166

:17

882

1977

:7

873

2047

133.

84

8:

455

66,6

81:

221

:11

0,58

9:

155

:20

071

197

8:

7169

a22

1111

114.

869

;57

385

,187

:36

2:

70.6

13:

154

:22

27 8

1979

:6

57 8

;12

118

1111

1,11

07;

915

198,

3 45

:32

4:

85,2

03:

186

:31

4590

1980

:63

5271

591

.997

7112

:18

1,21

032

2:

103,

843

:62

:15

1410

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- 192-

CHAPTER VI

EVALUATION OF THE ASIAN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

The country reviews show quite clearly that the tropical mixed forest can be managed

in association with timber production as sustainable and near natural systems.

Without doubt that is more easily and more often achieved in the lowland Dipterocarp

types than in the hill or upland Dipterocarp types and in both groups of Dipterocarp

types than in the evergreen types of India. But even the pessimistic assessments of

the results of Selection management systems in India are expressions more of the

failure to apply the systems than of defects in the systems themselves.

Just as.clearly, getting to the point of having a successful management system in

place is not easy either. Nor is it easy to maintain the necessary dynamic

equilibrium between the interacting and often conflicting elements which have to be

taken into account in the management system as a whole. The main message from the

Asian experience is that it can be done; that conservation and management of the

tropical mixed forests are not necessarily incompatible. On the contrary, it is much

more likely that management is the only way to conservation.

That raises, however, two questions. They are:

Under what conditions is this result attainable, and

Why has that result been attained in Asia more than elsewhere?

The more detailed look that these questions warrant is the main topic of this and the

next chapters.

THE CONDITIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE TROPICAL MIXED FOREST

From the country reviews it can be deduced that five conditions at least, must apply

for a natural management system involving timber production to succeed, in a tropical

mixed forest. They are:

That after the harvesting of a timber crop, the land remains in forest

use.

That the harvesting operations be carried out without impairing the

ability of the forest to maintain or re-establish a "natural" structure

and composition.

- 192 -

CHAPTER VI

EVALUATION OF THE ASIAN MANAGEMENI' SYSTEMS

The country reviews show quite clearly that the tropical mixed forest can be managed

in association with timber production as sustainable and near natural systems •

. Without doubt that is rrore easily and rrore often achieved in the lowland Dipterocarp

types than in the hill or upland Dipterocarp types and in both groups of Dipterocarp

types than in the evergreen types of India. But even the pessimistic assessments of

the results of Selection management systems in India are expressions rrore of the

failure to apply the systems than of defects in the systems themselves.

Just as,clearly, getting to the point of having a successful management system in

place is not easy either. Nor is it easy to maintain the necessary dynamic

equilibrium between the interacting and often conflicting elements which have to be

taken into' account in the management system as a whole. The main message from the Asian experience is that it can be done; that conservation and management of the

tropical mixed forests are not necessarily incompatible. On the contrary, it is much

more likely that management is the only way to conservation.

That raises, however, two questions. They are:

a) Under what conditions is this result attainable, and

b) Why has that result been attained in Asia more than elsewhere?

The more detailed look that these questions warrant is the main topic of this and the

next chapters.

THE CONDITIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE TROPICAL lUXED FOREST

From the country reviews it can be deduced that five conditions at least, must apply

for a natural management system involving timber production to succeed, in a tropical

mixed forest. They are:

a) That after the harvesting of a timber crop, the land remains in forest

b) That the harvesting operations be carried out without impairing the

ability of the forest to maintain or re-establish a "natural" structure

and composition.

- 193 -

That the harvesting operations be carried out without damaging the

environmental and social functions that the forests serve or without

impairing their capacity to maintain those services in the future.

That the harvesting is carried out in such a way that adequate

regeneration to replace eventually the harvested crop is induced or, if

already on the ground, released without damage.

These conditions encompass all the elements of an integrated forest management system

- social, economic, technical and political.

a) The Land Use Condition

Full social.acceptance of the decision that the land to remain in forest after

harvesting is necessary for the decision to be effective. This means that at both

official and local community levels, the idea is fully accepted that forestry is a

more beneficial form of use for that specific tract of land than any other use.

Official recognition is not enough. Experience in both India and the Philippines

shows that strongly and repeatedly. Local attitudes are ultimately the real

arbiters.

In such circumstances the technical apparatus of land use planning has to take second

place to the social pressures for land. It is not surprising, therefore, that the

ultimate location of forestry is firmly based on land use planning in Malaysia only,

where population pressures on land are the least intense. The planning itself is not

without fault. Like most land use planning, it is automatically assumed that

agriculture is the highest form of rural land use, an attitude which is consistent

with land use planning theory of the 1960's. The result is that a permanent forest

estate is constitutionally assured, but on the whole, in the higher and steeper

terrain of the country only. Moreover, because oE the less intense population

pressure and the siphoning off of the demand for agricultural land into the planned

settlement schemes, that assurance has a good chance off success in practice.

The situation in India illustrates the other extreme. Formal land use planning

played a minor role. The pressure of population on the land was intense, even when

management was first attempted and has been continually increasing ever since. The

principles underlying forest land reservation in the forest policy of 1894 amounted,

however, to a land capability classification giving precedence to agriculture and the

rights of local communities except for two classes of forests. They were forests on

hill slopes which were to be protected, "To preserve the climatic and physical

- 193 -

cl That the harvesting operations be carried out without damaging the

environmental and social functions that the forests serve or without

impairing their capacity to maintain those services in the future.

cl) That the harvesting is carried out in such a way that adequate

regeneration to replace eventually the harvested crop is induced or, if

already on the ground, released without damage.

These conditions encompass all the elements of an integrated forest management system

- social, economic, technical and political.

a) The Land Use Condition

Full social .acceptance of the decision that the land to remain in forest after

harvesting is necessary for the decision to be effective. This means that at both

official and local community levels, the idea is fully accepted that forestry is a

rrore beneficial fonn of use for that specific tract of land than any other use.

Official recognition is not enough. Experience in both India and the Philippines

shows that strongly and repeatedly. Local attitudes are ultimately the real

arbiters.

In such circumstances the technical apparatus of land use planning has . to take second

place to the social pressures for land. It is not surprising , therefore, that the

ultimate location of forestry is finnly based on land use planning in Malaysia only,

where population pressures on land are the least intense. The planning itself is not

without fault. Like most land use planning, it is automatically assumed that

agriculture is the highest fonn of rural land use, an attitude which is consistent

with land use planning theory of the 1960's. The result is that a permanent forest

estate is constitutionally assured. but on the whole, in the higher and steeper

terrain of the country only. Moreover, because of the less intense population

pressure and the siphoning off of the demand for agricultural land into the planned

settlement schemes. that assurance has a good chance o f success in practice.

The situation in India illustrates the other extreme. Formal land use planning

played a minor role. The pressure of population on the la~d was intense, even when

management was first attempted and has been continually increasing ever since. .The

principles underlying forest land reservation in the forest policy of 1894 arrounted,

however, to a land capability classification giving precedence to agriculture and the

rights of local communities except for two classes of forests. They were forests on

hill slopes which were to be protected, "To preserve the climatic and physical

- 194-

conditions of the country and to protect the cultivated plains that lie below them"

and secondly, "Forests which are the reservoirs of valuable timbers" which were to be

managed commercially as a source of revenue for the state (Taylor, 1981; Kulkarni,

1983).

In practice, that policy proved hard to follow. In 1952, the recently independent

government of India issued a National Forest Policy in which the extent of

deforestation of mountain slopes and the upsetting of water supplies, soil erosion

and declining soil fertility were closely linked. The precedence given to

agriculture had, it was noted led to the conversion of "Even valuable forest lands

for permanent cultivation", while the lightly restrictive interpretation of the

rights of use and access accorded to local communities was regarded as detrimental to

the national interest and the interests of future generations (Taylor,.1981).

One result of that has been to force forestry departments into a defensive attitude,

reflected in legislation and administration. This custodial emphasis has apparently

been insensitive to social needs and realities. Another is that in confining

forestry departments to resistance to change, it may have retarded advances in land

productivity (Rom, 1981). But certainly whatever the effects, the Indian experience

confirms that land use planning, regardless of the level of sophistication, is no

basis for forest management, if the social pressure to provide land for agriculture

cannot be otherwise relieved.

The Philippines, in that respect, occupies a midway position. Intense population

pressure on the forests for the land they occupy is much more recent than in India

and nowhere near as high. It is, however, more intense than in Malaysia, and has

been a strong force in deforestation since well before World War II. At the same

time, land use planning is more formalised in concept and application than in India.

The same high priority is given to forests as a land use for the conservation of soil

and the regulation of stream flow for the protection of down-stream agriculture. In

this respect, both India and the Philippines are in sharp contrast Lo Malaysia, where

forestry is a residual use, rather than a priority use for these purposes.

But again, it is the implementation of land use planning rather than its intent that

is crucial. Deforestation of land which the land use policy identifies as forest for

environmental protection purposes has proceeded so far that reforestation rather than

forest management is the need. Even where the catchment forests have survived, the

failure of other measures in the economy to relieve the poverty and population

induced pressure for land, still shows the social limits to official land use

designations.

- 194 -

conditions of the country and to protect the cultivated plains that lie below them"

and secondly, "Forests which are the reservoirs of valuable timbers" which were to be

managed· commercially as a source of revenue for the state (Taylor, 1981; Kulkarni,

1983).

In practice, that policy proved hard to follow. In 1952, the recently independent

government of India issued a National Forest Policy in which the extent of

deforestation of mountain slopes and the upsetting of water supplies, soil erosion

and declining soil fertility were closely linked. The precedence given to

agriculture had, it was noted led to the conversion of "Even valuable forest lands

for permanent cultivation", while the lightly restrictive interpretation of the

rights of use and access accorded to local communities was regarded as detrimental to

the national interest· and the interests of future generations (Taylor, .1981).

One result of that has been to force forestry departments into a defensive attitude,

reflected in legislation and administration. This custodial emphasis has apparently

been insensitive to social needs and realities. Another is that in confining

forestry departments to resistance to change, it may have retarded advances in land

productivity (Romm, 1981). But certainly whatever the effects, the Indian experience

confirms that land use planning, regardless of the level of sephistication, is no

basis for forest management, if the social pressure to provide land for agriculture

cannot be otherwise relieved.

The Philippines, in that respect, occupies a midway position. Intense population

pressure on the forests for the land they occupy is much more recent than in India

and nowhere near as high. It is, however, more intense than in Malaysia, and has

been a strong force in deforestation since well before World War 11. At the same

time, land use planning is more formalised in concept and application than in India.

The same high priority is given to forests as a land use for the conservation of soil

and the regulation of stream flow for the protection of down-stream agriculture. In

this respect, bcth India and the Philippines are in sharp contrast to Malaysia, where

forestry is a residual use, rather than a priority use for these purposes.

But again , it is the implementation of land use planning rather than its intent that

is crucial . Deforestation of land which the land use policy identifies as forest for

environmental protection purposes has proceeded se far that reforestation rather than

forest management is the need. Even where the catchment forests have survived, the

failure of other measures in the economy to relieve the poverty and population

induced pressure for land, still shows the social limits to official land use

designations.

b) The Logging Operation Conditions

Given that the forested land does remain in forest thus making natural management a

possibility, then the manner in which the timber crop to be harvested is removed

becomes paramount. The second and third of the five conditions listed earlier, thus

amount to saying that the logging operations are conducted in a way that meets the

requirements-for forest management rather than in the most convenient way for the

loggers.

That, however, is really another form of the social element in a total system. The

loggers are often regarded as interlopers. The view is, however, just as

wrong-headed as the equally common view of local communities as threats. Both are

elements which have to be taken into account in the development and implementation of

management systems.

Logging is an essential phase in timber production management. Without loggers there

would be no timber harvest so that their attitudes, explicit or otherwise, to how a

forest management system would operate have to be incorporated in the system.

The question of achieving management control of the logging operation is, however,

probably even more intractable than that of the local communities. More often than

not, logging crews are made up of people who come from other communities, other

tribes and sometimes other countries. With the advent of modern hichly mechanized

logging systems, crew5 tend to be full time workers in the industry, moving with the

machines from setting to setting, with minimal reinforcement from local people.

Their interest in the future of any one are of forest, of any one forest or off the

local communities, is likely to be marginal and ephemeral. This poses a formidable

obstacle to getting them to adopt less destructive methods, if they cannot see any

benefit to themselves from doing so.

But if that cannot be done then it does not matter in the slightest, how good any

other aspect of the management is, in principle or in application. Damage to or

destruction of trees and advanced growth to be retained, reduced the quantity and

quality of the next cut under Selection management; badly located and poorly

constructed and maintained roads and skid trails lead to land slips, siltation, local

flooding which greatly degrade the environmental protection efficiency of the forest.

The point is that none of that is necessary, either on physical or economic grounds.

In fact, it has been repeatedly shown in other parts of the world that better

planning and design of logging systems and tight implementation of those plans can

raise productivity and reduce costs substantially, compared with the deceptively more

convenient, traditional methods. The same has even been shown to apply in the more

difficult conditions of tropical forests (Kerruish, 1983).

- 195 -- 195 -

b) The Logging Operation Conditions

Given that the forested land does remain in forest thus making natural management a

possibility, then the manner in which the timber crop to be harvested is removed

becomes paramount. The second and third of the five conditions listed earlier, thus

amount to saying that the logging operations are conducted in a way that meets the

requirements'for forest management rather than in the most convenient way for the

loggers.

That, however, is really another form of the social element in a total system. The

loggers are often regarded as interlopers. The view is, however, just as

wrong-headed as the · equally . common view of local communities as threats. Both are

elements which have to be taken into account in the development and implementation of

management systems.

Logging is an essential phase in timber production management. Without loggers there

would be no timber harvest so that their attitudes, explicit or otherwise, to how a

forest management system would operate have to be incorporated in the system.

The question of achieving management control of the logging operation is, however,

probably even more intractable than that of the local communities . More often than

not, logging crews are made up of people who come from other communities, other

tribes and sometimes other countries. With the advent of modern highly mechanized

logging systems, creWZ tend to be full time workers in the industry, moving with the

machines from setting to setting, with minimal reinforcement from local people.

Their interest in the future of anyone are of forest, of anyone forest or of the

local communities, is likely to be marginal and ephemeral. This poses a formidable

obstacle to getting them to adopt less destructive methods, if they cannot see any

benefit to themselves frem doing so.

But if that cannot be done then it does not matter in the slightest, how good any

other aspect of the management is, in principle or in application. Damage to or

destruction of trees and advanced growth to be retained, reduced the quantity and

quality of the next cut under Selection management; badly located and poorly

constructed and maintained roads and skid trails lead tc' land slips, ,siltation, local

flooding which greatly degrade the environmental protection efficiency of the forest.

The point is that none of that is necessary, either on physical or economic grounds.

In fact, it has been repeatedly shown in other parts of the world that better

planning and design of logging systems and tight implementation of those plans can

raise productivity and reduce costs substantially, compared with the deceptively more

convenient, traditional methods. The same has even been shown to apply in the more

difficult conditions of tropical forests (Kerruish, 1983).

- 196 -

In none of the countries reviewed-, has the control of the logging operation phase of

harvesting been as effective as it could or ought to be. There are some local

exceptions, but on the whole, it is one of the weakest links in the Asian management

systems. In general, what needs to be done is fully realised, but how to bring about

the implementation is the real problem. The problem is further compounded by the

fact that prescriptions for the control of logging in the interests of management can

never be static. Technological advances in logging equipment, changing economic and

social conditions affecting logging costs, crews and management objectives plus

improvements in silvical knowledge make setting and applying harvesting systems a

tricky, dynamic affair.

The ability of the various forest services to keep pace with the growing and changing

needs in logging supervision is variable, but generally it is inadequate. What is

worse, is that while the need to develop that highly skilled and motivated calibre of

staff is usually recognized, the means for putting it into place have been quite

ineffective. Good staff qualified in that field then tend to find better employment

opportunities and scope for their abilities with the industries. The institutional

weaknesses that permit this most crucial point of failure to persist will have to be

overcome if the potential for management is to be fully realised.

c) The Technical Conditions

In the historical development of the management of tropical mixed forest

silvicultural problems have been dominant over most of the hundred years or so that

management has been attempted in Asia. This could hardly be otherwise, since one of

the two obvious requirements for a natural system of management is regeneration to

ensure continuity of the ecosystem. If that cannot be achieved or assured in

conjunction with timber harvesting, then one or the other has to give way.

Historically, that has almost never been the harvesting.

The second obvious requirement is that the reduction of the growing stock in

harvesting does not exceed the regenerative and growth capacity of the forest. That

presupposes a fairly accurate knowledge of the growing stock and its distribution by

species, size classes and location and of how they change under harvesting and

treatment. Inventory and increment studies, therefore, figure prominently also in

that history of tropical forest management.

As a result, much more is known about what could be called the "disturbance ecology"

of tropical mixed forests in Asia, than about any other element that affects the

development of a management system. Nobody would pretend that all that is needed is

at hand. But in the Asian countries reviewed here, there is probably enough to

provide that "minimum critical mass" of information for implementing a sustainable

natural system of management (Jabil, 1983).

- 196 -

In none of the countries reviewed·, has the control of the logging operation phase of

harvesting been as effective as it could or ought to be. There are some local

exceptions, but on the whole, it is one of the weakest links in the Asian management

systems. In general, what needs to be done is fully realised, but how to bring about

the implementation is the real problem. The problem is further compounded by the

fact th~t prescriptions for the control of logging in the interests of management can

never be static. Technological advances in logging equipment, changing economic and

social conditions affecting logging costs, crews and management objectives plus

improvements in silvical knowledge make setting and applying harvesting $Ystems a

tricky, dynamic affair.

The ability of the various forest services to keep pace with the growing and changing

needs in logging supervision is variable, but generally it is inadequate. \-mat is

worse, is that while the need to develop that highly skilled and motivated calibre of

staff is usually recognized, the means for putting it into place have been quite

ineffective. Good staff qualified in that field then tend to find better employment

opportunities and scope for their abilities with the industries. The institutional

weaknesses that permit this most crucial point of failure to persist will have to be

overcome. if the potential for management is to be fully realised.

c) The Technical Conditions

In the historical development of the management of tropical mixed forest

silvicu1tural problems have been dominant over most of the hundred years or so that

management has been attempted in Asia. This could hardly be otherwise, since one of

the two obvious requirements for a natural system of management is regeneration to

ensure continuity of the ecosystem. If that cannot be achieved or assured in

conjunction with timber harvesting, then one or the other has to give way.

Historically, that has almost never been the harvesting.

The second obvious requirement is that the reduction of the growing stock in

harvesting does not exceed the regenerative and growth capacity of the forest. That

presupposes a fairly accurate knowledge of the growing stock and its distribution by

species, size classes and location and of how they change under harvesting and

treatment. Inventory and increment studies, therefore, figure prominently also in

that history of tropical forest managemen.t.

As a result, much more is known about what could be called the "disturbance ecology"

of tropical mixed forests in Asia, than about any other element that affects the

development of a management system. Nobody would pretend that all that is needed is

at hand. But in the Asian countries reviewed here, there is probably enough to

provide that "minimum critical mass" of information for implementing a sustainable

natural system of management (Jabil, 1983).

- 197-

Even so, that level of knowledge is still deficient in many respects. For instance,

"Growth and yield statistics on most of the evergreen species are not available. ...

No information is available on the annual increment and how much can be removed

without endangering the productivity of evergreen forests" (FAO, 1984). But campared

with the void that exists in respect of the social elements especially, but also the

broader economic and political elements, affecting an integrated management system,

even such gross deficiencies on the technical side may be insignificant. Certainly,

any claim that the silvicultural and yield regulatory elements in Asia at least are

the limiting factors to the advancement of forest management would be hard to

sustain.

Yet it seems that almost all of the forestry research in the region is directed

towards silvicultural, inventory and utilization problems. There is nothing wrong

with that in itself. Indeed, a great deal of research in that direction will be

needed to lift sustainable productivity above the relatively modest levels currently

attained and to extend management to other types in the tropical moist forest

complex.

What is wrong with it, however, is that there are few signs of that effort being

matched by a co-ordinated effort in the more decisive non-technical components of any

forest management system. There is quite clearly, a considerable amount of work

being doné on those aspects in the region. Most of it is being done in universities,

and other institutes outside the normal forestry sector. Again that is as it should

be, but it is not being done as part of any co-ordinated, interdisciplinary effort.

Nor is it linked, even moderately effectively, with the development of integrated

forest management. On the contrary, much of it has the appearance of being motivated

more by single interest objections to multiple use management inclusive of commercial

timber production, than by scientific objectivity.

A more effective recipe could hardly be devised for stultifying progress on any side

towards integrated management in the tropical mixed forests at any level of social

interest.

INTEGRATED FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

In a way, it could be argued from the reviews that no great progress has been made in

building up management systems for tropical mixed forests as integrations of all the

elements involved in, and affected by the ecosystem and its treatment. It is, after

all, over one hundred years since the Indian Forest Policy set out the interests that

forest management had to serve, and the priorities to be accorded to them. Those are

still much the same and, apparently, they are being served no more satisfactorily now

- 197 -

Even so, that level of knowledge is still deficient in many respects. For instance,

"Growth and yield statistics on most of the evergreen species are not available.

No information is available on the annual increment and how much can be removed

without endangering the productivity of evergreen forests" (FAO, 1984) . But compared

with the void that exists in respect of the social elements especially, but also the

broader economic and political elements, affecting an integrated management system,

even such gross deficiencies on the technical side may be insignificant. Certainly,

any claim that the silvicultural and yield regulatory elements in Asia at least are

the limiting factors to the advancement of forest management would be hard to

sustain.

Yet it seems that almost all of the forestry research in the region is directed

towards silvicultural, inventory and utilization problems. There is nothing wrong

with that in itself. Indeed, a great deal of research in that direction will be

needed to lift sustainable productivity above the relatively modest levels currently

attained and to extend management to other types in the tropical moist forest

complex.

What is wrong with it, however, is that there are few signs of that effort being

matched by a co-ordinated effort in the more decisive non-technical components of any

forest management system. There is quite clearly, a considerable amount of work

being done on those aspects in the region. Most of it is being done in universities,

and other institutes outside the normal forestry sector. Again that is as it should

be, but it is not being done as part of any co-ordinated, interdisciplinary effort.

Nor is it linked, even moderately effectively, with the development of integrated

forest management. On the contrary, much of it has the appearance of being motivated

more by single interest objections to multiple use management inclusive of commercial

timber production, than by scientific objectivity.

A more effective recipe could hardly be devised for stultifying progress on any side

towards integrated management in the tropical mixed forests at any level of social

interest.

INTEGRATED fOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

In a way, it could be argued from the reviews that no great progress has been made in

building up management systems for tropical mixed forests as integrations of all the

elements involved in, and affected by the ecosystem and its treatment. It is, after

all, over one hundred years since the Indian Forest Policy set out the interests that

forest management had to serve, and the priorities to be accorded to them. Those are

still much the same and, apparently, they are being served no more satisfactorily now

- 198 -

than they have ever been. It is clearly ocie thing to be able to state what a

management system ought to do, but quite another thing to devise a management system

that will do it. In other words, systems theory and systems analysis are still a

long way from being able to guide systems management.

It is, however, unjustified and pointless to criticise the failure in forest

management to develop integrated, total management systems for tropical forests. It

has not yet been done in any other field of comparable complexity. The concept is

good and even useful in providing a short of check-list for management planning but

operationally it, goes no further than that.

One thing that is evident from the country reviews is the widespread awareness of the

need to take all facets of the social-biological system into account in formulating a

management system. That is a first step and a very malor one, when it is recalled

how little appreciated it was in the region no more than 20 years ago. But it is

only a first step. By comparison, moving from awareness to an operational total

management system is an enormous stride, and one that has not yet been made

anywhere, other than conceptually. Management systems in the countries reviewed are

still, at heart, directed towards commercial timber production with social and non-

wocd issues accounted for as constraints on timber production, rather than as

objectives in themselves, and as integral parts of the system.

Nevertheless, within that limited view, some progress is being made in the better

integration of those parts of the management system that can be seen as bearing

directly on timber production management. A few examples from the country reviews

will serve to make the point.

For instance, inventory and resource assessment generally, go further, sometimes much

further, than enumeration of commercial trees for exploitation planning. Other

products of commercial value are recorded and some attention is given to the products

of interest to local communities. Topographical and other physical features that

could bear on watershed, and wildlife values are noted as features in those terms

rather than as obstacles to logging or roading. Stand assessments are linked to

silvicultural and yield regulation considerations by better recording and measurement

of trees and stands on which.subsequent cuts will depend. Then by paying more

quantitative attention to currently non-merchantable species, they not only

anticipate technological change which could widen the merchantable range, but provide

a basis on which such industrialisation can be planned and managed. Post-harvest

inventory has also a broader and more prominent role in monitoring the performance of

management systems.

- 198 -

than they have ever been. It is clearly one thing to be able to state what a

management system ought to do, but quite another thing to devise a management system

that will do it. In other words, systems theory and systems analysis are still a

long way from being able to guide systems management.

It is, however, unjustified and pointless to criticise the failure in forest

management to develop integrated, total management systems for tropical forests. It

has not yet been done in any other field of comparable complexity. The concept is

good and even useful in providing a short of check-list for management planning but

operationally it, goes no further than that.

One thing that is evident from the country reviews is the widespread awareness of the

need to take all facets of the social-biological system into account in formulating a

management system. That is a first step and a very major one, when it is recalled

how little appreciated it was in the region no more than 20 years ago. But it is

only a first step. By comparison, moving from awareness to an operational total

management system is an enormous stride, and one that has not yet been made

anywhere, other than conceptually. Management systems in the countries reviewed are

still, at heart, directed towards commercial timber production with social and non­

wood issues accounted for as constraints on timber production, rather than as

objectives in themselves, and as integral parts of the system.

Nevertheless, within that limited view, some progress i s being made in the better

integration of those parts of the management system that can be seen as bearing

directly on timber production management. A few examples from the country reviews

will serve to make the point.

For instance, inventoPj and resource assessment generally, go further, sometimes much

further, than enumeration of commercial trees for exploitation planning. Other

products of commercial value are recorded and some attention is given to the products

of interest to local communities. Topographical and other physical features that

could bear on watershed, and wildlife values are noted as features in those terms

rather than as obstacles to logging or roading. Stand assessments are linked to

silvicultural and yield regulation considerations by better recording and measurement

of trees and stands on which ·subsequent cuts will depend. Then by paying more

quantitative attention to currently non-merchantable species, they not only

anticipate technological change which could widen the merchantable range, but provide

a basis on which such industrialisation can be planned and managed. Post-harvest

inventory has also a broader and more prominent role in monitoring the performance of

management systems.

- 199 -

Trends in research parallel those in resource inventory. Projects aimed at providing

the information needed to integrate non-wood products and species in management

systems are now prominent and important features of most forestry research

programmes. Forest hydrology studies are increasing in number and quality. Emphasis

in them is being directed towards developing management systems which can incorporate

the highpowered, mechanised logging operations dictated by the steep and rugged.

topography associated with most of the future resource.

AN APPRAISAL OF ASIAN POREST MANNeEMENT

All of that reads as though all is well with the status of forest management systems

in the tropical mixed forests in Asia. That, however, is only partly true. The

Malayan Uniform System did work well and did adapt to changing circumstances in the

lowland Dipterocarps, and would work in any of those or similan types which happen to

survive the onslaught of conversion to agriculture. The Selection systems can work

in the upland Dipterocarp and Fvergreen types, if applied properly. Moreover, within

their limits, they are certainly much more integrated systems that they were in the

past.

As far as the modern management systems go they do then represent an advance on what

happened in the past. The trouble is that they do not go far enough in three

respects at least. One is that they apply as yet to a restricted range only of the

types in the tropical mixed forests complex. In Malaysia and the Philippines

admittedly, those types account for the great bulk of their tropical mixed forests.

In India, however, a substantial part of the tropical mixed forest resource is in the

moist deciduous types for which natural management is, for the most part, not

considered. Outside the countries reviewed, only Indonesia, and to some extent

Indo-China have Dipterocarp forest, to which the experience in Malaysia and the

Philippines could apply directly. In the rest of the region the tropical moist

forest types bear little resemblance to the Dipterocarp types, although they may have

some affinity with the evergreen types. It has yet to be demonstrated that natural

management can also succeed in them.

The second aspect in which these management systems fall well short of the optimum is

that integration.has not ventured far beyond the timber production aspects. Efforts

to incorporate, for instance, local communities and refugees from poverty as

intrinsic elements in the management systems are more notable for their rarity than

for their success. Attention is given to them but it tends to be as specialised

markets to be satisfied, or special interests to be mollified or suppressed. Nor, as

mentioned earlier, have effective links been established for bringing other sources

of information and knowledge relating to these matters, into the formulation and

implementation processes of the management systems.

- 199 -

Trends in research parallel those in resource inventory. Projects aimed at providing

the information needed to integrate non-wood products and species in management

systems are now prominent and ilnportant features of most forestry research

programmes. Forest hydrology studies are increasing in number and quality. Emphasis

in them is being directed towards developing management systems which can incorporate

the highpowered, rrechanised logging operations dictated by the steep and rugged.

topography associated with most of the future resource.

AN APPRAISAL OF ASIAN FOREST M!\NA"EMENr

All of that reads as though all is well with the status of forest management systems

in the tropical mixed forests in Asia. That, however, is only partly true. The

Malayan Uniform System did work well and did adapt to changing circumstances in the

lowland Dipterocarps, and would work in any of those or simila~ types which happen to

survive the onslaught of conversion to agriculture. The Selection systems can work

in the upland Dipterocarp and Evergreen types, if applied properly. Moreover, within

their limits, they are certainly much more integrated systems that they were in the

past.

As far as the modern management systems go they do then represent an advance on what

happened in the past. The trouble is that they do not go far enough in three

respects at least. One is that they apply as yet to a restricted range only of the

types in the tropical mixed forests oomplex. In Malaysia and the Philippines

admittedly, those types account for the great bulk of their tropical mixed forests.

In India, however, a substantial part of the tropical mixed forest resource is in the

moist deciduous types for which natural management is, for the most part, not

considered. Outside the countries rev iewed, only Indonesia, and to some extent

Indo-China have Dipterocarp forest, to which the experience in Malaysia and the

Philippines could apply directly. In the rest of the region the tropical moist

forest types bear little resemblance to the Dipterocarp types, although they may have

some affinity with the evergreen types. It has yet to be demonstrated that natural

management can also succeed in them.

The second aspect in which these management systems fall well short of the optimum is

that integration. has not ventured far beyond the timber production aspects. Efforts

to incorporate, for instance, local communities and refugees from poverty as

intrinsic elements in the management systems are more notable for their rarity than

for their success. Attention is given to them but it tends to be as specialised

markets to be satisfied, or special interests to be mollified or suppressed. Nor, as

mentioned earlier, have effective links been established for bringing other sources

of information and knowledge relating to these matters, into the formulation and

implerrentation processes of the management systems.

- 200-

The third weakness is that the management systems are not applied as thoroughly or as

universally as they need to be for success. This has not been made sufficiently

clear in the country reviews, although soma emphasis is given to its importance in

the evergreen types of India. Nevertheless, it is evident in the field, that

implementation is not always as strict as necessary for success.

Lax supervision and lack of support for enforcement measures which are the usual

explanations for such failures are certainly prevalent, but those failures have much

deeper origins. They arise, in fact, from the failure of the management systems to

integrate adequately the political components affecting system performance.

As a result, utilisation of the forest resource for industrial purposes has proceeded

in a way that bears no relationship at all to the capacity of the residual forest to

support it. It makes little difference whether the utilisation is caught in the

stranglehold of log exports, or was based from the start on processing for domestic

and/or export markets, or has belatedly replaced log exports by processed products.

The end result is the development of powerful vested interest groups who can exert

political and other pressures to have measures aimed at better forest management

relaxed, postponed or aborted. Moreover, plausible national interest arguments based

on foreign exchange, employment and strategic considerations can always be found to

support and prolong temporary departures from acknowledged long term policy.

These are realities of any social system. Forest management systems that ignore them

cannot but fail. It is pointless to argue that a particular management system would

work if it were not for the political and institutional obstacles to its

implementation.

At first sight it might appear that there is no effective way of incorporating that

aspect of the political element into a system of natural forest management. After

all, overcutting, or cutting (or damage) in the wrong size classes, or logging which

destroys regeneration and advanced growth or the capacity of the forest to regenerate

must reduce any sustainable yield based on their non-occurrence. That, however,

still leaves several possible ways of adapting management to meet the situation.

They include:

To base the management system on the eventual and possibly sharp

decline in output implied by the policy.

To develop the management system in terms of the yield being

maintained by substitution of less preferred species, smaller size

classes and lower quality trees as the resources at current standards

are depleted.

- 200 -

The third weakness is that the management systems are not applied as thoroughly or as

universally as they need to be for success. This has not been made sufficiently

clear in the country reviews, although some emphasis is given to its importance in

the evergreen types of India. Nevertheless, it is evident in the field, that

implementation is not always as strict as necessary for success.

Lax supervision and lack of support for enforcement measures which are the usual

explanations for such failures are certainly prevalent, but those failures have much

deeper origins. They arise, in fact, from the failure of the management systems to

integrate adequately the political components affecting system performance.

As a result, utilisation of the forest resource for industrial purposes has proceeded

in a way that bears no relationship at all to the capacity of the residual forest to

support it. It makes little difference whether t~e utilisation is caught in the

stranglehold of log exports, or was based from the start on processing for domestic

and/or export markets, or has belatedly replaced log exports by processed products.

The end result is the development of powerful vested interest groups who can exert

political and other pressures to have measures aimed at better forest management

relaxed, postponed or aborted. Moreover, plausible national interest arguments based

on foreign exchange, employment and strategic considerations can always be found to

support and prolong temporary departures from acknowledged long term policy.

These are realities of any social system. Forest management systems that ignore them

cannot but fail. It is pointless to argue that a particular management system would

work if it were not for the political and institutional obstacles to its

implementation.

At first sight it might appear that there is no effective way of incorporating that

aspect of the political element into a system of natural forest management. After

all, overcutting, or cutting (or damage) in the wrong size classes, or logging which

destroys regeneration and advanced growth or the capacity of the forest to regenerate

must reduce any sustainable yield based on their non-occurrence. That, however,

still leaves several possible ways of adapting management to meet the situation.

They include:

a) To base the management system on the eventual and possibly sharp

decline in output implied by the policy.

b) To develop the management system in terms of the yield being

maintained by substitution of less preferred species, smaller size

classes and lower quality trees as the resources at current standards

are depleted.

and

- 201-

c) To develop the management system in terms of maintaining the yield by

substituting wood from compensatory plantations.

There are historical precedents for each of these possibilities, and indeed, in

the country reviews, that of compensatory plantations is quite strongly pursued.

That option, however, is itself an expression of a partial failure in the

natural management system, overstrained by industrial development.

WHAT REMAINS TO BE DONE

The obvious improvements that need to be made are those arising from the

deficiencies which have just been outlined. However, the better integration of

the forest-oriented elements of the system with the less immediate but crucial

society determined elements, is particularly difficult in the absence, of any

well functioning basis for implementing a fully integrated management system for

such complicated social-biological physical complexes. More appropriate is the

approach described by Poore (1962) as "Successive Approximation", and which is

more or less the way that the management systems have been evolving. There is a

need, however, to speed up the pace at which adjustements for the next

approximation are introduced and a need for a more venturesome approach as to

what those approximations cover.

But the narrow orientation of the management systems is not their only sub-

optimal aspect as they now stand. Integration at the forest level is far fram

complete or even adequate, in at least two aspects. They are where:

a) Components of the systems are not functioning at anywhere near their

potential, even within the limits of currently applied technology,

b) Performance of the systems might be improved by adaptation or

adoption of more advanced technical or managerial technology.

a) Sub-Standard Functioning

The most glaring and dangerous weakness arising from substandard functioning in

the management systems at present is in the management control of logging

operations. It is also perhaps the one that is most readily amenable to

improvement by the forestry sector itself, in that it is least deoendent on

outside acceptance or authorisation.

- 201 -

c) To develop the management system in terms of maintaini-ng the yield by

substituting wood from compensatory plantations.

There are historical precedents for each of these possibilities, and indeed, in

the country reviews, that of compensatory plantations is quite strongly pursued.

That option, however, is itself an expression of a partial failure in the -

natural management system, overstrained by industrial development.

WHAT REMAINS 'ID BE OC'NE

The obvious improvements that need to be made are those arising from the

deficiencies which have just been outlined. However, the better integration of

the forest-oriented elements of the system with the less immediate but crucial

society determined elements, is particularly difficult in the absence, of any

well functioning basis for implementing a fully integrated management system for

such complicated social-biological physical complexes. More appropriate is the

approach described by Poore (1962) as "Successive Approximation", and which is

more or less the way that the management systems have been evolving. There is a

need, however, to speed up the pace at which adjustements for the next

approximation are introduced and a need for a more venturesome approach as to

what those approximations cover.

But the narrow orientation of the management systems is not their only sub­

optimal aspect as they now stand. Integration at the forest level is far from

complete or even adequate, in at least two aspects. They are where:

and

a) Components of the systems are not functioning at anywhere near their

potential, even within the limits of currently applied technology,

b) Performance of the systems might be improved by adaptation or

adoption of more advanced technical or managerial technology.

a) Sub-Standard Functioning

The most glaring and dangerous weakness arising from substandard functioning in

the management systems at present is in the management control of logging

operations. It is also perhaps the one that is most readily amenable to

improvement by the forestry sector itself, in that it is least dependent on

outside acceptance or authorisation.

- 202 -

Being the easiest does not, however, mean that it is easy. The key is better

supervision of better standards. For both of those stronger staffing and

deployment are necessary and that is where the catch lies. Staff responsible

for the supervision of harvesting need to be trained and experienced in the

design, planning conduct and management of logging operations as a phase in

forest management rather than simply as a stage in an industrial process. They

also need to be located where they can put those qualifications to effective

use, i.e. in the field.

To achieve those three attributes - training, experience and location, -

remembering that none is much use without the others, some institutional and

administrative changes will have to be effected. Training with that managerial

orientation runs counter to modern trends in academic education. Experience

with that managerial orientation is not readily acquired except by working in or

with industry, while public service procedures and urban bias in development

discriminate, against locating highly qualified personnel in field positions.

But if those obstacles are not overcome, then any effort put into developing,

let alone improving, forest management systems is wasted. No management system,

irrespective of how well it might integrate social, economic and ecological

forces will work, unless it is implemented on the ground by people who want it

to work, and can make it work.

At the same time, management systems have to be well attuned to the ecological

parameters if they are not to collapse eventually under the weight of

deficiencies in those respects. Undoubtedly the most serious weakness in this

Illanning, as distinct from the implementation phase of the management systems

reviewed is the fragile, narrow and unreliable data base underlying their yield

control provisions.

Ultimately the yield of wood, in any form, that the tropical moist forest can

sustain depends on the growth rates of the trees that constitute and will

constitute the parts of the forests Which will provide the cut. What those

growth rates are for the hundreds of species and how they vary with age or size,

with canopy position and with different stand conditions and treatments are

basic therefore to yield control. The limited information that has been

accumulated to date is, on the whole, too fragmentary and often Loo conflicting,

for it to provide even an approximate basis for yield control by volume. The

systems for permanent sampling, perpetual and continuous inventory which are

being established and extended in the region are a start. But to cover even an

adequate selection of the range of possibilities presents a formidable task in

- 202 -

Being the easiest does not, however, mean that it is easy. The key is better

supervision of better standards. For both of those stronger staffilXJ and

deployment are necessary and that is where the catch lies. Staff responsible

for the supervision of harvesting need to be trained and experienced in the

design, planning conduct and management of logging operations as a phase in

forest management rather than simply as a stage in an industrial process. They

also need to be located where they can put those qualifications to effective

use, i .e . in the · field.

To achieve those three attributes - trainilXJ, experience and location, -

remembering that none is much use without the others, some institutional and

administrative changes will have to be effected. Training with that managerial

orientation runs counter to modern trends in academic education. Experience

with that managerial orie~tation is not readily acquired except by working in or

with industry, while public service procedures and urban bias in development

discriminate, against locating highly qualif i ed personnel in field posit i ons.

But if those obstacles are not overcame, then any effort put into developing,

let alone improving, forest management systems is wasted. No management system,

irrespective of how well it might integrate social, economic and ecological

forces will work, unless it is implemented on the ground by people who want it

to >A:>rk, and can make it >A:>rk.

At the same time, management systems have to be well attuned to the ecological

parameters if they are not to collapse eventually under the weight of

deficiencies in those respects. Undoubtedly the most serious weakness in this

.planning, as distinct from the implementation phase of the management systems

reviewed is the fragile, narrow and unreliable data base underlying their yield

control provisions.

Ul timately the yield of wood, in any form, that the tropical moist forest can

sustain depends on the growth rates of the trees that constitute and will

constitute the parts of the forests wnich will provide the cut. What those

growth rates are for the hundreds of species and how they Va0j with age or size,

with canopy position and with different stand conditions and treatments are

basic therefore to yield control. The limited information t hat has been

accumulated to date is, on the whole, too fragmentary and often too conflicting,

for it to provide even an approximate basis for yield control by volume. The

systems for permanent sampling, perpetual and continuous inventory which are

being established and extended in the region are a start. But to cover even an

adequate selection of the range of possibilities presents a formidable task in

- 203 -

terms of the physical installations and their maintenance, of logistics, of

measurement and consistency, of data recording, storage, retrieval, processing,

analysis and intepretation. So formidable in fact, that it could well turn out

to be, if not strictly impossible, then not worth the effort.

It is, therefore, hardly surprising that yield control components of the

management systems have not advanced much beyond the area control approximation,

or even-flow distributions of gross volumes over time or approximations of the

rate of progression through size classes of a few selected species. So far,

overcutting in terms of currently preferred species and qualities has been

almost universal. But when that cycle has run its course sane drastic

industrial, economdc and social adjustments will be unavoidable. A much wider

and deeper understanding of the growth patterns and stand dynamics than is now

available or being developed with then be needed.

That knowledge will not have to be anything approaching a complete knowledge in

breadth or depth. As for present management, a "minimum critical mass" will be

enough, but a different set of knowledge will need to be added to that which

supports the currently used systems. To get it by the time it is needed, the

investigatory work ought to be well under way now. Since it is not adequate

anyhow, a look at the second class of deficiencies in present management systems

may give some guide to catching up.

Technological Applications to Management Performance

In sane aspects forest management systems have incorporated advanced technology

almost to the limdts of its potential. One case in point is the extensive use

of remote sensing in resource mapping, assessment and monitoring. That it has

gone little beyond the use of standard aerial photography in Malaysia, as

constrasted with the Philippines is striking. As Tang (1983) explains that

reflects in part, an initial belief in the adequacy there oE basic information

as good as that which longer distance sensing seemed likely to provide. But

now, he hmplies the resulting lack of expertise in and familiarity with the more

recent technology is limiting the extent to which its greater potential can be

utilised to improve resource information.

The three countries have also gone a long way in the application of electronic

data handling technology to the recording, storage, retrieval of inventory and

growth information. In fact, the periodical and continuous inventory systems

that are being put in place both depend on, and are built around, the increasing

versatility available from this field of technology.

- 203 -

terms of the physical installations and their maintenance, of logistics, of

measurement and consistency, of data recording, storage, retrieval, processing,

analysis and intepretation. So formidable in fact, that it could well turn out

to be, if not strictly impossible, then not worth the effort.

It is, therefore, hardly surprising that yield control components of the

management systems have not advanced much beyond the area control approximation,

or even-flow distributions of gross volumes over time or approximations of the

rate of progression through size classes of a few selected species. So far,

overcutting in terms of currently preferred species and qualities has been

almost universal. But when that cycle has run its course some drastic

industrial, economic and social adjustments will be unavoidable. A much wider

and deeper understanding of the growth patterns and stand dynamics than is now

available or being developed with then be needed.

That knowledge will not have to be anything approaching a complete knowledge in

breadth or depth. As for present management, a "minimum critical mass" will be

enough, but a different set of knowledge will need to be added to that which

supports the currently used systems . To get it by the time it is needed, the

investigatory work ought to be well under way now. Since it is not adequate

anyhow, a look at the second class of deficiencies in present management systems

may give some guide to catching up.

b) Technological Applications to Management Performance

In some aspects forest management systems have incorporated advanced technology

almost to the limits of its potential. One case in point is the extensive use

of remote sensing in resource mapping, assessment and monitoring. That it has

gone little beyond the use of standard aerial photography in Malaysia, as

constrasted with the Philippines is striking. As Tang (1983) explains that

reflects in part, an initial belief in the adequacy there of basic information

as good as that which longer distance sensing seemed likely to provide. But

now, he implies the resulting lack of expertise in and familiarity with the more

recent technology is limiting the extent to which its greater potential can be

utilised to improve resource information.

The three countries have also gone a long way in the application of electronic

data handling technology to the recording, storage, retrieval of inventory and

growth information. In fact, the periodical and continuous inventory systems

that are being put in place both depend on, and are built aro~nd, the increasing

versatility available from this field of technology.

- 204 -

The enthusiastic and fruitful applicatons on the information gathering and

processing side have, however, out-run and over shadowed the adoption of similar

technological possibilities for using such data in management planning. The

Malaysian forestry planning model (FAO 1972, Alexandratos et al. 1975) was one

of the first and, at the time, most innovative development of sector modelling

for forestry in the world. Its successful use in resource assessment and co-

ordinated rural land use planning has sparked some emulation, at that broad

level (e.g. FAO 1978, Svanquist 1980). However, the logical step from the

sector to the forest level has yet to be taken.

This is feasible since stand growth modelling is only a more comprehensive

extension of stand projection methodology, which has been a standard tool of

forest management for a very long time. Moreover, it is an extension'made

possible by that same computer technology which has been adopted so productively

on the data processing side. However, after some tentative explorations for

Dipterocarp forests (Canonizado 1978; Salleh 1978) interest in it seems to have

lapsed.

Yet on the face of it, stand growth modelling combined with the increasing power

of system dynamics theory and modelling to understand and predict the behaviour

of complex systems would seem to offer exactly what is needed for tropical

forest management. The reluctance to take up the offer is, however,

understandable.

For one thing, the informational requirements for even a simple model of a

tropical mixed forest must seem virtually unattainable. On top of that it is

clear that the performance of any management system is greatly influenced, if

not controlled by social and political elements, and these are largely

unquantifiable. It is hard to resist, therefore, the conclusion that any such

techniques are of mainly academic relevance (e.g. Fontaine, 1982).

Such a verdict may, however, be too harsh and premature. Bragg and Henry (1983)

in reviewing the possibilities in relation to the management of the North

Queensland tropical rainforests, are much more optimistic. It is a

technological application that warrants renewed investigation.

The findings from management science relating to the functioning of

organisational and institutional structures have had even less influence. Yet

institutional re-structuring of a most drastic nature is aLmost an absolute pre-

requisite for effective progress towards integrated management of the tropical

mixed forest in Asia. Inter-disciplinary analysis and action are needed for the

- 204 -

The enthusiastic and fruitful applicatons on the information gathering and

processing side have, however, out-run and over shadowed the adoption of similar

technological possibil i ties for using such data in management planning. The

Malaysian forestry planning model (FAO 1972, Alexandratos et al. 1975) was one

of the first and, at the time, most innovative development of sector modelling

for forestry in the world. Its successful use in resource assessment and co­

ordinated rural land use planning has sparked some emulation, at that broad

level (e.g. FAO 1978, Svanquist 1980). However, the logical step from the

sector to the forest level has yet to be taken.

This is feasible since stand growth modelling is only a more comprehensive

extension of stand projection methodology, l<hich has been a standard tool of

forest management for a very long time. Moreover, it is an extension· made

possible by that same computer technology which has been adopted 50 productively

on the data processing side. However, after some tentative explorations for

Dipterocarp forests (Canonizado 1978, Salleh 1978) interest in it seems to have

lapsed.

Yet on the face of it, stand growth modelling combined with the increasing power

of system dynamics theory and modelling to understand and· predict the behaviour

of compl ex systems would seem to offer exactly what is needed for tropical

forest management. The reluctance to take up the offer is, however,

understandable.

For one thing, the informational requirements for even a simple model of a

tropical mixed forest must seem virtually unattainable. On top of that it is

clear that the performance of any management system is greatly influenced, if

not controlled by social and political elements, and these are largely

unquantifiable. It is hard to resist, therefore, the conclusion that any such

techniques are of mainly academic relevance (e.g. Fontaine, 1982).

Such a verdict may, however, be too harsh and premature. Bragg and Henry (1983)

in reviewing the possibilities in relation to the management of the North

Queensland tropical rainforests, are much more optimistic. It is a

technological application that warrants renewed {nvestigation.

The findings from management science relating to the functioning of

organisational and institutional structures have had even less influence. Yet

institutional re-structuring of a most drastic nature is almost an absolute pre­

requisite for effective progress towards integrated management of the tropical

mixed forest in Asia. Inter-disciplinary analysis and action are needed for the

- 205 -

integration of non-forest elements into forest management, but the conventional

departmental structures cannot accommodate them. Highly skilled, motivated and

experienced professional staff for planning and supervision of logging

operations are essential for effective timber production management, let alone

the integration of wood and non-wood management. But conventional forestry

education and training are not well-equipped or motivated to provide them. Nor

once trained is the conventional public service system equipped to retain them.

Tinkering with the present institutional structures will not cater for the

changes needed to overcome deficiencies of these magnitudes.

Unfortunately, long established institutions can, as the study for India

- repeatedly shows, be remarkably resistant to fundamental changes. A

restructuring that starts with the education system, runs through the

departmental, civil service and treasury systems, and discards many of the

conventions of all of them could hardly, therefore, be easy. But anything less

is almost doomed to fail. The major upheavals that have been initiated recently

in Australia for re-directing state forestry into a multi-disciplinary, multiple

use, multiple interest orientation could repay careful study (Fitzgerald, 1985).

A third weakness in these management systems could be their insufficient or in-

appropriate incorporation of recent developments in social theory. For the most

part, social issues such as traditional rights, uses and customs, shifting

cultivation or localised markets are regarded as problems. Solutions to them

tend to be sought in plantation programes. There are some notable exceptions,

especially with relatively small tribal groups, but, where substantial numbers

of people have been or could be involved, the plantation solution seems to

prevail. How long that can continue or whether it is really a good, far less an

optimum solution are questions that do not seem to have arisen within the

forestry system. There are signs, however, that they cannot be ignored or

treated in such an over-simplified manner for much longer (eg. Vadya et al.,

1980, Fernandes & Kulkarni, 1983). More fundamentally, however, the possibility

that these social forces, rather than being problems, could be harnessed for

more durable integrated management, hardly seems to have been considered. Yet,

that is exactly what the Taungya system originally set out to do more than a

hundred years ago. A return to that field orientation could well be exactly

what is needed in tropical forest management.

- 205 -

integration of non-forest elements into forest management, but the conventional

departmental structures cannot accommodate them. Highly skilled, motivated and

experienced professional staff for planning and supervision of logging

operations are essential for effective timber production management, let alone

the integration of wood and non-wood management. But conventional forestry

education and training are not well-equipped or motivated to provide them. Nor

once trained is the conventional public service system equipped to retain them.

Tinkering with the present institutional st~lctures will not cater for the

changes needed to overcome deficiencies of these magnitudes.

Unfo~unately, long established institutions can, as the study for India

repeatedly shows, be remarkably resistant to fundamental changes. A

restructuring that sta~s with the education system, runs through the

departmental, civil service and treasury systems, and discards many of the

. conventions of all of them could hardly, therefore, be easy. But anything less

is almost doomed to fail. The major upheavals that have been initiated recently

in Australia for re-directing state forestry into a multi- disciplinary, multiple

use, multiple interest orientation could repay careful study (Fitzgerald, 1985).

A third weakness in these management systems could be their insufficient or in­

appropriate incorporation of recent developments in social theory. For the most

part, social issues such as traditional rights, uses and customs, shifting

cultivation or localised markets are regarded as problems. Solutions to them

tend to be sought in plantation programmes. There are some notable exceptions,

especially with relatively small tribal groups, but, where substantial numbers

of people have been or could be involved, the plantation solution seems to

prevail. How long that can continue or whether it is really a good, far less an

optimum solution are questions that do not seem to have arisen within the

forestry system. There are signs, however, that they cannot be ignored or

treated in such an over-simplified manner for much longer (eg. Vadya et al.,

1980, Fernandes & Kulkarni, 1983). More fundamentally, however, the possibility

that these social forces, rather than being problems, could be harnessed for

more durable integrated management, hardly seems to have been considered. Yet,

that is exactly what the Taungya system originally set out to do more than a

hundred years ago. A return to that field orientation could well be exactly

what is needed in tropical forest management.

- 206 -.CHAMILLLI

TRoPicAi, GENERAL.

InE_LIMITS TO EXTRAPOLATION

As a rule it is more dangerous than instructive to extrapolate findings beyond

the context from which they were derived. The history of forestry offers

plenty of examples of the truth of that axiom, especially with the transfer of

European silvicultural and management practices. It could be equally

hazardous to apply the experience from the tropical mixed forests of Asian too

rigidly to the other tropical forest regions. The differences underlying the

superficial similarity in appearance, between the tropical moist forests of

Asia, Africa and Central and South America are quite marked, and obvious to

all but the most casual observation.

Several quite notable features may make that point. For one thing, there is

nothing msembling the Dipterocarp dominated forests of Malaysia and the

Philippines in either the African or American regions. The Mora forests of

Guyana certainly attain a high degree of uniformity, but it is a uniformity of

the one species rather than the one family. Then while some genera are common

to all three of the main regions, and even more of two, very few species are.

Thirdly environmental combinations of soil and climate within the global range

of the tropical mixed forest vary quite widely, and apparently produce in the

African and American regions a greater sensitivity to disruption than is

evident in South-East Asia. Fourthly, the long term pattern of the

development of human activity and settlement in the tropical mixed forests of

the three regions has been quite different, and even the exploitation of the

forests in the modern area has continued to follow markedly different paths.

With such ecological and societal differences, it is.most unlikely that the

conditions governing sustainable management will be similar enough anywhere

for the experience in Asia to have much direct application. But to go from

there and assume that there is nothing to be learned from it would be equally

dangerous. At the very least, the Asian experience shows that sustainable,

integrated management of the tropical mixed forest is technically feasible.

There are two further aspects in which the experience in Asia does give some

very useful indications to the management of tropical mixed forests, generally.

One of those refers to technical considerations, the other to organisatioml

matters.

- 20 5 -CHAPTER VII

(If TROPICAk J'QREST HANAGEMEHl'JR GFlfEBAL

As a rule it is more dangerous than instructive to extrapolate findings beyond the context from which they were derived. The history of forestry off-ers plenty of examples of the truth of that axiom, especially with the transfer of European silvicultural and management practices. It could be equally hazardous to apply the experience from the tropical - mixed forests of Asian too rigidly to the other tropical forest regions. The differences underlying the superficial similarity in appearance, between the tropical moist forests of Asia, Africa and Central and South America are quite marked, and obvious to all -but the most casual observation.

Several quite notable features may make that point. For one thing, there is nothing nsembling the Dipterocarp dominated forests of Malaysia and the Philippines in ei ther the African or American regions. The Mora forests of Guyana certainly attain a high degree of uniformity, but it is a uniformity of the one species rather than the one family. Then while some genera are common to all three of the main regions, and even more of two, very few species are.

Thirdly envirocmental combinations of soil and climate within the global range of the tropical mixed forest vary quite widely, and apparently produce in the African and American regions a greater sensitivity to disruption than is evident in South-East Asia. Fourthly, the long term pattern of the

development of human activity and settlement in the tropical mixed forests of the- three regions has been quite different, and even the exploitation of the forests in the modern area has continued to follow markedly different pa ths.

With such ecological and societal differences, it is most unlikely that the condi tions governing sustainable management will be similar enough anywhere for the experience in Asia to have much direct applicatio~ But to go from there and assume that there is nothing to be learned from it would be equally dangerous. At the very least, the Asian experience shows that sustainable, integrated management of the tropical mixed forest is technically feasi ble.

'Jbere are two further aspects in 'Ilbich the experience in Asia does give some very useful indications to the management of tropical mixed forests, generally.

One of those refers to technical considerations, the other to orgpnisationaJ. natters.

- 207 -

IFSTIJCLANÇÇIAL INTERACTION

The three country stuci-Les emphasise, quite stron,gly, certain technical

problems encountered in bringing tne various types of the tropical mixed

forests under sustainable management with a timber production orientation.

The review of management in India, illustrates, over a very wide range of

tropical mixed forests types, the technical problems of adjusting rotations

and silvicultural regimes to rapidly increasing demand for industrial timber

and fuelwood. The Philippine review concentrates on the development of

inventory systems, to provide the informational base necessary for

calculating, planning and implementing a natural system of sustained yield

management and its post-harvest monitoring. In Malaysia, the emphasis is

largely on the silvicultura' problems of adjusting management to the

ecologically and topographically difficult hill forests as agriculture forced

forestry out of the lowlands.

The empha.sis in each case reflects a technical reaction in forest management

to changing social environments. It has become fashionable to ridicule this as

a typically insensitive technocratic response. But it is the only possible

response. The techniques of forest management cannot be applied anywhere

else but to the forest. That is the only way in which the development of a

forest can be directed towards whatever objectives forest management should be

trying to achieve. What it should be trying to achieve is .however, a social

choice, not a technical one. The technical content of the choice is confined

to defining the limits within which it can be made. Often that choice has had

to be made during the process of forest management because of the failure of

those responsible for the maid.ng of social choices to do so firmly and

unambiguously, with respect to forests. Leaving the choice of the objectives

of forest management to the managers invites a technical bias and almost

excludes the possibility of an in depth analysis of the social needs of the

future.

The second lesson of general application which emerges from these case studies

is therefore a twofold one. In the management of the tropical moist forest,

objectives must be defined, but they must be defined from social requirements,

within the limits of what is technically possible, not the other way round.

LIINDLUE_PRINcIELEa

The primary social consideration bearing on the management of the tropical

mixed forest concerns the ultimate use of the land occupied by the forests at

present. Land use classifications tend to rate agricultural uses as higher

forms of land use than forestry. The Malaysian land use policy illustrates

this principle in force quite clearly. :Yet there is no absolute or scientific

basis for that hierarchical system. On the contrary, it, can be demonstrated

that forestry would be a much better form of land use even on prime quality

- 207 -

TECHHICAL AND SOCIAL I1TERACTION

The three country studies emphasise, quite strongly, certain technical problems encountered in bringing the various types of the tropical mixed forests 1,1llder sustainable management with a timber production orientation.

The review of management in India, illustrates, over a very wide range of tropical mixed forests types, the technical problems of adjusting rotations

and silvicultural regimes to rapidly increasing demand for industrial timber and fuelwood. The Philippine review concentrates on the development of inventory systems, to provide the informational base necessary for calculating, planning and implementing a na tural system of sustained yield management and its post-harvest monitoring. In Malaysia, the emphasis is largely on the silvicultural problems of adjusting management to the ecologically and topographically difficult hill forests as agriculture forced forestry out of the lowlands.

The emphasis in each case reflects a technical reaction in forest management to changing social environments. It has become ft1s.hianaliLe to ridicule this as a typically insensitive technocratic response. But it is the only possible

response. The techniques of forest management cannot be applied anywhere

else but to the forest. That is the only way in which the development of a forest can be directed towards whatever objectives forest management should be trying to achieve. What it should be trying to achieve is however, a social chOice, not a technical one. The technical content of the choice is confined

to defining the limits within which it can be made. Often that choice has had to be made during the process of forest management because of the failure ot those responsible for the making of social choices to do so firmly and unambiguously, with respect to forest~ Leaving the choice of the objectives of forest management to the managers invites a technical bias and almost excludes the possibility of an in depth analysis of the social needs of the

future.

The second lesson of general application which emerges from these case studies is therefore a twofold one. In the management of the tropical moist forest, objectives must be defined, but they must be defined from social requirements, within the limits of what is technically possible, not the other way round.

LQlD USE PBIICIPLES

The primary social consideration bearing on the management of the tropical mixed forest concerns the ultimate use of the land occupied by the forests at present. Land use classifications tend to rate agricultural uses as higher forms of land use than forestry. The Malaysian land use policy illustrates

this prinCiple in force quite clearly. Yet there is no absolute or scientific basis tor that hierarchical system. On the contrary, it can be demonstrated that torestry would be a much better form of. land use even on prime quality

- 208 -

agricultural land in certain circumstances. And certainly in mountainous

terrain, forests provide much more effective catchment protection than most

forms of agriculture, and better stream flow regimes than most engineering

remedies to catchment mis-use can provide. The Indian and Philippine case

studies bring out this aspect quite clearly.

In spite of the fairly obvious common sense of such precautions in land use,

the forest, it seems, inevitably gives way to agriculture wherever food

production is a dominating social or political mcessity. Even the well known

fact that massive and expensive reforestation will eventually be necessary to

repair the widespread social and infrastructural damage from unbridled forest

clearance, cannot stop the process. India and the Philippines add to the

already ample historical demonstrations of this phenomenon. In such

circumstances, land use planning without land reform would seem to be

pointless.

Nor, does an unrelenting opposition to encroachment have much future. The

solution lies mainly in a much broader social milieu than that affected by

forestry, although forestry can be a part of the solution. The proper role of

forest management in such circumstance has two functions. The first is to

facilitate a more orderly transfer of land use so that the wood from the

forest clearances is utilised rather than wasted. The second is to develop

viable agro-forestry systems in situations where straight agricultural

development will lead to soil and watershed degradation in situ and

downstream. The Malaysian experience has some relevance to the first, and the

Philippine work in agro-forestry settlement inciicates some possibilities in

the second.

Where population and poverty are not so crushing, the opportunity may ex.ist

for a reasoned approach to land use planning and its implementation. This was,

and to some extent, still is the situation in Malaysia. There, land use

planning, although predicated on the false assumption of the invariable

superiority of agriculture, has left an identified and reasonably secure

resource base for the management of the tropical mixed forest. In that

respect, it offers, with appropriate adjustment to the system for ranking land

uses, a pattern that could well be emulP.ted in countries enjoying similar

circumstances.

SILVICULTURE AND YIELD

In an overall assessment of the management of tropical forest management,

Masson (1983) in addition to some very pertinent observations on the land use

question, points to a number of serious weaknesses on the technical side.

They provide an instructive basis for evaluating the general applicability of

the Asian management systems at this level.

- 208 -

agricultural land in certain circumstances. And , certainly in mountainous terrain, forests provide much more effective catchment protection than most forms of agriculture, and better stream flow regimes than most engineering

remedies to catchment mis-use can provide. The Indian and Philippine case studies bring out this aspect quite clearly.

In spite of the fairly obvious common sense of such precautions in land use, <

the forest, it seems, inevitably gives way to agriculture wherever food production is a dominating social or political necessity. Even the well know n fact that massive and expensive reforestation will eventually be necessary ' to repair the widespread social and infrastructural damage from unbridled forest clearance, cannot stop the process. India and the Philippines add to the

already ample historical demonstrations of this phenomenon. In such circumstances, land use planning without land reform would seem to be pointless.

Nor, does an unrelenting opposition to encroachment have much future. The solut ion lies mainly in a much broader social milieu than that affected by t'orestry, although forestry can be a part of the solution. The proper role of t'orest management in such circumstance has two functions. The first is to t'acilitate a more orderly transfer of land use so that the wood from the t'orest clearances is utilised rather than wasted. The, second is to develop viable agro-forestry systems in situations where straight agricultural development will lead to soil and watershed degradation in situ and

downstream. The Malaysian experience has some relevance to the first, and the Philippine work in agro-forestry settlement indicates some possibilities in the second.

Where population and poverty are not so crushing, the opportuni ty may exist t'or a reasoned approach to land use planning and its implementation. This was, and to some extent, still is the situation in Malaysia. There, land use planning, although predicated on the false assumption of the invariable superiority of agriculture, has left an identified and reasonably secure resource base for the management of the tropical mixed forest. In that respect, it offers, with appropriate adjustment to the system for ranking land uses, a pattern that could well be emw",ted in countries enjoying similar

circumstances.

Sn.VICULTURE MiD YTRI.D

In an overall assessment of the management of tropical forest management, Masson (1983) in addition to some very pertinent observations on the land use question, points to a nl.\lllber of serious weaknesses on the technical side. They provide an instructive basis for evaluating the general applicability of the Asian management systems at this level.

- 209 -

A forest management system must integrate three sub-systems - the forest, the

society and the means by which the needs of the latter are linked to the

potentials of the former. Each sub-system is, in turn, a complex system of

dynamic inter-active elements and sub-systems. Forest management has

traditionally been concerned more with the forest and technology sub-systems.

On the whole, the needs of society have been taken as given or as little

different from those of the immediate past. To a degree, the limited and

sporadic success with attempts at management of the tropical mixed forest can

be traced to that simplistic treatment of the social sub-system. However,

even if that had not been so, knowledge of the functioning of the forest eco-

system could easily become the limiting factor. The forest eco-system is far

from simple, even in the extreme case of monoculture plantations. The amount

of research effort still devoted to them is evidence enough of that. The

tropical mixed forest eco-systems are so many orders of magnitude more

complex, that the chances of bringing them under sustainable management could

easily be dismissed as non-existent.

Fortunately, the Asian management systems show that sustainable management

under timber production does not require anything approaching a full

understanding of the relationships and dynamics of the eco-systems. But it

does require more than the elementary or superficial knowledge that, for the

most part, rules outside some of the Asian tropical mixed forests.

Of fundamental importance in that respect, is the need to distinguish between

management that achieves sustainability by the release of regeneration and

management that depends on inducing regeneration for continuity (e.g. Wyatt-

Smith, 1959). The Malayan uniform system and its development is a text book

example of the success of a shelterwood system based on the release of already

established regeneration of the desired species. Some of the areas in which

natural systems were technically successful in India seem also to be more of

releasing than inducing systems. It also seems quite likely that the forms of

selection system developing for the hill Dipterocarp forests are, in the main,

regeneration release systems.

The disappointing results of the early attempts to transpose the Malayan

uniform system to West Africa, where the canopy opening led more often to

climber tangles than to established regeneration (Kio,1981), show the high

degree of sensitivity to this distinction. A very substantial jump in the

uncertainty, as well as the difficulty of management is clearly associated

with systems depending on induced regeneration as compared with release_ So

much so, that it could well be that the Dipterocarps are a fortunate

exception; perhaps one of the few types of the tropical mixed forest, in

which, given the present state of ecological knowledge, natural management

systems can be confidently advocated and put into effect.

- 209 -

A forest management system must integrate three sub-systems - the forest, the society and the means by which the needs of the latter are linked to the potentials of the former. Each sub-:,ystem is, in turn, a complex system of dynamic inter-active' elements and sub-systems. Forest management has

traditionally been concerned more with the forest and technology sub-systems. On the whole, the needs of society have been taken as given or as litUe different from those of the immediate past. To a degree, the limited and sporadic success with attempts at management of the tropical mixed forest can be traced to that simplistic treatment of the social sUb-system. However,

even if that had not been so, knowledge of the functioning of the forest eco­system could easily become the limiting facto~ The forest ecc-system is far from simple, even in the extreme case of monocul ture plantations. The amount of research effort still devoted to them is evidence enough of that. The

tropical mixed forest eco-systems are so many orders of magni tu de more complex, that the chances of bringing them under sustainable management could easily be dismissed as non-existent.

For tuna tely, the Asian management systems show that sustainable management under timber production does not require anything approaching a full understanding of the relationships and dynamics of the eco-systems. But it does require more than the elementary or superficial knowledge that, for the

most part, rules outside some of the Asian tropical mixed forests.

Of' fundamental importance in that respect, is the need to distinguish between management that achieves sustainability ' by the release of regeneration and management that depends on inducing regeneration for continuity (e.g. Wyatt­

Smith, 1959). The Malayan uniform system and its development is a text book example of the success of a shelterwood system based on the release of already

established regeneration of the desired species. Some of' the areas in which natural systems were technically successful in India seem also to be more of releasing than inducing systems. It also seems quite likely that the forms of selection system developing for the hill Dipterocarp forests are, in the main, regeneration release systems.

The disappointing results of the early attempts to transpose the Malayan uniform system to West Africa, where the canopy opening led more often to Climber tangles than to established regeneration (fio, 1981), show the high degree of sensi tivi ty to this distinction. A very substantiai jump in the uncertainty, as well as the difficulty of management is clearly associated with systems depending on induced regeneration as compared with release. So

much so, that it could well be that the Dipterocarps are a fortunate exception; perhaps one of the few types of the tropical mixed forest, in which, given the present state of ecological knowledge, natural management systems can be confidently advocated and put into effect.

- 210 -

The results discussed in the review of management in India show the

difficulties quite markedly. There, unreliability of regeneration reinforced

the trend towards plantations. Pessimism about the prospects for the

management of the tropical mixed forest where regeneration is not readily

assured, might therefore be justified. Fortunately, there are several

indications to the contrary.

The tropical shelterwood system in West Africa, developed by adaption from the

Malayan Uniform System did, according to Baur (1964), lead to more often than

not, to the successful establishment of a satisfactory second crop. Moreover

that crop had all this signs of being a more productive one than the forest it

replaced. More recently Kio (1981) has argued that the tropical mixed forest

in West Africa can be managed under natural systems depending, partly at

least, on induced regeneration. Two things seem to be required. They are:-

Some quantitative information on the dynamics of response to treatment

has been collected, analysed and applied.

The patience to wait until the regeneration processes have had time to

work instead of rushing to hasty conclusions on the basis of early

results.

The latter point links to the uneasiness expressed, especially in the Indian

review, but still evident in Malaysia and the Philippines, regarding the low

yield of the natural tropical mixed forest. The industrial problems and

economic questioning that its low yield can lead to, can eventually overwhelm

natural management. India provides an instructive example of this course to

an advanced degree. Although overcutting is most serious in respect of

plywood logs, and in certain regions of the country, the outlook is for the

overall demand for industrial wood alone to exceed by several times the

expected sustained yield capacity of the whole of the tropical mixed forests,

by the end of the century. SuCh conditions, severely stress the functioning

of proper management systems. Mbreoyer, shortening of rotations and felling

qycles will inevitably reduce the resource base and its productivity

progressing in a vicious cycle to liquidation.

For other regions the message then is clear. Yield enhancement measures need

to be investigated and initiated from the earliest stages of management.

Increased utilisation of the lesser-known or lesser-used species could be

part of the solution (Tisseverasinghe 1981; Freezaillah, 1984). But the

possibility that greater use of those species could lead to heavier cutting

and more concentrated logging, which may be ecologically inappropriate, could

as Freezaillah (1984) also points out, make it counter productive.

Tisseverasinghe (1981) on the other hand, is of the view that such more

intensive utilisation is the key to management. Concentration on the lesser

known species as the channel to improved yield may therefore be part of the

answer without being the full anawer. Efforts to increase increment on thepresently used species are therefore indicated.

- 210 -

The results discussed in the review of management in India show the

difficul ties qui te markedly. There, unreliabili ty of regenel"ation reinforced the trend towards plantations. Pessimism about the prospects for the

management of the tropical mixed forest where regeneration is not readily assured, might therefore be justified. Fortunately, there are several. indications to the contrary.

The tropical shel terwood system in West Africa, developed by adaption from the Malayan Uniform ~ystem did, according to Baur (1964), lead to more often than not, to the successful establishment of a satisfactory second crop. Moreover that crop had all this signs of being a more productive one than the forest it replaced. More recently Kio (1981) has argued that the tropical mixed forest in West Africa can be managed under natural systems depending, partly at

least, on induced regeneration. Two things seem to be required. They are:-

a) Some quanti tative information on the dynamics of response to treatment has been collected, analysed and applied.

b) > The> patience to wait until the regeneration processes have had time to

work instead of rushing to hasty conclusions on the basis of early results.

The latter point links to the uneasiness expressed, especially in the Indian review, but still evident in Malaysia and the Philippines, regarding the low yield of the na tural tropical mixed forest. The industrial problems and economic questioning that its low yield can lead to, can eventually overwhelm na tural management. India provides an instructive example of this course to an advanced degree. Although over cutting is most serious in respect of plywood logs, and in certain regions of the country, the outlook is for the overall demand for industrial wood alone to exceed by several times the expected sustained yield capacity of the whole of the tropical mixed forests, by the end of the century. Such conditions, severely stress the fUnctioning

of proper management systems. M:Jreover, shortening of rotations and felling cycles will inevitably reduce the resource base and its productivity progressing in a vici.ous cycle to liquidation.

For other regions the message then is clear. Yield enhancement measures need to be investigated and initiated from the earliest stages of management. Increased util isation of the lesser-known or lesser-used species coufd be

part of the solution (Tisseverasinghe 1981; Freezaillah, 1984). But the possibili ty that greater use of those species could lead to heavier cut ting and more concentrated logging, which may be ecologically inappropriate, could as Freezaillah (1984) also points out, make it counter productive. Tisseverasinghe (1981) on the other hand, is of the view that such more

intensive utilisation is the key to management. Concentration on the lesser known species as the channel to improved yield may therefore be part of the answer without being the full answer. Efforts to increase increment on the presently used species are therefore indicated.

- 211 -

The prospects for achieving an increase in that direction are,, from the Asian

experience, hard to assess. Th. e evidence is at the best, non-eommital if not

discouraging. Nicholson (1979,1985) is extremely sceptical of the chances of

raising the increment of the Dipterooarp forests to more than 2-3 m3/HA. The

fact that after a century or more of management in India, the average

increment for the natural forests is still only 0.5 m3/HA., suggests that

Nicholson's maximum may be an optimistic estimate. Even if it is not, it is

certainly going to be very difficult to achieve. Palmer (1975), although not

quite so despondent, hardly suggests major increases are in sight.

There are ti O points worth making with reference to that rather dismal

assessment. The first i :3 that the increments are measured in terms of

industrial wood currently harvested, and that is a relatively small fraction

of the wood actually grown. The second is that if the average increment in

India could be raised to the lower end of the presumed maximum range, then the

problem of over-cutting in industrial wood, would be virtually overcome.

The prospect is therefore much less dismal than a simple comparison of the

postulated maximum with alternatives would suggest. Even then, the fact that

plantations, when they succeed, show five to ten fold increaaes in

increment over the fully-managed tropical mixed forest is a hard criterion to

overcome. It is however, strictly relevant only where the quantity of wood

production is the sole criterion, irrespective of quality, value or variety.

The sort of situation, in other words, that might apply for socially oriented

fuelwood management under conditions of acute distress. Otherwise the

comparison must extend to a wider value orientation, including non-wood

products. In those terms natural systems may be much more productive than

plantations. (Fernandes, 1983).

The enhancement of increment by increasing the growth rate of individual trees

and stands, depends ultimately on the results of long-term, detailed

investigatd.ons of their responses to a wide range of treatments . As Fox's

observations indicate, the variable and erratic nature of behaviour so far

recorded, means that any programme of such studies will be complex, prolonged

and expensive.(Fox 1970). In the short-run however, a substantial lift in

recorded increments could be achieved by more intensive utilisation of the

trees felled or damaged under the present rather selective regimes. It is

rare for more than 25 to 30% of the volume standing in tropical mixed forest

to be removed, and considerably less is actually utilised (Self & Trenaman,

1972, Catinot, 19714, Masson, 1983). A marked and immediate improvement in the

economics of management could presumably be achieved, simply by a market

diversification programme, combined with more effective supervision and

control of logging.

- 211 -

The prospects for achieving an increase in that direction are,. from the Asian experience, hard to assess. The evidence is at the best, non-commital if not

discouraging. Nicholson (1979,1985) is extremely sceptical of the chances of

raising · the increment of the Dipterocarp forests to more than 2-3 m3/HA. The fact that after a century or more of management in India, the average

increment for the natural forests is still' only 0.5 lI!3/HA., suggests that Nicholson's maximum may be an optimistic estimate. Even if it is not, it is certainly going to be very difficult to achieve. Palmer (1975), although not

quite so despondent, hardly suggests major increases are in sight.

There are tlio points worth making with reference to that rather dismal assessment. The first is that the increments are measured in terms of industrial wood currently harvested, and that 1s a relatively small fraction

of the wood ·actually grown. The second is that if the average increment in India could be raised to the lower end of the presumed maximum range, then the

problem of over-cutting in industrial wood, would be virtually overcome.

The prospect is therefore much less dismal than a simple comparison of the

postulated maximum with alternatives would suggest. Even then, the fact that plantations, when they succeed, show five to ten fold increases in

increment over the fully-managed tropical mixed forest is a hard criterion to

overcome. It is however, strictly relevant only where the quantity of wood

production is the sole criterion, irrespective of quality, value or variety. The sort of situation, in other words, that might apply for socially oriented fuelwood management under conditions of acute distress. Otherwise the

comparison must extend to a wider value orientation, including non-wood products. In those terms natural systems may be much more productive than

plantations. (Fernandes, 1983).

The enhancement of increment by increasing the growth rate of individual trees and stands, depends ultimately on the results of long-term, detailed

investigation.s of their responses to a llide range of treatments. As Fox's

observations indicate, the variable and erratic nature of behaviour so far

recorded, means that any programme of such studies will be complex, prolonged and expensive.(Fox 1970). In the short-run however, a substantial lift in recorded increments could be achieved by more intensive utilisation of the trees felled or damaged under the present rather selective regimes. It is

rare for more than 25 to 30% of the volume standing in tropical mixed forest to be removed, and considerably less is actually utilised (Self & Trenaman,

1972, Catinot, 1974, Masson, 1983). A marked and immediate improvement in the

economics of management could presumably be achieVed, simply by a market

d!versifica tion programme, com bined with more effective supervision and control of logging.

- 212 -

This latter consideration is of the greatest significance. One of the serious

threats that this view of the low productivity of the tropical moist forest

poses to their management is that it cannot be justified in economic terms.

Superficially, it is a hard charge to deny. Long rotations combined with low

final mean annual increments require almost impossibly high average stumpage

rates to break even, no matter how low the management costs and interest rates

applied in the calculations. There are, of course, many things wrong with

comparative evaluations of management systems for the mixed tropical forests,

in terms of their out turn of industrial wood at current price gradients.

(Leslie, 1977). So many, that it is almost inconceivable that policy could be

predicated on them. But it is, and it is still urged that it should be (e.g.

Spears 1979). More effective utilisation and more realistic pricing of the

commercial wood produced would go sorae way towards correcting that bias.

Neither call for much greater technical knowledge than is already available

for tropical forests anywhere. They may however require institutional changes

before they can be put into effect.

INSTITETTIONAL REFORM

Some of the technical findings of general relevance to the management of

tropical mixed forests could be applied independently of the institutional and

organisational framework. The relative lack of information relating to

measures for the augmentation of increment, for example, cannot be attributed

to institutional factors or failings in the countries reviewed. Many of the

deficierries In the Asian management systems are however institutional in

origin. They would limit, just as much, if not frustrate, attempts at

management in any tropical forest region should they exist or be allowed to

develop.

One - land reform - has been mentioned earlier. Two forms in which

institutional restructuring in that respect may be a pre-requisite to

integrated forest management stand out. One is the land ownership pattern

which forces subsistence farming into more widespread and more frequent forest

clearing, despite the existence of substantial areas of already cleared land

which could contribute much more to local food supplies. This is the

institutional form of land use on which most land reform proposals have been

predicated. Where it applies, rural land reform to relieve the pressure on

forested land could well be the necessary condition before forest management

is feasible.

The second form-communal land ownership-may involve institutional reform of a

different nature. In this case it may not be so much the institutions itself

that is in need of reform, as the attitudes to it of the super-imposed western

style institutions of government. As a rule these have taken the view that

coramunal land ownership is an obstacle to rational land use and development.

Consequently the approa.ch has been either to overthrow it, as happened in

India and the Philippines, or to modify it, so that land use and management

could proceed as the government organisations thought best, without the

impedance of communal ownership.

- 21 2 -

This latter consideration is of the greatest significance. One of the serious threats that this view of the low pr:oductivity of the tropical moist forest poses to their management is that it cannot be justified in economic terms.

Superficially, it is a hard charge to deny. Long rotations combined with low final mean annual increments require almost impossibly high average stumpage rates to break even, no ma tter how low the management costs and interest rates applied in the calculations. There are, of course, many things wrong with comparative evaluations of management systems for the mixed tropical forests, in terms of their out turn of industrial wood at current price gradients. (Leslie, 1977). So many, that it is almost inconceivable that policy could "be

predicated on them. But it is, and it is still urged that it should be (e.g. Spears 1979). More effective utilisation and more realistic pricing of the commercial wood produced would go some way towards correcting that bias. Neither call for much grElater technical knowledge than is already availabl"e for tropical forests anywhere. They may however require institutional changes

before they can be put into effect.

lRSTITQTIONAL REFORM

Some of the technical findings of general relevance to the management of tropical mixed forests could be applied independently of the institutional and organisational framework. The relative lack of information relating to measures for the augmentation of increment, for example, cannot be attributed to institutional factors or failings in the countries reviewed. Many of the deficierx:ies:in the Asian management systems are however institutional in origin. They would limit, just as much, if not frustrate, attempts at

management in any tropical forest region should they exist or be allowed to

develop.

One" - land reform - has been mentioned earlier. Two forms in which institutional restructuring in that respect may be a pre-requisi te to

integrated forest management stand out. One is the land ownership pa ttern which forces subsistence farming into more widespread and more frequent forest clearing, despite the existence of substantial areas of already cleared land which could contribute much more to local food supplies. This is the insti tutional form of land use on which most land reform proposals have been predicated. Where it applies, rural land reform to relieve the pressure on

forested land could well be the necessary condition before forest management is feasi bl e.

The second forin-communal land ownership-may involve institutional reform of a different na ture. "In this case it may not be so much the insti tutions i tsel f that is in need of reform, as the attitudes to it of the supel'-imposed western style insti tutions of government. As a rule these have taken the view that communal land ownership is an obstacle to rational land use and development. Consequently the approach has been ei ther to overthrow it, as happened in India and the"Philippines, "or to "modify it, so that land use and management

could proceed as the government organisations thought best, without the impedance of communal ownership.

- 213 -

That the difficulties experienced with the implementation of these approaches

have become more overt in recent times (Fernandes & Kulkarni, 1983) suggests

that the opposite approach might be more fruitful. Communal land ownership

and the social systems associated with it, are very powerful means for

exercising co-operative community action. To a large degree, all that

prevents this social force being mobilised for more durable and effective

conservation and management of the tropical mixed forest, is the

institutionalised perception of it as a problem.

To change that perception to one in which communal systems are viewed as

opportunities, does not, in itself call for any major organisational re-

structuring. To act on the changed perception may. Wherever western legal

and communal institutions have been super-imposed they tend to over-ride

customary institutions in the event of conflict. In such circumstances the

ability of a forestry administration to reverse the relationship of its own

volition, is very limited. Even arrangements that ought to be matters of

internal administration are constrained by society-wide institutional

implications. Fbr instance, it is widely recognized that effective integrated

management calls for the most hignly qualified, experienced and motivated

personnel to be working in the forests. But that cannot be effected by a'

forestry administration on its own, within an overall institutional and social

structure whose rating and rewards system is urban bin-qed (Lipton, 1977).

The incorporation of inter-disciplinary informational sources and views into

integrated management planning; the participation of affected and interested

parties and social groups in the design and implementation of integrated

management; the decentralisation of decision authority to accommodate local

variations in ecological, economic and sociological determinants of management

are further examples of the institutional flexibility that is necessary to

meet the multiple objective, multiple interest nature of integrated forest

management. None of them is readily accommodated within the standard forms of

governmental organisation.

In this area, the Asian countries reviewed have some elements to offer of general

applicability. The Malaysian National Forestry Council is of obvious relevance

to federal states; The Philippines' approach to rural development problems

could be transferable where agro-forestry formulations are being sought and the

Indian Forestry Development Corporations could provide models for accelerated

plantation programmes. But, by and large, the institutional structures have to

be changed significantly if integrated forest management is to succeed in the

region.

- 213 -

That the difficul ties experienced with the implementation of these approaches have become more overt in recent times (Fernandes & Kulkarni, 1983) suggests that the opposite approach might be more fruitful. Communal land ownership and the social systems associated with it, are very powerful means for exercising co-operative community action. To a large degree, all that prevents this social force being mobilised for more durable and effective conservation and management of the tropical mixed forest, is the institutionalised perception of it as a problem.

To change that perception to one in which communal systems are viewed as opportunities, does not, in itself call for any major organisational re­structuring. To act on the changed perception may. Wherever western legal and communal institutions have been super-imposed they tend to over-ride customary insti tutions in the event of conflict. In such circumstances the ability of a forestry administration to reverse the relationship of its own

volition, is very limited. Even arrangements that OU€Pt to be matters of intenJal adm:in:lstration are constrained by society-wide institutional implications. For instance, it is widely recognized that effective integrated III'lll8geIIIelt calls for the IIDst highly qualified, experienced and lIDtivated personnel to be working in the forests. BIt that cannot be effected by a forestry adm:in:lstration on its own, within an overall institutional and social structure whose rating and rewards system is urban biased (Lipton, 19n).

The incorporation of inter-disciplinary informational sources and views into integrated management planning; the participation of affected and interested parties and social groups in the design and implementation of integrated management; the decentralisation of decision authority to accommodate local variations in ecological, economic and sociological determinants of management are further examples of the institutional flexibility that is necessary to meet the multiple objective, multiple interest nature of integrated forest management. None of them is readily accommodated within the standard forms of

governmental organisa tion.

In this area, the Asian cOlllltries reviewed have some elements to offer of general

applicability. '!he Mllcwsian National Forestry Council is of obvious relevance

to federal states; '!he Rrilippines' approach to rural developrent problems could be transferable where agro-forestry fornulations are being sougp.t and the

Indian Forestry Developnent Corporations could provide IIDdels for accelerated

plantation progranrnes. BIt, by and large, the institutional structures have to be changed significantly if integrated forest III'lll8geIIIelt is to succeed in the

region.

Barnard, R. C.

(1954)

Adkoli, N.S. (1977)

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