Ramírez - Atmospheric Polluting Agents 2000-2005 Guadalajara

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Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

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Journal of Hazardous Materials

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / j h a z m a t

The spatialtemporal distribution of the atmospheric polluting agents during theperiod 20002005 in the Urban Area of Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico

Hermes U. Ramrez Snchez a,, Mara D. Andrade Garca b , Rubn Bejaran c, Mario E. Garca Guadalupe a,Antonio Wallo Vzquez d, Ana C. Pompa Toledanoe, Odila de la Torre Villasenor a

aAstronomy and Meteorology Institute, University of Guadalajara, Mexicob Geography and Territorial Ordination Department, University of Guadalajara, MexicocAtmospheric Sciences and Oceans Department, University of Buenos Aires, Argentinad Chemistry Atmospheric and Contamination Center of the Cuba Meteorology Institute, Cubae Meteorology Provincial Center of Santiago de Cuba, Cuba

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 17 July 20 08Received in revised form 23 October 2008Accepted 24 October 2008Available online 12 November 2008

Keywords:

Polluting agentsSpatialtemporal behavior

a b s t r a c t

In the large cities, the disordered urban development, the industrial activities, and the transport, havecaused elevated concentrations of polluting agents and possible risks to the health of the population.The metropolises located in valleys with little ventilation (such as the Urban Area of Guadalajara: UAG)present low dispersion of polluting agents can cause high risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.The objective of this work was to describe the spatialtemporal distribution of the atmospheric pollutingagents: carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), particles smaller than 10microns (m) (PM10) and ozone (O3) in the UAG during the period20002005. A spatialtemporal distri-bution analysis wasmade by means of graphic interpolation (Kriging method) of the statisticalparametersof CO, NO2, SO2, PM10and O3with the collected data from eight stations of atmospheric monitoring inthe UAG. The results show that the distributions of the atmospheric polluting agents are variable duringthe analyzed years. The polluting agent with highest concentration is PM10(265.42g/m3), followed by

O3(0.11 ppm), NO2(0.11 ppm), CO (9.17 ppm) and SO2(0.05ppm). The most affected zone is thesoutheastof the UAG. The results showed that an important percentage of days exceed the Mexican norms of airquality (93199 days/year).

2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction

At present the problems of environmental pollution are wellknown, particularly of the air, that give rise to the accumulationof risks for the health and the welfare of the population [13].Much of those problems are a result of rapid and disorderly urbangrowth andindustrialization,phenomenathat oftenare not accom-panied by programs aimed at protecting the environment[46].For decades air pollution has been associated with certain adverseeffects on the health of the population. In 1948 extremely high lev-els of air pollution were associatedwith excess mortalityin Donora,Pennsylvania,United States of America[7], also in London, England,1952 [8] and Meuse Valley, Belgium, 1930 [9]. These episodes werecharacterized by high levels of particulate matter, sulfur dioxide(SO2) and mixtures of gases.On the other hand, not so extreme pol-

Corresponding author at: Av. Vallarta 2602, Col. Arcos Vallarta, Guadalajara,Jalisco, Mxico CP 44130, Mexico. Tel.: +52 33 36164937; fax: +52 33 36159829.

E-mail address:[email protected](H.U.R. Snchez).

lution levels can also be associated with premature mortality. Theanalyses of data from London have shown an association betweenmortality and a widerange of concentrationsof pollutants, withoutany evidence of a lower limit [10]. A study in children under the ageof 15 who attended the emergency services and family medicinefrom a hospital in the Social Security Mexican Institute (IMSS) inthe Southwest area of Mexico City in 1993, Tllez-Rojo et al. [11]showed that an increase of 50 parts per billion (ppb) in the hourlyaverage of ozone (O3) a day, would cause, the following day, anincrease of 9.9% in emergency consultations for upper respiratoryinfections, in winter, a figure that can rise to as much as 30% if theincrease occurs for five consecutive days. A study in Mexico City,Borja and cols[12]observed an increase in mortality, associatedindependently with O3, SO2 and total suspended particles (TSP).When the three contaminants were considered simultaneously inthe same model, only the TSP is associated with the mortality, insuch a way that a 6% increment in the mortality was observed foreach 100g/m3. There was no independent effect of O3 associ-ated with mortality, butis difficult to attribute the effects observedto a contaminant itself, due to the complexity of the mixtures to

0304-3894/$ see front matter 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

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H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141 1129

which the population is exposed. The process of urbanization inLatin-American countries has been extremely fast during 20th cen-tury. Large urban agglomerations exist with more than two millioninhabitants. In Mexico, among the cities with these characteristicsare: The Valley of Mexico Metropolitan Zone (ZMVM), GuadalajaraMetropolitan Zone (ZMG), Monterrey Metropolitan Zone (ZMM)and Valley of Toluca Metropolitan Zone (ZMVT); the four present

highest growth rates. At present the inhabitants of the cities rep-resent approximately 75% of the total national population. Thestatistics on the use of motor vehicles provide potentially one ofthe most significant indices of air pollution. We know that from1984 to1993, the number of the vehicles in Mexico has grown at anaccelerated rate of 43%[13].Although the figures provided relatedto all vehicles in the country, it is not unreasonable to think thatthe majority is concentrated in urban areas and their transit. Thepresent paper discusses theproblem of airpollution in UAG, as wellas the spatial and temporal evolution of the concentration of pol-lutants during the period 20002005. This will allow the futureevaluation of the impact of pollutants on the health of the popula-tion, the making of recommendations to diminish their effects, andfunction as a frame of reference for potential control policies andreducing emissions of air pollutants in the UAG.

2. Area of study

Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone is situated in the Central-Westof Mexico and is the second largest city of Mexico (Fig. 1).It is thecapital of Jalisco state and is located at a latitude of 203954N,longitude of 1031842 W, and an altitude of 1 540 meters, with anapproximate surface area of 2239 km2 and a population of 4.5 mil-lion inhabitants. The physiographic is lie on the Valley of Atemajac,

between the basin of the Valley of the Rio Grande of Santiago, theValleys of Atemajacand thePlainof Tonal,betweenthe mountain-ous zones of the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Axis Neovolcanicthat constitute a natural physical barrier for the circulation of thewind, which impedes the escape of the air pollution[14].

The UAG is affected for most of the year by the influx of tropicalmaritime air. In the course of the year a great variety of weather

phenomena of regional scale, near the surface and in the upperatmosphere, influence the weather conditions. The UAG is alsounder the influence of anticyclone systems generated in the Gulfof Mexico or the Pacific Ocean, that cause a great atmospheric sta-bility inhibiting the vertical mixing of the air. Likewise, it receivesabundant solar radiation due to its latitude of 20N that makesatmosphere highly photoreactive[14].

The frequency of thermal inversions is 283 days of the year(78%), in the periods JanuaryJune and NovemberDecember, theyare everyday occurrences. During the period JulyOctober, theirfrequency becomes less than 50%of the days. In December, the gra-dient of the thermal inversion has presented values of 12C. Thethickness of the thermal inversion is typically ten to a fewhundredmeters, being greater in the dry season[14].

The dominant wind comes from the West (15.5% frequency) fol-lowed by the winds from the east (7.5% frequency). In both cases,their speeds vary between 520km/h and can reach 2135km/h.Likewise, periods of calm are observed with a frequency of 44.3%,which indicates the great potential for accumulation of contami-nants due to lack of ventilation in the UAG. There are two mainwind circulation patterns: 33% for the winter-spring seasons withwestern wind flow (southwest, westsouthwest, west, northwestand westnorthwest) and 18% incidence for the summerautumnwind Eastern flow (northeast, eastnortheast, east, southeast and

Fig. 1. Geographical location of the UAG.


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Table 1

Days exceed the Mexican norms (NOM) and international norms (USEPA) of air quality.

Air pollutant National limits (NOM) International limits (USEPA) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Ozone (O3) 0.11 ppm (1 h)a 0.12ppm (1h)f 65 36 75 71 49 66Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 0.21 ppm (1 h)b 0.05 ppm (annual)f 18 21 26 5 6 13Carbon monoxide (CO) 11 ppm (8 h)c 9ppm (8h)f 21 5 7 11 8 3Sulfur dioxide (SO2) 0.13 ppm (24 h)d 0.14 ppm (24 h) 0 0 9 0 0 0Particles smaller than 10m (PM10) 150 m g/m3 (24h)e 150mg/m3 (24 h) 199 180 183 115 94 93

a NOM-020-SSAI-1993.b NOM-023-SSAI-1993.c NOM-021-SSAI-1993.d NOM-022-SSAI-1993.e NOM-025-SSAI-1993f NAAQS (USEPA).

Table 2

Statistical results of the means, modes and maximums monthly concentrations of air pollutants CO2, NO2, SO2, PM10and O3in the Urban Area of Guadalajara from 2000 to2005.

Means Modes Maximums

X S Maximum Minimum X S Maximum Minimum X S Maximum Minimum

CO (ppm) 1.942 0.647 4.883 0.000 1.129 0.502 4.400 0.000 9.166 6.021 53.600 0.000NO2(ppm) 0.034 0.011 0.089 0.000 0.025 0.012 0.136 0.000 0.114 0.071 0.526 0.000

O3(ppm) 0.023 0.008 0.053 0.000 0.009 0.006 0.047 0.000 0.110 0.044 0.650 0.000PM10(g/m3) 50.915 20.218 156.006 0.000 35.488 33.397 499.900 0.000 265.415 108.633 499.900 0.000SO2(ppm) 0.009 0.005 0.068 0.000 0.007 0.003 0.052 0.000 0.049 0.056 0.534 0.000

X: arithmetic mean;S: standard deviation.

eastsoutheast). Winds from the North and South have a 5% share,often with little impact on the local movement[14].

3. Materials and methods

The data on the concentrations of pollutants (period20002005) were acquired through the automatic network ofatmospheric monitoring (RAMA) of the Secretary of Environmentand Sustainable Development (SEMADES) of the Government ofthe Jalisco State (GEJ), which evaluate the hourly averages of the

contaminants, in the stations situated in the ZMG. With the dataobtained the database is formed; they obtain averages, modes and

monthly maximums of each pollutant, for each year and for all theperiod.

Subsequently, maps were produced in raster and vector files, aswellas,graphicinterpolation(Krigingmethod)oftheconcentrationlevels of the atmospheric pollutants using the program of IDRISI,in order to know thevalue of theconcentrationsof pollutants in thewhole UAG. The area (of the UAG) which we used for this researchis based on the radius that SEMADES handles as catchment area of2km for each station monitoring, which was conducted in digitalformat on the orthophotos contained in the files of the topograph-

ical maps of Guadalajara. We digitized a UAG georeferential mapshowing the main roads, the municipal limits and the delimita-

Fig. 2. Time series of monthly averages of CO in the UAG (20002005).


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Fig. 3. Time series of monthly modes of CO in the UAG (20002005).

tion of the research area, with the location of the monitoring; thisfrom the orthophotos b, c, e, f, of the F13D65 Western Guadalajaramap, and d of the F13D66 Guadalajara map, This was done, at scale1:50,000, in the program IDRISI. Once acquired data were ana-lyzed to obtain the behaviors and trends reporting mainly the daysexceeding the norm, average, modes and monthly maximums.

4. Results

The results of the temporal distribution show that the behav-ior of air pollutants is highly variable throughout the year and overthe yearsanalyzed. However,it was clear that thecontaminantthatis more concentrated are the particles smaller than 10m (PM10),

Fig. 4. Time series of monthly maximums of CO in the UAG (20002005).


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Fig. 5. Time series of monthly averages of NO2in the UAG (20002005).

followedby theozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monox-ide (CO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). The spatial distribution showthat the most affected area is the south and southeast of the UAG,which has the highest levels for maximums, arithmetic means andmodes; also it hasthe sites with most high eventsduring theperiodstudied. The annual results showed that a significant percentage of

days exceed the Mexican standards of pollutants emission (Table1).April, May and June presented high concentration of O3 and COwhile December, January, February and March reflected intenseconcentration of PM10, NO2, CO and SO2, the result of the pres-ence of low temperatures to prolong the duration of the thermalinversions and low humidity of the environment, not permitting

Fig. 6. Time series of monthly modes of NO2in the UAG (20002005).


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Fig. 11. Time series of monthly averages of PM10in the UAG (20002005).

the UAG is considered significant only at times of the peak maxi-mums.

4.2. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Most of the average monthly concentrations present valuesbelow the EPA (0.05ppm) and NOM (0.21 ppm) limits; however,

they show irregularities and in some cases values above theEPA limit (0.050.10 ppm). The mean of the monthly averageswas 0.0340.011 ppm. The range of the monthly averages var-ied between 0.000 and 0.089ppm (Fig. 5). The monthly modespresented seasonal variations with a tendency to maintain con-stant concentrations during the study period, with values belowthe EPA and NOM limits. The average of the monthly mode

Fig. 12. Time series of monthly modes of PM10in the UAG (20002005).


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Fig. 13. Time series of monthly maximums of PM10in the UAG (20002005).

was 0.0250.012ppm. The range of values of monthly modesis larger than that of averages, with values between 0.000 and0.136ppm (Fig. 6).In turn, the monthly maximums (Fig. 7)havevery important variations with values from 0.000 to 0.526ppm.The peaks of maximum concentration can occur in the winterepoch or in summer, not showing a cyclical behavior. The UAG

shows very high maximums of NO2 in the period of study. Theaverage value of the monthly maximums was 0.1140.071 ppm.The range of the monthly maximum is between 0.000 and0.526ppm. In this case, the spatial distribution show that thezones most affected are the southwest, west and northwest of UAGwhere the maximum values occur; it is a problem of the whole

Fig. 14. Time series of monthly averages of SO2in the UAG (20002005).


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Fig. 15. Time series of monthly modes of SO2in the UAG (20002005).

UAG (Figs. 1719). The contamination by NO2 is serious in theUAG.

4.3. Ozone (O3)

The average monthly concentrations showed seasonal varia-tions with tendency to remain constant during the study period,

with values below the NOM-020-SSA1-1993 (0.11 ppm). The meanof monthly averages was 0.0230.008ppm. The range of themonthly averages oscillated between 0.000 and 0.053ppm (Fig. 8).The monthly modes presented seasonal variations with a ten-dency to maintain constant concentrations during the studyperiod, with values below the limits. The average monthly modewas 0.0090.006ppm. The range of the monthly mode values

Fig. 16. Time series of monthly maximums of SO2in the UAG (20002005).


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was between 0.000 and 0.047ppm (Fig. 9). The monthly max-imums in most of the reporting period were above the limitsand with a slight tendency to rise during recent years. There arevery significant variations with values from 0.000 to 0.650ppm;the highest concentration peaks occur in times of drought andsummer where there is more sunshine and transformation ofprimary pollutants into O3. The average value of the monthly

maximums was 0.110

0.044 ppm (Fig. 10).The spatial distribu-tion show that the zones most affected are the central, northand south zones of UAG (Figs. 1719); however, the pollution

generated by O3in the UAG is considered moderate, which repre-sents a risk factor for peoples health, especially when maximumsoccur.

4.4. Particles smaller than 10m (PM10)

The average monthly concentrations present values between 0

and 156g/m3

; the majority of the records are located betweenthe limits of EPA (50g/m3) and NOM (150g/m3), and theselevels are maintained without showing a reduction, making the

Fig. 17. The spatialtemporal distribution of the atmospheric polluting agents (arithmetic means) in the UAG (20002005).


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PM10 the most important contaminant in the UAG. The meanmonthly average was 50.9220.22g/m3 (Fig. 11).The monthlymodes presented seasonal variations with a tendency to maintainconstant concentrations during the dry period from Septem-ber to May; the majority of the values were below the EPAand NOM limits, with the exception of temporary droughts in20032004 and 20042005 in the South and Southeast of the

UAG. The mean of the monthly modes was 35.49

33.40g/m

3

,while, the range of values was between 0 and 499.90g/m3

(Fig. 12).

The monthly maximums are all above limits with a range of0500g/m3; the concentrations vary with constant behavior.The measured values are above the limits, so they are the mainair pollutant in the UAG. The average of the monthly maximumswas 265.12108.63g/m3 (Fig. 13).The concentrations of PM10represent the main atmospheric contaminant in the UAG, and con-sequently, an environmentalcontamination problemand riskfactor

to peoples health. However, the spatial distribution shows thatthe extreme events are located in the south, southeast, east andnortheast during the whole year (Figs. 1719).

Fig. 18. The spatialtemporal distribution of the atmospheric polluting agents (modes) in the UAG (20002005).


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Fig. 19. The spatialtemporal distribution of the atmospheric polluting agents (maximums) in the UAG (20002005).

4.5. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

The average monthly concentrations varied between 0.000and 0.068ppm. Practically the values never exceeded the EPA(0.03 ppm) and NOM (0.13 ppm) limits. The values remain con-stant without tendency. The SO2is a contaminant of littleinfluenceon peoples health in the UAG. The mean monthly averageswere 0.0090.005ppm. (Fig. 14).The monthly modes presentedseasonal variations with a tendency to maintain constant con-centrations during the period of study, with values below the

EPA and NOM limits. The average of the monthly modes was

0.0070.003 ppm. The range of monthly modes presented valuesbetween 0.000 and0.052ppm.Only oneextremeevent in thesum-mer of 2004 was recorded (Fig. 15).The majority of the monthlymaximums duringthe periodpresented values above theEPAlimit,but below the NOM limit (Fig. 16).The events that exceeded theNOM limit occurred in the summer of 2000, winter 2001, all of2002, spring 2004 and winter 2005. Thus, the monthly maximumspresentedveryimportantvariationsbetween0.000and0.534ppm.The average of monthly maximums was 0.0490.056 ppm. Thespatial distribution show that the zones most affected were the

central, north and southwestern of UAG (Figs. 1719); however, the


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concentrations of SO2mean that it does not represent a risk to thehealth of the population in the UAG.

5. Discussion and conclusions

TheevolutionofcontaminantsshowsthattheUAGpresentssim-ilar environmental risks to Mexico City. During the past 2 years,

the UAG has experienced significant environmental contingenciesdue to the conjunction of factors such as heavy thermal inver-sions (hundreds of meters) and duration (breaking at 14:00 and15:00 h), atmospheric stability(calm winds) and large quantities ofemissions that cannot be dispersed efficiently by climatic factors.Likewise, the vehicular traffic has grown by 20% and a significantportion has more than 10 years of use and lack of maintenance.The results of the analysis show that the maximums of all thecontaminantsexceed thelimitand that theaverage andmodal con-centrations are maintained below national limits (NOM), but abovethe international limits (USEPA), which represents potential riskfactors for health.

Based on this, we conclude that in the UAG:The contamination by CO is considered significant only when

the maximum peaks are presented (9.1653.60 ppm). The parame-ter proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) for CO is10ppm for 8h. The effects of the exhibition frequently demon-strate in the systems of organs the most sensitive to the absenceof oxygen, in particular, the heart and central nervous system. Thehigh exhibition can cause acute poisoning; comma and collapse.The classic symptoms of poisoning for CO are headaches, sickness,severe headache,cardiovascular symptoms and there exists the riskof comma and the death[15,16].

The concentration of NO2 is important when the maximumpeaks are presented (0.110.52ppm). The accumulation of NO2inthe human body constitutes a risk for the airways, being more fre-quent in cases of chronic bronchitis. The increase of the dose endsin a sequence of effects: problems of olfactory perception, respi-ratory inconveniences, acute respiratory pains, pulmonary edema

and finally the death[14,16].The concentration of O3 is moderate (0.110.65ppm); how-

ever, the exposureto high concentrationsduring prolongedperiodsrepresents a risk to human health. The O3 provokes injuries inthe airways, pulmonary inflammation, depression of the immunesystem, systemic effects in the liver, decrease of the aspiratorycapacity, bronchi constriction, and decrease in the pulmonaryfunc-tion, asthma and annoyance of the eyes, nose and gullet[14].

TheconcentrationsofPM10 presentthehighestmaximumsaver-ages (265499g/m3) and are the main atmospheric contaminantin the UAG; this represents a significant problem of environmentalpollution and risks to the health of the population. The exhibitionto PM10reduces the pulmonary functions, increase the frequencyof respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular and lung cancers, increase

in the attacks of asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis and chronic cough[17,18].

The concentration of SO2(0.05 ppm), remained below the limits(0.13ppm), which does not represent a risk to human health.

The spatial distribution (Figs. 1719) shows that the mostaffected zones are the Center, South and Southeast of the UAG andeventually we expect extreme values in the rest of the UAG.

Acknowledgements

This work was carried out with the aid of a grant from the

Inter-American Institutefor Global Change Research(IAI) [TISG-J-1]which is supported by the US National Science Foundation (GrantGEO-0436199).

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Ramírez - Atmospheric Polluting Agents 2000-2005 Guadalajara

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