Raising the Stakes: From Improvement to Transformation in the Reform of Schools (Leading School...

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Raising the Stakes

Raising the Stakes provides an understanding of the breadth of resources that areneeded to provide a quality education to all students so that every individualorganisation and institution can become a stakeholder in the enterprise

This comprehensive book draws on best practice in several countries to showhow resources can be allocated to help achieve high expectations for all schoolsThe book demonstrates how schools can move from satisfaction with improve-ment to accepting the challenge to transform identifying and exploring theneed to align four kinds of resources

bull intellectual capital that is the knowledge and skill of talented professionalsbull social capital being mutual support from networks of individuals organisa-

tions agencies and institutions in the broader communitybull financial capital which must be carefully targeted to ensure that these

resources are aligned and focused on priorities for learningbull spiritual capital which can be viewed in a religious sense or in terms of the

culture and values that bring coherence and unity to these endeavours

Practitioners and researchers reading this book will be inspired to work moreclosely in networking knowledge about how lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo canbe achieved Raising the Stakes is essential reading for those with the responsibil-ity of ensuring that resources are acquired and allocated to achieve the bestpossible outcomes for students

Brian J Caldwell is managing director of Educational Transformations and aformer Dean of Education at the University of Melbourne Australia

Jim M Spinks is director of All Across the Line and a former School Principal whoconsults widely on student-focused planning and resource allocation He is based inAustralia

This is the fourth book by Caldwell and Spinks following The Self-Managing School(1988) Leading the Self-Managing School (1992) and Beyond the Self-Managing School(1998)

Leading School Transformation series

Series Editors

Alma HarrisUniversity of Warwick UK

Claire MathewsHead of Leadership programmes Specialist Schools andAcademies Trust

Sue WilliamsonDirector of Leadership and Innovation Specialist Schools andAcademies Trust

The Leading School Transformation series brings together leadingresearchers and writers to identify the latest thinking about new andinnovative leadership practices that transform schools and schoolsystems The books have been written with educational professionalsin mind and draw upon the latest international research and evidenceto offer new ways of thinking about leadership provide examples ofleadership in practice and identify concrete ways of transformingleadership for schools and school systems in the future

Forthcoming title

Distributed Leadership in SchoolsDeveloping tomorrowrsquos leadersAlma Harris

Raising the Stakes

From improvement totransformation in the reformof schools

Brian J Caldwell andJim M Spinks

First published 2008by Routledge2 Park Square Milton Park Abingdon Oxon OX14 4RN UK

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby Routledge270 Madison Ave New York NY 10016

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor amp Francis Groupan informa business

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted orreproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic mechanicalor other means now known or hereafter invented includingphotocopying and recording or in any information storage orretrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataCaldwell Brian

Raising the stakes from improvement to transformation inthe reform of schools Brian J Caldwell amp Jim M Spinks

p cmIncludes bibliographical references1 School management and organization 2 SchoolsndashDecentralization

3 Educational planning 4 Educational leadership I Spinks Jim MII Title

LB2805C234 20073712 ndash dc222007007688

ISBN10 0ndash415ndash44045ndash9 (hbk)ISBN10 0ndash415ndash44046ndash7 (pbk)ISBN10 0ndash203ndash93997ndash2 (ebk)

ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash44045ndash5 (hbk)ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash44046ndash2 (pbk)ISBN13 978ndash0ndash203ndash93997ndash0 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor amp Francis e-Library 2007

ldquoTo purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor amp Francis or Routledgersquoscollection of thousands of eBooks please go to wwweBookstoretandfcoukrdquo

ISBN 0-203-93997-2 Master e-book ISBN

copy 2008 Brian J Caldwell and Jim M Spinks

Contents

List of illustrations viiSeries foreword ixForeword xiPreface xvii

1 A new view of self-management 1

2 Core principles for next practice 14

3 Alignment 28

4 Intellectual capital 47

5 Governance and social capital 60

6 The funding of high quality and high equity 75

7 Next practice in the funding of schools 87

8 A student-focused planning model 104

9 Student-focused planning in action 124

10 Studies of success 146

11 New challenges for policy and practice 165

Appendices1 Principles of resource allocation for student-

focused self-managing schools 1812 Self-assessment of knowledge management 1843 Self-assessment of governance 1914 Self-assessment of resource allocation 1955 The Student Resource Package in Victoria 198

References 203Index 211

vi Contents

Illustrations

Figures

31 A model for alignment 3341 Four ways to outsource for radical transformation in

schools 5461 Relationship between current and expected outcomes

and need 8462 Relationship between resource relativities and need 8463 The environment for educational change ndash a symbiotic

relationship 8581 Student-focused planning model 107

Tables

21 Transformation of learning outcomes at BellfieldPrimary School 18

31 Alignment in leadership and management 3132 Assessing the degree of alignment in schools 3441 Comparing workforce and talent force approaches to

building intellectual capital 5051 Benchmarks for governance based on self-assessments

in workshops in England 7052 A constrained view of effective resource allocation in

schools 7153 A contemporary view of indicators of effective

resource allocation 7271 Classification of budget categories for funding self-

managing schools 88

72 Stage of schooling disability allocation in Victoria 9973 Educational Needs Questionnaire allocations in Victoria 9991 Summary of Bridgetrsquos progress report Term 4 2005 12692 Summary of Bridgetrsquos progress report Term 4 2007 12893 Summary of Kylersquos progress report Term 4 2005 13394 Summary of Kylersquos progress report Term 4 2007 136

viii List of illustrations

Series forewordLeading School Transformation

It is now widely accepted that transforming schools is at the heart ofsystem-wide transformation In order to raise the educational barwhile closing the performance gap there has to be continual andrelentless attention to improving teaching and learning in ourschools This is unlikely to be achieved unless school leaders arecommitted to school reform and renewal This requires leaderswho understand the importance of working at both the school andthe system level It also requires leaders who are able to invest inthe leadership of others and to share leadership practice widely anddeeply

The Specialist Schools and Academies Trust (SSAT) seeks to givemore young people access to a good education by building networkssharing practice and supporting schools The Trustrsquos way of workingis based on the principle lsquoby schools for schoolsrsquo and it is at the heartof a growing network of over 4500 schools including primarysecondary special schools and academies in England as well asschools elsewhere in the UK and internationally As one of thelargest school networks of its kind it is working with school leadersto explore and trial next practice

The international arm of the Trust is iNet ndash InternationalNetworking for Educational Transformation iNet exists to createnetworks of schools in countries around the world that can innovateand transform schools and school systems Its prime aim is tosecure systematic and sustained change that has a positive impact onyoung peoplersquos achievement There are currently school networks inAustralia Chile China Mauritius New Zealand Northern IrelandSouth Africa Sweden USA (Georgia and Boston) and Wales iNetschools institutions and individuals have the opportunity to shareinnovation and work collaboratively

I am delighted that SSAT and iNet will be working withRoutledge over the next few years to establish the lsquoLeading SchoolTransformationrsquo series This is an important series because it willbring together the foremost thinkers and writers in the field of lead-ership and educational transformation This is exemplified by theinaugural book by Brian Caldwell and Jim Spinks ndash Raising theStakes From improvement to transformation in the reform of schools It isthought provoking challenging and very timely It asks us to thinkdifferently about school development leadership and system reformIt advocates raising the stakes and moving from satisfaction withschool improvement to accepting the challenge to transform youngpeoplersquos learning and achievement

I look forward to reading the other books in the SSATiNet seriesand know that schools all over the world will find this series a sourceof challenge and inspiration

Elizabeth ReidChief Executive of the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust

x Series foreword

Foreword

Very few people who on hearing the names lsquoCaldwell and Spinksrsquowould not immediately associate them with lsquoself-managing schoolsrsquoThese two educationists have been writing on this topic for over20 years ndash a long-term publishing partnership not common ineducation ndash developing ideas sharing ideas and challenging ideasassociated with the leadership and governance of schools BrianCaldwell and Jim Spinks would be worthy recipients of the title ofsocial entrepreneurs whom they define following Bornstein (2004)as lsquotransformative forces people with new ideas to address majorproblems who are relentless in the pursuit of their visions peoplewho simply will not take ldquonordquo for an answer who will not give upuntil they have spread their ideas as far as they possibly canrsquo The twoare relentless in their pursuit of their vision

Raising the Stakes Caldwell and Spinksrsquo fourth book builds on theauthorsrsquo previous ideas but challenges educationists to be transform-ational as they seek solutions to providing the best learning experi-ences for those in their learning communities Caldwell and Spinkswould be the first to acknowledge that schools in Australia NewZealand and England in particular lsquoare doing remarkable thingswith their new authorities and responsibilitiesrsquo However they raisethe stakes up the ante for self-management by stating in this bookthat transformational thinking regarding practices processes andsystems with a focus firmly on the individual learner is vital if alllearners are to realise success in education They purport that treat-ing students as individuals as well as partners in their learning is keyto this process This present generation of global digitally literatelearners warrants and will demand such a participatory bottom-lineThis book is not before its time

Caldwell and Spinks unapologetically call for an alignment and a

deployment of resources that ensure the student is at the centre ofthe process the new enterprise logic In fact throughout Raisingthe Stakes we are challenged by such words as lsquorethinkingrsquo lsquonewapproachesrsquo lsquoworking differentlyrsquo lsquothe need for a breakthroughrsquolsquoradical transformationrsquo lsquonext practicersquo ndash words that leave no doubtthat staying the same is not an option The authors state thatsuccess for all students in twenty-first-century schools lsquorequires somefundamental rethinking about engagement curriculum pedagogyand resourcingrsquo They present working solutions of what thisdevelopment might look like

More specifically Caldwell and Spinks group a schoolrsquos resourcesinto four broad areas intellectual capital social capital financialcapital and spiritual capital Their research has shown that schoolsthat successfully align at least three out of four of these major areasare those most likely to bring success for their students Cruciallytoo Caldwell and Spinks constantly remind us that five good passeson state examinations is only one part of success more is needed Theinternal factors of school transformation such as teacher pedagogycurriculum and resources must align with the external factors ofthe global world within which young people live In this complexchanging environment factors such as learning how to learnengagement problem-solving and critical thinking are vital Toillustrate this point Caldwell and Spinks describe how a Universityof Melbourne project established to develop a new student-focusedresource allocation model used indicators such as student retentionand absence test scores post-Year 12 transition teacher morale andother factors to measure success at the school level

Raising the Stakes although visionary is also grounded and prag-matic While challenging the status quo the authors give educationalleaders in all roles within the system clear examples of how they canachieve the transformation espoused For example in Chapter 1 theauthors describe the new enterprise logic of placing students andtheir learning needs at the centre of strategic thinking and decision-making In Chapter 8 they present a model of how to do this Amajor purpose of the book is to provide a set of tools to assist schoolsin assessing their progress toward transformation

To this end all chapters contain principles or guidelines strategicintentions or frameworks or models and diagrams that allow us tosee what solutions might look like However Caldwell and Spinksnever present these ideas as a recipe or a definitive answer Ratherthey challenge schools to use the tools to develop their own policy

xii Foreword

and practices so that these reflect their own communities values andbeliefs strategic directions and unique local needs A clear frame-work is established at the beginning of each chapter and there is acoherent flow of ideas throughout the book Stories in Chapter 10show how schools have found ways of aligning at least three of thefour kinds of capital to achieve success for students Internationalexamples are given of schoolsrsquo and school leadersrsquo responses to thechallenge of personalising learning for every student The appendicescontain self-assessments for knowledge management governanceand resource allocation

Raising the Stakes follows Huttrsquos lead in its demand that schoolshave as their lsquodefault positionrsquo the aim that all children ndash even theBridgets Kyles and Coreys ndash successfully complete school and do notfall through the cracks I am sure we can all relate to Caldwell andSpinksrsquo examples of individual children and their learning journeysThe authors acknowledge that while it is not unusual for a child tobe lsquosavedrsquo in our schools such a situation is rarely the default posi-tion This is why they stress raising the stakes to ensure success forevery student Bishoprsquos cutting-edge research and development inNew Zealand with indigenous students certainly backs this positionBishoprsquos work shows that teachers who successfully focus on theindividual studentrsquos learning experience by changing pedagogiesassessment practices and curriculum to engage connect and relateto the learner as a partner in the process also have success with alllearners Caldwell and Spinks give examples on page 80 of how suchlearners describe such lsquore-imagined schoolsrsquo

Caldwell and Spinks also call for learning communities of thetalent force They believe that building intellectual capital requiresnot only hiring the best people but also continuing to ensure that allpeople lsquowho work in or for the school are at the forefront in termsof their professional capacityrsquo Building the individual and sharedcapacity of teachers is paramount and the building of social capital isa necessary part of this process The authors set this claim within adefinition that posits the lsquoschool has social capital to the extent thatit is part of a mutually supporting network of individuals organisa-tions agencies and institutions in the public and private sectors ineducation and in other fieldsrsquo Only then can the talent force operatewith the common moral purpose of providing the best learningexperiences for young people

Although Caldwell and Spinks talk about teaching and pedagogyrather than the learning relationship they leave us with no doubt

Foreword xiii

in regard to their model for alignment that they mean lsquocreatingunprecedented opportunity for learners and learningrsquo Teachers willquite rightly say lsquoHow can we do this with 30 students in ourclasses How can we personalise learning How can we connect andengage with so many studentsrsquo The answer Not by doing more ofthe same We cannot achieve this aim by relying on old systems andpractices something we know all too well There needs to be newapproaches to the allocation of resources Teachers need the time toget to know students as individuals to build a relationship withthem to work alongside them in the development and achievementof targets goals aspirations dreams Those in positions of responsi-bility ndash head teachers governors advisers other educational leadersndash need the courage to stand by their convictions for change

Let me give you a personal example here I was recently part ofregional workshops conducted with secondary leaders throughoutEngland and Wales that had as their aim rethinking the pastoralcare of students Some schools shared how they had worked throughmajor transformation of their pastoral systems to ensure everystudent had personalised learning relationships with their teachersHowever I frequently heard leaders proclaim lsquoBut I am not sure Ihave the courage to do thatrsquo Engaging in this process does takecourage but courage is easy to hold fast to when the moral convic-tion that lsquothis is making a positive difference to studentsrsquo livesrsquo isevidenced and is at the forefront of professional practice Caldwelland Spinks give many practical examples of how schools haveapproached this challenge

Raising the Stakes does not propose systems built on deficit modelsInstead the authors present a strong social justice agenda and con-sistently argue for success for all in all settings Theirs is not aneitheror approach it is both high quality and high equity Caldwelland Spinks believe all students can learn and that all studentshave capabilities and the capacity for learning If the student isthe unit of learning then there is acknowledgment of the individualand the central role that culture and background play in learningThe authors also recognise the importance of consultation andpartnership with family in the learning relationship The challengeto educators is to remove the impediments to studentsrsquo learning andCaldwell and Spinks believe the most important way to achieve thisis to make all settings great settings for young people

Raising the Stakes asks us to seek different ways of viewing theplaces of learning in communities different educational and social

xiv Foreword

imaginaries new ways of thinking about education Transformationwill require a shift in thinking about priorities and the allocation ofresources There may need to be changes to the way timetabling isapproached in schools so that this practice does not dictate curric-ulum but supports curriculum pathways and enables access to pro-grammes that suit studentsrsquo individual lsquonature needs intereststargets aptitudes and aspirationsrsquo

Caldwell and Spinks do however state that a twenty-first centuryplace of learning will recognise it cannot be all things to all personsand that an important part of aligning spiritual capital is aboutattaining coherence of values and beliefs and developing a strengthof moral purpose so that the learning community has a shared pur-pose They also acknowledge that one size does not ndash cannot ndash fit allOne school may not sufficiently meet the needs of a particularstudent and other places of learning might more successfully meetthe individual needs of learners in the wider community Creativeuses of space place and time through the opportunities technologyaffords will be important to this process Such leaders of transform-ation will need to be ethical leaders and as such system leaders whorealise the importance of having an influence greater than on theirown school They will also be people who recognise that all of thestudents in the neighbouring schools and indeed globally areimportant to sustainability and to the long-term good of thecommunity

Caldwell and Spinks define transformation at the beginning ofChapter 3 They state lsquoA school has been transformed if there hasbeen significant systematic and sustained change that secures suc-cess for all of its studentsrsquo They could not put it more clearly thanthat They believe that lsquoFailure in educational reform is to a largedegree the failure to achieve alignmentrsquo Achieving the alignment ofthe four kinds of capital ndash intellectual social financial and spiritualndash lsquocalls for outstanding governancersquo (Interestingly Caldwell andSpinks seldom use the word leadership in this book) They go on tosay lsquothat while alignment is important it should include a capacityfor creativity innovation exploring the boundaries and developing anew alignmentrsquo and importantly they offer a model to support suchan alignment

The authors also acknowledge and build on colleaguesrsquo workThey critique the present but offer an alternative and give exem-plars They are pragmatists They are in touch with school leadersThey accept that some exploration is in its infancy and that further

Foreword xv

work is needed But throughout Raising the Stakes they never veerfrom their initial tenet ndash there must be transformation in educationfor all students to achieve their aspirations and have a purposefulfuture Can we rise to their challenge

Jan RobertsonDirector London Centre for Leadership in Learning

Institute of Education University of London UK

xvi Foreword

Preface

We believe it is time to raise the stakes in the transformation ofschools There are five reasons The first derives from the meaning oftransformation which we consider to be significant systematic andsustained change that secures success for all students in all settingsGovernments around the world have subscribed to this view fordecades but nations still fall short of its achievement except in arelatively small number of schools It is time for delivery to be anissue on which governments stand or fall The second concerns themanner in which schools are supported There are reservoirs ofresources that have not been drawn on to the extent that is possibleor desirable because of the limited view that is held about the sup-port of public education If the reservoirs of resources are consideredto be forms of capital then it is time that we increased the capitalof schools financial capital intellectual capital social capital andspiritual capital The third relates to the limited range of peoplewho have a serious stake in the success of schools It is time thatevery individual organisation and institution became a stakeholderThe fourth is concerned with failure to fully network knowledgeabout how transformation can be achieved This book renews thecall for researchers policymakers and practitioners to work moreclosely in this regard The fifth reason is that a focus on schoolimprovement has got us only so far It is time to raise the stakes andmove from satisfaction with improvement to accepting the challengeto transform

There is now persuasive if not irrefutable evidence that allstudents can achieve success even under the most challenging ofcircumstances if all of the resources that are required to supportthe effort are made available to schools where they are deployedstrategically in the passionate and purposeful pursuit of such an

outcome This has been a truly remarkable breakthrough and ouraim in this book is to share information about how it has beenachieved and to show how all schools can do the same A pre-condition is that schools be self-managing and that their leaders beallowed to lead

This is our fourth book for an international readership thatdescribes what is occurring around the world when significant andsystematic authority and responsibility are decentralised to schoolsand that offers guidelines for schools and school systems that seekto move in this direction These books about self-managing schoolsspan two decades and our fourth is concerned with what has beenaccomplished and remains to be done when the focus shifts to thestudent

The book is intended to stand alone so that the reader need notreturn to its predecessors to gain an understanding of where weare coming from It may be helpful nevertheless to briefly re-tracethe journey and explain why we have selected the themes that arehighlighted in the pages that follow That is the purpose of thispreface

We are approaching the 25th anniversary of the research anddevelopment project that became the foundation of our work Thestarting point was a project of national significance in Australia thatidentified highly effective schools in a general sense and in themanner in which they allocated their resources The project wasconducted in 1983 and was funded by the Australian Schools Com-mission It came at a time of growing global interest in schooleffectiveness and school improvement The outcome was the identifi-cation of a model for self-management that was evident in its clearestand most readily describable form at the school in Tasmania at whichJim Spinks was principal A workshop programme was prepared foruse in Victoria where more authority and responsibility were beingdecentralised to schools and training was required for school coun-cils principals and teachers and for students in secondary schoolsMore than 50 workshops were conducted for about 5000 peoplefrom 1984 to 1986 The workshop materials and guidelines for take-up were packaged together and published by the Education Depart-ment of Tasmania under the title Policy-making and Planning for SchoolEffectiveness A Guide to Collaborative School Management (Caldwell andSpinks 1986)

It soon became evident that the book and the research anddevelopment programme on which it was based were relevant to

xviii Preface

developments in other countries especially in England where interestwas building in the local financial management of schools and theEducation Reform Act of 1988 was taking shape The book wasupdated to take account of these developments and published for aninternational market under the title of The Self-Managing School(Caldwell and Spinks 1988) It became a key resource in scores ofworkshops in England and New Zealand most of which were led byJim Spinks and as a guide to practice as thousands of schools took uptheir new authorities and responsibilities Interest continued tobuild in our own country Australia and in places like Hong Kong

We learnt much from schools as self-management took holdespecially in how leadership was exercised where successful imple-mentation had occurred This led to Leading the Self-Managing School(Caldwell and Spinks 1992) which became a guide for a furtherthrust to self-management in Victoria under the rubric of Schools ofthe Future wherein about 90 per cent of the statersquos education budgetwas decentralised to schools for local decision-making We wereinvolved in two important aspects of implementation Firstly wewere members of the Education Committee of the School GlobalBudget Research Project charged with determining how moneywould be delivered to schools Per capita and needs-based com-ponents were incorporated in the funding formula along similarlines to what had been pioneered in Edmonton Canada more than adecade earlier a practice that Brian Caldwell had studied in the late1970s Secondly the processes and outcomes of Schools of the Futurewere the subject of a five-year study initiated by the primary andsecondary principalsrsquo associations and known as the CooperativeResearch Project Three professors from the University of Melbournewere part of the project team Hedley Beare Brian Caldwell andPeter Hill While a robust data base was still some way off findingsfrom surveys of school principals and case studies by doctoral candi-dates enabled the team to map the links between the capacities thatcame with self-management and learning outcomes for students

It was soon time to update accounts of the practice and incor-porate findings on impact on learning and so we wrote Beyond theSelf-Managing School (Caldwell and Spinks 1998) By 1998 self-management had passed the lsquotipping pointrsquo in England NewZealand and Victoria and some school districts in Canada especiallyEdmonton and the United States Impetus for further developmentcame with the election of the Blair New Labour government inEngland in 1997 which chose to extend the self-management

Preface xix

reform of the Conservative government to the point that likeVictoria 90 per cent of public funds were decentralised to the schoollevel A change in government in Victoria in 1999 saw furtherextension to 94 per cent

There were two important features of Beyond the Self-ManagingSchool that are pertinent to this fourth book One was that we set it inthe context of major reforms that were gathering momentum aroundthe world We referred to these as lsquotracks for changersquo and three wereidentified Track 1 was lsquobuilding systems of self-managing schoolsrsquodescribing the trend in an increasing number of countries Track 2was lsquounrelenting focus on learning outcomesrsquo Track 3 was lsquocreatingschools for the knowledge societyrsquo driven to a large extent by devel-opments in information and communications technology Schoolsystems differed in the extent to which they had moved down eachlsquotrackrsquo This momentum continues to build but it is in respect to thesecond track (rsquounrelenting focus on learning outcomesrsquo) that thisfourth book responds because there are heightened expectations thatall students should succeed as illustrated in initiatives such as NoChild Left Behind (USA) Every Child Matters (UK) and NurturingEvery Child (Singapore) Personalising learning is part of a powerfulagenda in most instances

A second feature of Beyond the Self-Managing School was the formula-tion of 100 lsquostrategic intentionsrsquo offered as a guide to schools andschool systems that were nurturing a capacity for self-managementand that sought to move further down the tracks for change set outabove A review of developments in different places reveals that manybut still a minority of schools have successfully addressed these inten-tions In this fourth book we wish to draw from successful experienceespecially in the context of personalising learning and offer guide-lines for practice where implementation is still in its early stages

Our experience since 1998 has provided further insights JimSpinks has played a key role in updating and refining the fundingformula for schools in Victoria to make it more sensitive to the needsinterests aptitudes and aspirations of students and to achieve a greaterdegree of equity in funding through the Student Resource PackageHe worked with his wife Marilyn Spinks also a former principalthrough their All Across the Line consultancy to provide advice onthe funding of special needs students They have provided expertadvice on the funding mechanism in South Australia as its system ofgovernment schools has moved further down the track of self-management

xx Preface

Following his time as Dean of Education at the University ofMelbourne Brian Caldwell undertook a review of developmentsin self-managing schools and wrote three pamphlets based on 19workshops conducted in 2005 in Australia Chile England andNew Zealand under the auspices of the Specialist Schools andAcademies Trust (SSAT) for whom he serves as an associate directorHe found that practice had moved beyond initial conception to thepoint that it was time to lsquore-imagine the self-managing schoolrsquo Hedescribed the lsquonew enterprise logic of schoolsrsquo and studied thephenomenon of lsquoexhilarating leadershiprsquo referring to the roleof principals and other school leaders who were succeeding intransforming their schools The three pamphlets were broughttogether updated and published as Re-imagining Educational Leader-ship (Caldwell 2006)

Our work came together in a new series of pamphlets and work-shops sponsored by the SSAT which addressed the issue of how anagenda for personalising learning could be resourced if schools wereto be transformed Workshops were conducted in BirminghamDarlington London (two workshops) and Manchester The pamph-lets drew on the work described above and insights gleaned from19 more workshops conducted by Brian Caldwell around Australiain mid-2006 for the Australian College of Educators based onRe-imagining Educational Leadership Presentations by policymakersand practitioners at national conferences of the SSAT in 2005 and2006 yielded more valuable information as did site visits and casestudies

We were struck by the impact of the education reforms of the BlairNew Labour government especially in respect to the agenda for per-sonalising learning and the networking of knowledge among schoolsWe were concerned that the funding mechanism for self-managingschools in England was still based on the Age Weighted Pupil Unit(AWPU) when a student-focused model was clearly a requirementfor personalising learning We intend this book to be a guide toachieving a breakthrough in this regard

It is timely that we bring together our new understandings ofwhat can be achieved in self-managing schools when the intent is tosecure success for all students in all settings We found it sobering tore-read a passage in Beyond the Self-Managing School written for pub-lication in 1998 some 10 years after the 1988 Education Reform Actin the UK We surmised that 10 years was lsquothe amount of time ittakes to move a nationrsquo We continued

Preface xxi

Taken together allowing for overlapping developments on thethree tracks it is likely that at least two decades will haveelapsed since the decision to restructure systems of public educa-tion to the time when there is general consensus that all studentsare receiving a high quality education and are learning wellwith this learning and the efforts of teachers and other profes-sionals supported by state-of-the-art technology

(Caldwell and Spinks 1998 pp 14ndash15)

We are still short of the goal of all students in all settings lsquoreceiv-ing a high quality educationrsquo and we are approaching the end of thetwo decades we foresaw as being required to achieve such an outcomeTime is short and we hope that this book which draws extensivelyon the experience of those who have succeeded will help us get there

We acknowledge the critiques of self-management that have beenmounted from time to time Most were addressed in Beyond the Self-Managing School The most insightful are those that question theimpact on learning and we hope that the critics and commentatorscan learn as we have done from those who have made the links Weare encouraged that governments of all persuasions accept that afocus on the student demands a significant and systematic capacityfor local decision-making and that the overwhelming majority ofprincipals and other school leaders would not wish to return to morecentralised arrangements although they resent the lack of supportfor their work in some settings and the mountain of unnecessarypaperwork that is often generated

We extend our appreciation to a number of organisations andindividuals who have assisted in this endeavour The SpecialistSchools and Academies Trust commissioned the pamphlets organ-ised the workshops and invited our contributions to national con-ferences We acknowledge in particular the following principalsin the UK who shared their knowledge Tony Barnes Headteacherof Park High Sir Dexter Hutt Executive Headteacher of NinestilesCommunity School Roger Lounds Headteacher at Lymm HighSchool Dr Elizabeth Sidwell Principal and Chief Executive Officerof the Haberdashersrsquo Askersquos Federation and Michael WilkinsHeadteacher of Outwood Grange College In Australia site visitswere arranged and information was provided by several principalsincluding Jim Davies Australian Science and Mathematics Schoolin Adelaide Mary Dorrian St Monicarsquos Parish Primary School inCanberra and Gerry Schiller Glen Waverley Secondary College

xxii Preface

in Melbourne In Chile Nilda Sotelo Sorribes Principal of SociedadEducacional Maria Luisa Bombal in Vitacura (Santiago) providedinformation for the study of the unique approach to governance andself-management at her school

Brian Caldwell extends special thanks to Dr Jessica HarrisDirector of Research at Educational Transformations who contrib-uted to our understanding of policy and practice in Finland andassisted with school studies in Australia Jim Spinks extends hisappreciation to the Department of Education and Training inVictoria for whom he has served as a consultant on the StudentResource Package and the support of special needs students and theSouth Australian Secondary Principals Association who invited hisexpert contribution on matters related to the funding of secondaryschools His wife and partner in All Across the Line Marilyn Spinkswas a valued colleague in each instance

We are delighted that Routledge is publishing our fourth book onself-managing schools with publisher Anna Clarkson providing thesame encouragement and support as Malcolm Clarkson founder ofFalmer Press did for the first Series Editor Professor Alma Harrisagreed to make this the first of the iNet (International Networkingfor Educational Transformation) series

We invite readers to join us in taking up the challenges anddealing with the paradoxes of a new era of self-managing schoolsThe closer we come to recognising that the student is the mostimportant unit of organisation the more we need to take on boardthe implications of globalisation in education including the notionof the student as a global citizen The stronger the trend to self-managing schools in systems of public education the more schoolsnetwork with other schools and organisations in the public andprivate sectors working laterally as much if not more than withintraditional lines of authority and support The more we understandthe importance of money to fund the personalising of learningthe more we see schools draw on other sources of support acknow-ledging that spiritual capital intellectual capital and social capitalare as important as financial capital We know that local decision-making is more sophisticated and demanding than ever before andso we embrace best practice in governance to ensure that there isalignment of these four forms of capital Resistance to oppressivestandards-based accountability measures is justified but it is essen-tial to embrace the best of student-focused data banks that enableschools to identify and respond to the needs interests aptitudes and

Preface xxiii

aspirations of students We have learned these things from policymakers and practitioners who are committed to and have beensuccessful at securing success for all students in their jurisdictionWe look forward to all schools succeeding in this quest It is thenthat we can celebrate the transformation of schools

Brian J CaldwellMelbourne Victoria

Jim M SpinksParadise Tasmania

June 2007

xxiv Preface

A new view ofself-management

Introduction

No reform in education can succeed without appropriate resources tosupport the endeavour This means that initiatives such as Every ChildMatters in England No Child Left Behind in the United States andthe Blueprint for Government Schools in Victoria (Australia) arecertain to fail if the level and mix of resources are not appropriate

Traditionally such a statement would be assumed to mean moremoney is needed from government to reduce class sizes or fund a pro-gramme of in-service training for teachers about a preferred approachto curriculum or pedagogy or provide a new pot of money as anincentive for schools to take on a new project related to one or moreaspects of the reform All of these may be desired by policymakerswho include these time-honoured approaches in their election cam-paign announcements They would be welcomed by practitionersbecause well-designed initiatives in school improvement must befunded one way or another and the size of the school budget issometimes (mistakenly) seen as an indicator of success

The focus on money alone as the chief resource for schools has notresulted in expectations being achieved to any great extent Whilehis message is often greeted by puzzlement or even anger the HooverInstitutionrsquos Eric Hanushek found that increases in funding forschools have had with few exceptions for some programmes littleimpact on educational outcomes over many decades His conclusioncould not be clearer lsquoThe aggregate picture is consistent with avariety of other studies indicating that resources alone have notyielded any systematic returns in terms of student performanceThe character of reform efforts can largely be described as ldquosameoperations with greater intensityrdquo rsquo(Hanushek 2004 p 12)

Chapter 1

Governments have despaired when their apparently well-conceivedprogrammes have not succeeded sometimes blaming teachers whoare perceived as unresponsive or incompetent or both Schools arefrustrated because they feel their best efforts have not been sup-ported Schools and school systems continue to search for the magicformula for the allocation of funds among schools and within schoolsso that expectations can be achieved

These disappointments are largely the result of a narrow view ofresources and adherence to a status quo view of the way schools andschool systems should be led and managed They reflect what maybe described as lsquoold enterprise logic of schoolsrsquo This is similar toHanushekrsquos explanation of lack of impact cited above lsquosame oper-ations with greater intensityrsquo The lsquonew enterprise logicrsquo (Caldwell2006) and the adoption or adaptation of the OECDrsquos (Organisationfor Economic Cooperation and Development) lsquore-schoolingrsquo scenarios(OECD 2001a) will yield a different and much richer view of whatwe mean by resources Money is important but the key issues areconcerned with the range of resources and how each is deployedWhat are the most important resources if expectations are to beachieved Limited success in the past and a chief source of despairderives from a view that the key unit of organisation is the schoolsystem or the school or the classroom especially the last of these Itmeans that an important indicator for governments at election timeor for teacher unions at all times or for teachers who find that theirbest efforts are not appreciated is the studentndashteacher ratio Successis indicated by the number of new teachers who have been hiredor the extent to which studentndashteacher ratios have been lowered andsome broad brush indicators of learning outcome such as averageperformance on international tests such as those conducted in theProgramme for International Student Assessment (PISA) or theTrends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) or a national orlocal benchmark like the number of students receiving five goodpasses in the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE)(England) or the percentage of students who reach a particular levelin the curriculum and standards framework as measured by theAchievement Improvement Monitor (AIM) (Victoria)

What is needed is a new mechanism to allocate funds when thekey unit of organisation is the student not the classroom or school orschool system What is needed is a view of resources that pays morethan lip-service to intellectual capital one that accounts more accur-ately and comprehensively for the knowledge and skills of every

2 A new view of self-management

person who supports the learning enterprise and ensures that allwho work in or for the school are at the forefront in terms of theirprofessional capacity What is needed is the application of all of theresources of a community not just government and not just moneyand this is where the notion of social capital comes in It has beenunder-valued and under-utilised in the past There is still no system-atic way to measure the level of social capital that supports theschool What is also needed is a sense of urgency accompanied by anunprecedented campaign of action to replace the appalling facilitiesin which much of the learning and teaching occurs in many countriesResources in the form of infrastructure still reflect a nineteenth-century factory or industrial model or lsquothe old enterprise logicrsquo

The good news is that this broader view of resources is now beingadopted in some countries as governments and the wider communityreach the end of their tether England is good example of where thereis now a deeper understanding of what is required Following theWhite Paper (Secretary for Education and Skills 2005) new legisla-tion provides every school with an opportunity to acquire a trustemploy its staff and manage its assets Trusts may support a numberof schools which will acquire the flexibility of specialist schools andacademies The tipping point has been passed as far as specialistsecondary schools are concerned with a consistent gain over non-specialist schools in achievement in the GCSE with benefits beinggreatest in schools in challenging circumstances Local authoritieswill have an important strategic role in establishing and expandingschools responding to the needs and aspirations of students andparents and helping to drive up standards

In the remaining pages of Chapter 1 some underlying assump-tions are addressed summarised at the end as lsquofirst principlesrsquo Theseassumptions concern the agenda for transformation the personalis-ing of learning the self-management of schools the new enterpriselogic of schools and the emergence of philanthropy and social entre-preneurship as a key driving force for achieving success in trusts andthe building of social capital

Transformation

It is important that the scale of the challenge is appreciated This isnot allocation of resources for improvement It is the allocation ofresources for transformation Transformation is significant system-atic and sustained change that secures success for all students in all

A new view of self-management 3

settings thus contributing to the well-being of the student andsociety What this achievement is about and how it is measuredvaries from setting to setting and is invariably contentious

Transformation is an appropriate word because such an outcome(lsquoall students in all settingsrsquo) has never been accomplished in anysociety in the history of education It has however been accom-plished in some settings Success in these instances involved particu-lar approaches to the allocation of resources A major purpose of thisbook is to identify the principles that underpin these approaches tohelp build a capacity to do the same in all schools and school systems

Personalising learning

At the heart of the theme of lsquoall students in all settingsrsquo is the impor-tance of personalising the learning experience Shoshanna Zuboff andJim Maxmin coined the concept of lsquonew enterprise logicrsquo in describ-ing what is required in every organisation public and private Asfar as schools are concerned they declared that lsquoparents want theirchildren to be recognised and treated as individualsrsquo (Zuboff andMaxmin 2004 p 152) Tom Peters included education in his gen-eral call to lsquore-imaginersquo lsquoTeachers need enough time and flexibilityto get to know kids as individuals Teaching is about one and onlyone thing Getting to know the childrsquo (Peters 2003 p 284)

The case for transformation through personalising learning wasmade in England in the Five-Year Strategy for Children and Learners(DfES 2004a)

lsquoOver the last 60 years a fundamental recasting of industryemployment technology and society has transformed the require-ment for education and training ndash not only driving the educationsystem but introducing new ideas about lifelong learning personal-ised education and self-directed learning And the story has been oftaking a system designed to deliver a basic minimum entitlementand elaborating it to respond to these increasingly sophisticated (andrapidly changing) demands

lsquoThe central characteristic of such a new system will be personal-isation ndash so that the system fits the individual rather than the indi-vidual having to fit the system This is not a vague liberal notion ofletting people have what they want It is about having a systemwhich will genuinely give high standards for all ndash the best possiblequality of childrenrsquos services which recognises individual needs andcircumstances the most effective teaching at school which builds a


detailed picture of what each child already knows and how theylearn to help them go further and as young people begin to trainfor work a system that recognises individual aptitudes and providesas many tailored paths to employment as there are people and jobsAnd the corollary of this is that the system must be freer and morediverse ndash with more flexibility to help meet individual needs andmore choices between courses and types of providers so that therereally are different and personalised opportunities availablersquo (DfES2004a p 4)

The Five-Year Strategy contained a range of approaches to person-alising learning including the use of information and commu-nications technology individualised assessment for diagnosis theplanning of learning experiences for each student and the provi-sion of childrenrsquos services to support the work of teachers as theyendeavour to meet the needs of each learner

As further illustration in another setting the former head of theDepartment of Prime Minister and Cabinet in Australia MichaelKeating made the following observation lsquoThe reforms of publicadministration affecting service delivery stemmed fundamentallyfrom public dissatisfaction with many of the services provided Themajor problems were their lack of responsiveness to the particularneeds of the individual client or customer society has becomemore educated and wealthy and its individual members have devel-oped greater independence and become more individualistic Thisindividualistic society is both more demanding and more critical ofservice provisionrsquo (Keating 2004 p 77)

Self-managing schools

It is inconceivable that an agenda for transformation through person-alising learning could be achieved without a high level of decentral-isation in decision-making Schools should be self-managing

A self-managing school is a school in a system of education towhich there has been decentralised a significant amount ofauthority and responsibility to make decisions related to theallocation of resources within a centrally determined frameworkof goals policies standards and accountabilities


Critics or sceptics have suggested that self-management has nothad an impact on learning This may have been true in the early


stages when capacities at the school level were limited especially inthe absence of a strategy to make the link to learning and the database was weak Evidence is now strong Ludger Woessmann formerlyat the University of Kiel and now Head of the Department of HumanCapital and Structural Change at the Ifo Institute for Economics inMunich undertook a comprehensive study of why students in somecountries did better in TIMSS and found a powerful connectionbetween decentralisation of decision-making to the school leveland student achievement (Woessmann 2001) It is a connection thathas been affirmed in subsequent results in PISA (Programme inInternational Student Assessment) Andreas Schleicher Head of theIndicators and Analysis Division at OECD identified decentralisa-tion as one of several policy levers for student achievement (Sch-leicher 2004) He found that in the best performing countries

bull Decentralised decision-making is combined with devices toensure a fair distribution of substantive educational opportunities

bull The provision of standards and curricula at nationalsub-nationallevels is combined with advanced evaluation systems

bull Process-oriented assessments andor centralised final examin-ations are complemented with individual reports and feedbackmechanisms on student learning progress

bull Schools and teachers have explicit strategies and approaches forteaching heterogeneous groups of learners

bull Students are offered a variety of extra-curricular activitiesbull Schools offer differentiated support structures for studentsbull Institutional differentiation is introduced if at all at later

stagesbull Effective support systems are located at individual school level or

in specialised support institutionsbull Teacher training schemes are selectivebull The training of pre-school personnel is closely integrated with

the professional development of teachersbull Continuing professional development is a constitutive part of

the systembull Special attention is paid to the professional development of

school management personnel

More evidence about the link to learning is reported elsewhere(Caldwell and Spinks 1998 Caldwell 2002 Caldwell 2003 Cald-well 2005 Caldwell 2006)


The new enterprise logic of schools

A review of developments in the self-management of schools byCaldwell (2006) found that best practice had outstripped initialexpectations It had become a key mechanism in efforts to achievethe transformation of schools Nine workshops over nine weeks infour countries in the first half of 2005 revealed how success hadbeen achieved The concept of lsquonew enterprise logicrsquo was adaptedfrom Zuboff and Maxmin (2004) and its key elements are listedbelow Together they constitute a new image of the self-managingschool

1 The student is the most important unit of organisation ndash not theclassroom not the school and not the school system ndash and thereare consequent changes in approaches to learning and teachingand the support of learning and teaching

2 Schools cannot achieve expectations for transformation by actingalone or operating in a line of support from the centre of a schoolsystem to the level of the school classroom or student Hori-zontal approaches are more important than vertical approachesalthough the latter will continue to have an important roleto play The success of a school depends on its capacity to joinnetworks or federations to share knowledge address problemsand pool resources

3 Leadership is distributed across schools in networks and feder-ations as well as within schools across programmes of learningand teaching and the support of learning and teaching

4 Networks and federations involve a range of individuals agen-cies institutions and organisations across public and privatesectors in educational and non-educational settings Leadersand managers in these sectors and settings share a responsibilityto identify and then effectively and efficiently deploy the kindsof support that are needed in schools Synergies do not justhappen of their own accord Personnel and other resources areallocated to energise and sustain them

5 New approaches to resource allocation are required under theseconditions A simple formula allocation to schools based on thesize and nature of the school with sub-allocations based onequity considerations is not sufficient New allocations takeaccount of developments in the personalising of learning and thenetworking of expertise and support


6 Knowledge management takes its place beside traditional man-agement functions related to curriculum facilities pedagogypersonnel and technology

7 Intellectual capital and social capital are as important as otherforms of capital related to facilities and finance

8 New standards of governance are expected of schools and thevarious networks and federations in which they participate Thesestandards are important in the likely shift from dependence andself-management to autonomy and self-government

9 Each of these capacities requires further adaptation as morelearning occurs outside the school which is one of severalmajor places for learning in a network of educational provisionThe image of the self-managing school continues to change indifferent settings

10 The sagacity of leaders and managers in successful self-managingschools is likely to be the chief resource in preparing others iftransformation in a short time and on a large scale is the goal(Caldwell 2006 pp 71ndash2)

This book takes up the theme of item 5 in this list Particular atten-tion is given to items 6 and 7 which refer to resources that have beenunder-utilised in efforts to achieve change on the scale of transform-ation namely intellectual capital and social capital and to item 8 onnew standards in governance

Intellectual capital or intellectual assets refer to the lsquotalent skillsknow-how know-what and relationships ndash and machines and net-works that embody them ndash that can be used to create wealthrsquo (Stewart2002 p 11) or in the case of schools lsquoto enhance learningrsquo Know-ledge management in item 6 refers to the creation disseminationand utilisation of knowledge for the purpose of improving learningand teaching and to guide decision-making in every domain ofprofessional practice Building intellectual capital and sustainingit through a comprehensive approach to knowledge managementare the hallmarks of successful organisations in a knowledge societyFew schools have developed a systematic approach beyond the selec-tion of qualified teachers and relying on occasional in-service days Itis a theme of this book that the creation of intellectual capital andstate-of-the art approaches to knowledge management are essentialfor transformation and are key requirements in the acquisition andallocation of resources at the school level

Fukuyama (1995) defined social capital as lsquothe ability of people to


work together for common purposesrsquo A school has social capital tothe extent that it is part of a mutually supporting network of indi-viduals organisations agencies and institutions in the public andprivate sectors in education and in other fields As in other organisa-tions in western society social capital for schools became weak in thesecond half of the twentieth century (Putnam 2000) The challengeis to support schools as they seek to build their social capital Animpressive achievement in England is the way more than 2600 ofabout 3100 secondary schools have secured cash or in-kind supportfrom thousands of individuals organisations agencies and institu-tions when they became specialist schools New legislation extendedthe opportunity for schools or networks of schools to secure thesupport of trusts

These are dramatic developments considering that schools inEngland had little support of this kind barely a decade ago In manyrespects they are benefiting from the rise of philanthropy which hasits counterparts in other countries The Economist (2006a) docu-mented the trends lsquoGiving away money has never been so fashion-able among the rich and famousrsquo Bill Gates led the way in providingUS$31 billion to the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to supporthealth and education including a large grant to Cambridge Uni-versity Many school projects are supported including an initiativeto create smaller schools in the United States Among developedcountries the United States leads the way in philanthropy followedby Canada Britain the Netherlands Sweden France JapanGermany and Italy lsquoBritainrsquos government has recently been trying tofoster the philanthropic spirit and other European countries arestarting to follow suit Even in China the government seems keen tobuild up a non-profit sector that caters to social needsrsquo (ibid)

There are many shortcomings in traditional approaches to phil-anthropy A preferred approach calls for a major role for lsquosocialentrepreneursrsquo who can operate within an infrastructure that islsquothe philanthropic equivalent of stock markets investment banksresearch houses management consultants and so onrsquo (ibid) More-over lsquophilanthropists need to behave more like investorsrsquo who seek tomaximise their lsquosocial returnrsquo This was the style of the transformingphilanthropies set up by Carnegie and Rockefeller The Economistdocumented the rise of the lsquosocial entrepreneurrsquo and highlights thework of Ashoka a global organisation that invests in the field Itnotes that lsquosocial entrepreneurs now rub shoulders with the worldrsquosbusiness and political elite at the World Economic Forum in Davosrsquo


(ibid) The field is now taken seriously in academic circles as illus-trated in the endowment of the Skoll Centre for Social Entrepreneur-ship at Oxford University Harvard Business School entered the fieldin 1994

Bornstein (2004) wrote the engagingly titled How to Change theWorld Social Entrepreneurs and the Power of New Ideas He describedsocial entrepreneurs as lsquotransformative forces people with new ideasto address major problems who are relentless in the pursuit of theirvisions people who simply will not take ldquonordquo for an answer whowill not give up until they have spread their ideas as far as theypossible canrsquo (p 1) He contends that lsquosocial entrepreneurs haveexisted throughout the ages St Francis of Assisi founder of theFranciscan Order would qualify as a social entrepreneur havingbuilt multiple organisations that advanced social pattern changes inhis fieldrsquo (p 2) Bornstein estimates that in the 1990s the number ofregistered international citizen organisations increased from 6000to 26000 (p 4)

The Economist (2006a) concluded that lsquomuch remains to be donebefore todayrsquos beneficent billionaires can claim to follow in thefootsteps of such giants of giving as Carnegie Rockefeller and Rown-treersquo It called for better measurement of outcomes greater trans-parency and improved accountability

Secondary schools in England are benefiting from the rise of phil-anthropy and many will have experienced its shortcomings Thereis little doubt that providing a place for philanthropy and socialentrepreneurship is part of lsquonext practicersquo in acquiring and allocatingresources in schools of the twenty-first century especially within theframework of legislation that provides for trusts and more autonomyfor schools

Chapter outline

Chapter 1 concludes with a summary of lsquofirst principlesrsquo for theacquisition and allocation of resources for self-managing schools whenthe student is considered the most important unit of organisationand the goal is to secure success for all students in all settingsChapter 2 describes the lsquocore principlesrsquo that should underpinlsquonext practicersquo in the transformation of schools Particular attentionis given to resource allocation as an aspect of good governance ineducation zero tolerance of corruption the centrality of quality inteaching knowledge management building capacity for leadership


facilities that meet requirements for learning in the twenty-firstcentury and needs-based funding

Chapter 3 describes four kinds of capital that are the wellspringsof the resources required to secure transformation It is explainedhow these must be aligned each with the other and together onthe needs interests aptitudes and aspirations of students A modelfor alignment is described Alignment will only occur if there iseffective governance A case for a new alignment in education ispresented arguably the first lsquogrand alignmentrsquo since the late nine-teenth and early twentieth centuries Examples are provided fromseveral nations of progress in securing alignment and the constraintspresented in some settings in securing it Chapter 4 explains andillustrates the concept of intellectual capital describes two newapproaches for schools that seek to achieve transformation describesan instrument for assessing capacity in an important aspect of intel-lectual capital (knowledge management) and offers benchmarks fromAustralia and England that will assist schools to make judgementson the strength of this form of capital

Chapter 5 defines governance explains the connections to socialcapital and financial capital makes clear that good governance is nec-essary in alignment and describes an instrument for self-assessmentof a capacity for good governance and another that focuses on theacquisition and allocation of resources An example is provided ofgood practice in governance in new arrangements in England for thefederation of schools The chapter concludes with a set of lsquoenduringprinciplesrsquo complementing lsquofirst principlesrsquo (Chapter 1) and lsquocoreprinciplesrsquo (Chapter 2)

Chapters 6 to 9 are concerned with financial capital and the role itplays in securing success for all students Financial capital is criticalif strength in the other domains is to be attained Expressed simplyin the case of intellectual capital adequate funding is needed if thebest professional talent is to be secured Chapter 6 canvasses a rangeof issues in the alignment of financial capital and learning outcomesDevelopments in Australia and England are summarised Chapter 7describes and illustrates an approach to the development of student-focused allocation models that deliver funds from the centre ofa school system to a school Particular attention is given to workin Victoria Guidelines are offered for addressing the achievementof lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo Also included is a descriptionof approaches for the funding of students with special educationneeds


Chapter 8 describes and illustrates a student-focused planningmodel Whereas Chapter 7 was concerned with the allocation offunds to schools Chapter 8 deals with the deployment of fundswithin schools A pre-condition for deployment which helps securesuccess for all students in all settings is that schools have a model ortemplate for plans that respond to the needs interests aptitudes andaspirations of students Illustrations are provided from two secondaryschools in England

Chapter 9 explains how student-focused planning works in prac-tice Given the assumption that the most important unit of organisa-tion is the student and the goal is to secure success for all studentsin all settings particularly under challenging circumstances thechapter is organised around descriptions of three students with dra-matically different needs interests aptitudes and aspirations In eachinstance strategies are derived in relation to curriculum and peda-gogy and how the costs of support should be addressed We explainhow the budget of a school should be structured if learning is to bepersonalised and the school is to be transformed Drawing on thebreakthrough work of Fullan Hill and Creacutevola (2006) we concludethe chapter with a call for greater precision in the gathering andutilisation on a daily basis of data on student progress

Chapter 10 returns to the theme of alignment and the importanceof aligning the four forms of capital considered in preceding chapters(spiritual intellectual social and financial) Alignment is madeeffective through good governance There is an unrelenting focuson the student Examples are provided of practice in three schoolsfrom three systems of education in Australia (two secondary and oneprimary) one school in England (secondary) and one in Chile (a pri-mary-secondary school) Attention is drawn again to the importanceof appropriate facilities if alignment is to be effective

Recommendations for policy and practice are provided in Chapter11 These are intended for ministers of education senior officers insystems of education principals and other leaders in schools andtheir immediate communities professional associations and teacherunions and leaders in other settings in the public and private sectorswho are key stakeholders in securing success in schools We inject anote of urgency in these recommendations for reforms in educationhave been underway for two decades or more in some places andoutcomes still fall short of the expectation that success should besecured for all students It is time to raise the stakes and set allschools on the path to transformation


First principles

Several principles emerge from the analysis in this chapter Theyare considered to be lsquofirst principlesrsquo to be observed in policy andpractice

1 A transformation in approaches to the allocation and utilisationof resources is required if the transformation of schools is to beachieved

2 The driving force behind the transformation of schools andapproaches to the allocation of resources is that henceforth themost important unit of organisation is the student not theclassroom not the school and not the school system It is apre-requisite that schools be self-managing

3 Exclusive reliance on a steadily increasing pool of public fundswith much of the effort focused on mechanisms for the allocationof money will not achieve transformation

4 While there is increasing recognition of their importance thereare currently few accounts of good practice in building intel-lectual and social capital in schools and it is important that newapproaches to the allocation and utilisation of resources as wellas to governance take account of their value

5 Next practice in providing resources to schools must take accountof the rise of philanthropy and social entrepreneurship

These principles are simply the starting point They are consid-ered here to be lsquofirst principlesrsquo lsquoCore principlesrsquo are addressed inChapter 2 and lsquoenduring principlesrsquo in Chapter 5 The three sets ofprinciples are brought together in Appendix 1


Core principles fornext practice

Introduction

This chapter contains the lsquocore principlesrsquo that should underpin theallocation of resources to schools the acquisition of resources byschools and the allocation of resources within schools in a new viewof the self-managing school wherein the student is the most import-ant unit of organisation and the goal is to secure success for all Sevendomains are explored resource allocation as an aspect of good gov-ernance zero tolerance of corruption the centrality of quality inteaching knowledge management building capacity for leadershipfacilities that meet requirements for learning in the twenty-firstcentury and needs-based funding Core principles are derived in eachinstance as summarised in a set of ten at the conclusion of the chapterThey should guide lsquonext practicersquo in the resourcing of schools

Resource allocation as an aspect ofgood governance

The best approaches to the allocation of resources will meet thehighest standards of governance This is true at all levels in schoolsand school systems A definition of governance and a framework forassessment of its practice were developed in a project of the HumanResource Development Working Group of Asia Pacific EconomicCooperation (APEC) on Best Practice Governance Education Policy andService Delivery (Department of Education Science and Training2005) APEC represents about one-third of the worldrsquos populationFourteen of its 21 members contributed case studies to the project

Drawing from work by the International Institute of Administra-tive Sciences (1996) the report of the project noted that governance is

Chapter 2

a broader notion than government whose principal elements includethe constitution legislature executive and judiciary It involvesinteraction between these formal institutions and those of civil soci-ety Civil society is considered here to be the network of mutuallysupporting relationships between government business and industryeducation and other public and private sector services communityhome and voluntary agencies and institutions Traditional approachesto governance in public education have minimised such interactionbut as suggested in Chapter 1 there is recognition that social capitalin civil society is an importance resource so a broader view ofgovernance is required in the formulation of lsquonext practicersquo

The APEC project involved the design of a framework for theassessment of governance in education Drawing on the work ofthe International Institute of Administrative Sciences (1996) andthe World Bank Group (2001) broad indicators were provided infour domains (purpose process policy standards) There are severalelements in each domain and these are explored in Chapter 5

Zero tolerance of corruption

It may puzzle or even offend that the issue of corruption is raised inthis book Nevertheless we are in good company for it was also thesubject of a major report of the International Institute for Educa-tional Planning (IIEP) of UNESCO (Levacic and Downes 2004)The report was prepared by Rosalind Levacic an internationally-regarded expert in school finance and Peter Downes former Presidentof the Secondary Heads Association (SHA) in England who helpedpioneer the local financial management of schools in CambridgeshireCase studies were provided of formula funding for schools underconditions of decentralisation in Australia (Victoria) the UnitedKingdom (England) Poland (Kwidzyn and Swidnik) and Brazil (RioGrande do Sul)

The reason for the study was stated in the following terms

Given that the proportion of the national budget devoted toeducation is significant for both developed and developing coun-tries it is essential that public funds be directed effectively andused for the purposes for which they are allocated The misuse ofpublic funds is a serious matter both in terms of ethical andcriminal implications of the abuser and in terms of the depriv-ation of funding inflicted on students

(Levacic and Downes 2004 p 15)

Core principles for next practice 15

The focus was on practice in systems of self-managing schools Par-ticular attention was given to transparency the accurate collection ofdata the avoidance of fraud and the need for a range of auditingprocedures at different levels Few instances of fraud were uncoveredin the study

Several recommendations were made and these are consistent withindicators of good governance They were concerned with trainingpreparing manuals of financial procedures removing opportunitiesfor collusion designing an agreed format for financial reporting acrossthe system local monitoring that is frequent and independent of thehead (principal) and administrative staff the use of independent aud-itors external checking of statistics that are used in determining allo-cations and clarity in explanations of funding formulae so that theycan be readily understood by all stakeholders The report concludedthat lsquoformula funding for schools reduces the potential for corruptionby increasing transparency as the amount each school should receiveand the basis for this is public knowledgersquo (p 145) The reportcontains a useful appendix that sets out the financial regulations forschools administered by the Cambridgeshire County Council

The report noted that lsquoEngland and Victoria have the systemswith the greatest level of delegation with Victoria offering the clearerand more stable needs-led funding methodologyrsquo It stated that lsquotherecent (2003) reform of funding in England failed to achieve the fullversion of needs-led funding that many had hoped forrsquo (p 131) Incontrast Victoria took the already lsquoclearer and more stablersquo approachto a new level as described and illustrated in Chapters 6 and 7

The centrality of quality in teaching

The foregoing was concerned with two basic but critical consider-ations Approaches to the allocation of resources must conform tostandards for good governance and there must be zero tolerance ofcorruption in the process However the most important issue to beaddressed is what kinds of resources make a difference if transform-ation is intended and there is a commitment to ensure that thestudent is the most important unit of organisation

Simply increasing the amount of money allocated to schools maynot have an impact and this was the starting point of Chapter 1 Thework of Eric Hanushek was cited He concluded that the mostimportant resource was the quality of teaching lsquoThe available evi-dence does indicate that improvement in the quality of the teaching

16 Core principles for next practice

force is central to any overall improvement And improving thequality of teachers will almost certainly require a new set of incentivesincluding selective hiring retention and payrsquo (Hanushek 2004p 22) In his often cited conclusion that increases in the level offunding in recent decades have had minimal impact on learningoutcomes he is always careful to acknowledge that the link betweenadditional resources and improvements in learning has been demon-strated under some circumstances especially for students with specialeducation needs including those with moderate to severe disabilitiesand in the early years

Simply increasing the amount of money to compensate for thepersonal circumstances of students such as the socio-economic statusof their families may also have little impact on learning outcomesAs Hanushek described it this may involve lsquosame operations withgreater intensityrsquo The issue is the extent to which additionalresources will improve the quality of teaching

An example of best practice may be found at Bellfield PrimarySchool which serves the Melbourne suburb of West Heidelberg acommunity characterised by high levels of aggression gamblingalcohol and drug abuse Enrolment is about 220 and remains steadyAbout 80 per cent of childrenrsquos families receive the Education Main-tenance Allowance (an indicator of socio-economic status) nearly60 per cent of students come from single parent families andslightly more than 20 per cent are from non-English speaking back-grounds Many of these students are refugees from Somalia Thereis an indigenous (Aboriginal) enrolment of about 20 students Itis one of the most disadvantaged schools in Victoria The 1996Triennial Review revealed that over 85 per cent of students werebehind state-wide benchmarks in literacy and numeracy

Transformation at Bellfield Primary School is reflected in the per-formance of students on tests that show remarkable improvementbringing the school close to the essence of the definition of trans-formation namely securing success for all students in all settingsespecially under challenging circumstances Results for Bellfield onstate-wide tests in the Preparatory Grade and in Grades 1 and 2 assummarised in Table 21 illustrate what has been accomplishedNoteworthy are comparisons with schools in similar settings withall schools across the state and with results in 1998

Transformation was achieved by building the capacity of staffIt called for outstanding leadership notably by former principalJohn Fleming A visit to the school reveals a quiet safe orderly


environment A teaching vacancy results in scores of applications tofill the post Each year there are literally hundreds of visitors whocome to found out how the transformation was achieved (moreinformation in Caldwell 2006)

A key feature of Table 21 is the performance of students atBellfield compared to those in lsquolike schoolsrsquo (schools with a similarprofile of socio-economic indicators) If socio-economic circumstancecan be overcome at Bellfield it can be overcome in similar settings ifsimilar strategies to build the capacity of staff prove as successful Afirst step is rejection of the view that socio-economic circumstancenecessarily leads to low achievement even if research has shown thatit is an important predictor of such an outcome Indeed approachesto the allocation of resources that simply direct additional resourcesto schools to compensate for socio-economic circumstance may beineffective as they clearly have been in the case of many of the lsquolikeschoolsrsquo whose performance is summarised in Table 21

It is worthwhile to briefly review the evidence on the relativeimpact of quality of teaching and socio-economic circumstanceKen Rowe who chaired the National Inquiry into the Teaching ofLiteracy for the Australian Government is expert in this field Hecited two studies One by Peter Tymms was of results in Englandfor the GCSE and A-levels

In every case more variance [among measures of student achieve-ment] was accounted for at the department level than between

Table 21 Transformation of learning outcomes at Bellfield Primary School

Preparatory Grade Percentage reading with 100 per cent accuracy at Level 1

Bellfield 2004 Like schools 2004 State-wide 2004 Bellfield 1998974 585 675 333

Grade 1 Percentage reading with 100 per cent accuracy at Level 15





schools and the proportion of variance at the class level wasmore than at the departmental level A general principle emergesfrom data such as these and that is the smaller the unit of analy-sis and the closer one gets to the pupilrsquos experience of educationthe greater the proportion of variance explicable by that unit Inaccountability terms the models indicate that teachers have thegreatest influence

(Adapted from Rowe 2004 p 9)

The other study cited was by John Hattie who drew on an extensivereview of literature and a synthesis of findings in more than half amillion studies and reached a similar conclusion Percentages ofexplained variance were students (50) teachers (30) home and peers(5ndash10) and schools and principals (5ndash10) He concluded that

we should focus on the greatest source of variance that can makethe difference ndash the teacher We need to ensure that this greatestinfluence is optimised to have powerful and sensationally posi-tive effects but they must be exceptional effects We need todirect attention at higher quality teaching and higher expect-ations that students can meet appropriate challenges ndash and theseoccur once the classroom door is closed and not by reorganisingwhich or how many students are behind those doors by promot-ing different topics for teachers to teach or by bringing in moresticks to ensure they are following policy

(cited in Rowe 2004 pp 12ndash13)

The approach at Bellfield was consistent with the findings of Tymmsand Hattie

There are important implications for those concerned with theallocation of resources at all levels Governments and other author-ities must invest in policies that attract prepare place and rewardoutstanding people to serve in schools Schools must have a capacityto select those whose talents meet the unique mix of and prioritiesamong learning needs at the local level Once in post working con-ditions must be of such a standard that people will be retained in theprofession rather than seek an exit within a few years of appoint-ment as is the case in some nations including Australia and theUnited Kingdom Some of these conditions are included in otherdomains explored below All of these considerations are a far cry frompolicies and practices in recent years where just about any qualified


person can be employed to work in a depressing environment thatwas designed for a factory era of schooling

An exemplar in these matters is Finland (Harris J 2006) One ofseveral factors accounting for the success of Finland in PISA is thequality of its teachers Finnish teachers are highly valued and wellpaid professionals who are expected to have high levels of peda-gogical expertise and flexibility in order to achieve success with stu-dents who learn in heterogeneous groups Applications to tertiaryeducation studies are so high that just 10ndash12 per cent of applicantsare accepted in teacher education programmes Only those whodemonstrate outstanding academic ability and personal qualities areaccepted All teachers are required to have a masters degree in eitherpedagogy or the subject that they wish to teach

Knowledge management

It will require leadership of the highest order at every level of gov-ernment and in universities to achieve an expectation that all teachersshould hold a masters degree before taking up their appointmentsIn the absence of such a qualification and the assumed capacitiesthat follow schools must become powerful learning communities ifteachers are to be at the forefront of professional knowledge Theyshould remain so even when these high standards of initial teachereducation are achieved Principals and other school leaders shallrequire a capacity to develop a comprehensive approach to knowledgemanagement described in more detail in Chapter 4

More schools are building a powerful capacity for professionallearning Some are approaching this in comprehensive fashionthrough the creation of an institute Wesley College in Melbournethe largest non-government school in Australia has establishedsuch an entity Launched in 2005 with eminent scientist Sir GustavNossal as its patron The Wesley Institute aims to lsquogather the bestminds encourage the best talent promote the best research andexplore the best ideas to further the cause of education and to leadto the best possible outcomes for teaching and learningrsquo In carryingout its work the Institute will be a laboratory of innovation whereideas are generated translated evaluated and implemented anobservatory of excellence monitoring the worldrsquos best practice forimplementation and a conservatory of ideas embodying the mem-ory heritage and identity of the College as a leader in educationalinnovation It is intended to build a capacity to impact on classroom


learning outcomes within the school contribute to the wider edu-cational community nationally and internationally and influencethe broader development of society It will conduct seminars andconferences publish a professional journal and develop partnershipswith other institutions and educational and philanthropic organisa-tions It is intended that there be substantial external funding tosupport the enterprise

It is evident that occasional in-service training does not constitutethe kind of knowledge management that is required for successin the transformation of schools It is also evident that resourcesmust be provided or acquired and then allocated to support theeffort Small schools indeed most schools will join networks to shareknowledge address common problems or pool resources Consistentwith the new enterprise logic of schools set out in Chapter 1 thesenetworked learning communities must be led and resourced

Building capacity for leadership

It is apparent that the role of the principal is more complex anddemanding than ever before This is occurring at the same time thatconcerns are raised about the number of vacancies and the paucityof applicants In Victoria The Privilege and the Price (Department ofEducation and Training 2004) reported on workload in government(public) schools and its impact on the health and wellbeing of theprincipal class (principals and assistant principals) Regarding work-load for example the number of hours per week for principals inVictoria was similar to that for headteachers in England as reportedin a survey at about the same time being about 60 hours In bothplaces this is well above the average for leaders and managers inother professional fields in several European nations (about 45 hoursper week) The report contained disturbing evidence of the impacton the emotional and physical wellbeing of principals

Even more disturbing is the evidence from England about thenumber of vacancies and the number of acting appointments to theposition of headteacher The issue is not the number of positionsfalling vacant each year On average a school seeks a new head aboutonce every seven years which means about 14 per cent advertise eachyear The number of schools advertising in 2005 was 12 per cent Ofdeeper concern is that more than one-third of schools were not ableto make an appointment after the initial advertisement EducationData Surveys (EDS) reported that re-advertisement reached record


levels EDSrsquos John Howson suggested that lsquothe 2005 results arealarming especially for secondary schools In all the time I have beenconducting this survey I cannot recall the problem being this badrsquoThe seriousness of the situation is affirmed in a report of the NationalAudit Office (NAO) that blamed the shortage of headteachers forholding back progress in the most challenged schools (Smithers2006)

The interim report of a two-year study conducted by the NationalAssociation of Head Teachers (NAHT) the Eastern LeadershipCentre (ELC) the University of Cambridge the National College forSchool Leadership (NCSL) and the Hay Group (NAHT et al 2005)found that lsquothe number of quality candidates to choose from is oftenseen as too small or nonexistentrsquo It drew attention to the fact thatheadteacher salaries had risen on average by 34 per cent between1998 and 2003 Salaries exceed pound100000 per annum for heads ofsecondary schools in London a level likely to make them the highestpaid principals of public schools in the world The report canvassed arange of good practices in recruitment drawing on approaches fromEngland and other countries At the same time it acknowledgedthat recruitment and appointment of headteachers is an internationalconcern

Principals everywhere resent the mountain of paperwork they arerequired to deal with It goes without saying that this must bereduced to an absolute minimum but the larger issue of approachesto knowledge management of schools is raised Part of the deepsupport to be expected of centralised services is to furnish everyschool and every leader with a state-of-the-art computer-based sys-tem to assist every aspect of school operations including curriculumpedagogy assessment accounting and accountability Some schoolsare doing this well from their own resources but it is a capacitythat ought to be built for all School leaders are lagging far behindtheir counterparts in health care and far behind airline serviceswhen it comes to managing information about the individualHow much more important it is in schools where the focus ispersonalising learning The principalrsquos office ought to be a paperlessoffice

A related issue is the amount of support for principals There canbe few enterprises as large as a typical secondary school or a bigprimary school where the chief executive does not have a personalassistant and several managers to deal with business and financeWhy is there not such support for principals of these schools or for


principals in networks of smaller primary schools or however net-works of schools are configured It is inexplicable that such supportis not included in the basic package of support for leaders of schoolsin the public sector when it is taken for granted for their counterpartsin the private or independent sector The notion of a lsquopackagersquo isstressed because the way in which the resource is used will vary fromschool to school Some principals may not seek additional personalassistance or require a business manager or they may choose to out-source the support

When it comes to the exercise of leadership across a system thetraditional approach has been to appoint successful principals toformal positions in a central office from where they are expected toinfluence developments across the system in whole or in part Itremains the most widely-practised approach to system leadership Ithas generally worked well In terms of the scenarios developed atOECD (2001a) it is part of a lsquostatus quorsquo scenario (lsquobureaucraticsystems continuersquo) It is an approach that is consistent with theold enterprise logic The preferred scenarios (lsquoschools as core socialcentresrsquo and lsquoschools as focused learning organisationsrsquo) call for a highlevel of professional networking An approach that is consistent withthese preferred scenarios and the new enterprise logic is for successfulprincipals to remain in their posts but exert influence across all or partof a system rather than leave for an appointment in a central officeThis is a new view of the lsquosystem leaderrsquo defined by David HopkinsHSBC iNet Chair in International Leadership at the Institute ofEducation in London in the following terms

ldquoSystem leadersrdquo are those headteachers [principals] who arewilling to shoulder system leadership roles who care about andwork for the success of other schools as well as their own Systemleaders measure their success in terms of improving studentlearning and increasing achievement and strive to both raise thebar and narrow the gap(s) They look both into classrooms andacross the broader system they realise in a deep way that theclassroom school and system levels all impact on each otherCrucially they understand that in order to change the larger sys-tem you have to engage with it in a meaningful way

(Hopkins 2006)

Hopkins includes the nurturing of lsquosystem leadersrsquo in a rangeof strategies that support a vision of lsquoevery school a great schoolrsquo


adapting to education the terminology of Jim Collins in From Good toGreat (Collins 2001) There are major implications in this analysisand in the directions foreshadowed as far as the allocation of resourcesto schools and within schools is concerned These must be addressedif leadership is to be sustained at a level that is required for success inthe transformation of schools

Facilities that meet requirements forlearning in the twenty-first century

The majority of schools in nations where this book will be readwere built decades ago to a design that is ill-suited to the needs ofthe twenty-first century In many cases the facilities are dilapi-dated and should be bulldozed and replaced The following is aworst case account of what might be found on a visit to suchschools Regardless of the physical condition of the buildings thereis little flexibility in the use of space classrooms are frequentlyoverflowing with different technologies corridors are being usedfor learning and teaching in small groups teachers are hiddenbehind a mountain of books in overcrowded staffrooms or are work-ing in isolated fashion in their classrooms meetings of and withparents occur in makeshift facilities and there are few fit-for-purpose working spaces for professionals other than teachers Port-able or demountable classrooms have become permanent fixturesproviding crowded and unhealthy spaces for teachers and studentsin seasonal extremes

The effects go beyond those described An increasing proportionof teachers are leaving the profession within a few years of gradu-ation Apart from the demands of teaching under conditions morechallenging and complex than in the past their physical workingconditions compare poorly with those in most private schools orthose for their peers who work in other professions Indeed they areinferior to those found in almost any business

The drift of students to private schools can be explained in part byschool design and the facilities suffered by students and staff Manyprivate schools have the resources to create schools to a twenty-first-century design leaving behind the industrial model of the last cen-tury Such a comparison is readily made by parents who will exercisechoice when they can afford the fees as an increasing proportion ofparents can given the continuing strength of the economy Someobservers may find it puzzling that schools built on factory lines can


still be found in many communities when the factories upon whichthey were modelled have long departed the scene

It is encouraging that some countries are doing something aboutthis situation The aim of the Building Schools for the Future(BSF) initiative in England is to rebuild or renew every secondaryschool over a 10ndash15 year period A 503515 formula has beenadopted lsquonew buildingrsquo for 50 per cent of floor area lsquomajor refurbish-mentremodellingrsquo for 35 per cent and lsquominor refurbishmentrsquo for 15per cent Public private partnerships (PPP) constitute an importantstrategy for achieving this outcome in a relatively short time Con-struction shall be state-of-the-art and shall take account of curriculumand pedagogy that will lie at the heart of school education for thedecades ahead with due consideration for developments or require-ments in underperforming schools extended or full service schoolsspecialist schools academies ICT and workforce reform

Needs-based funding

The allocation of resources from central sources in systems of self-managing schools through mechanisms known variously as lsquoglobalbudgetsrsquo or lsquostudent resource packagesrsquo are as important as everDetermining the lsquofunding formularsquo is a complex and continuouschallenge and the outcomes each year are eagerly awaited in schoolsThe money in these allocations is the major item on the income sideof the annual budget

Allocations to schools include a per capita component withweights that differ according to stage of schooling and needs-basedcomponents that reflect student and school characteristics Goodprogress was made in the 1990s in several countries (see Levacicand Ross 1999 for a summary of approaches in Australia CanadaEngland New Zealand the United States and Wales)

To a large extent allocations for the per capita component reflecthistorical approaches and old enterprise logic especially in respect toa class rather than student focus and assumptions about studentndashteacher ratios The challenge is to identify best practice in schoolswhere there has been transformation and a shift in focus from theclass to the student Allocations in many elements of the studentneeds component are based on personalising learning where moder-ate to severe disabilities are involved Indeed some special schoolsare models of approaches to personalising learning Allocations thatreflect school characteristics invariably take account of size and econ-


omies of scale location especially in remote or rural settings andstage and specialisation in schooling where there are differentresource requirements

Needs-based funding is problematic when efforts are made tocompensate for disadvantage associated with socio-economic circum-stance It is in this regard that quality of teaching knowledgemanagement and social capital are critically important The case ofBellfield Primary School was cited earlier in the chapter as anexample of how these matters were addressed and transformation wasachieved Levels of achievement in lsquolike schoolsrsquo are relatively lowand no amount of additional funding will make a difference unlessthe building of professional capacity is modelled along the same linesas Bellfield It may be that schools that achieve transformation alongthese lines will relinquish some elements of funding as success issecured

Chapter 7 describes emerging practice in the needs-based fundingof schools Chapter 8 describes and illustrates a student-based plan-ning model for use in schools that seek to secure success for allstudents Chapter 9 illustrates how the model works in practicewhere the intention is to personalise learning

Core principles

The following lsquocore principlesrsquo summarise the themes explored inChapter 2 They are intended to help shape lsquonext practicersquo in theallocation of resources

1 Approaches to the acquisition allocation and utilisation ofresources should conform to criteria for good governance inrespect to purpose process policy and standards

2 There should be zero tolerance of practices that may lead tocorruption in matters related to the acquisition allocation andutilisation of resources

3 Quality of teaching is the most important resource of all andschool systems and other organisations and institutions shouldplace the highest priority on attracting preparing placingrewarding and retaining the best people for service in theprofession

4 Schools should have the authority to select and reward the bestpeople in matching human resources to priorities in learning andteaching and the support of learning and teaching


5 A human resource management plan is a necessary component ofthe school plan for the acquisition allocation and utilisation ofresources

6 A knowledge management plan to ensure that all staff reach andremain at the forefront of professional knowledge is a necessarycomponent of plans to achieve transformation and resourcesmust be allocated to support its implementation

7 There should be a plan for systematically building the socialcapital of the school with provision for participation in andcontribution to networks of support in a whole-of-governmentand whole-of-community approach

8 Principals and other school leaders should have salary packagesthat reflect the complexities of their roles and be resourcedfor full executive and managerial support with state-of-the-artsystems to eliminate unnecessary paperwork

9 Most schools should be re-built or replaced to provide facilitiesappropriate for learning in the twenty-first century recognisingthat these are required to attract and retain the best people in theprofession

10 Formula funding remains the largest component of resources tosupport schools but more work is needed to base per capita andneeds-based elements on best practice in transformation ratheron historical patterns that reflect old enterprise logic


Alignment

Introduction

A school has been transformed if there has been significant systematicand sustained change that secures success for all of its students Someschools can provide evidence of transformation by referring to dataon student achievement They will show how current high levels ofachievement represent a dramatic improvement on results in thepast and that these high levels have been sustained Transformationon this scale is particularly meritorious when it has been achieved inchallenging circumstances How was such a transformation achievedWhat does a school that makes a commitment to transformation needto do to achieve success How does a school that has made such acommitment know if it is on the road to success

It is easy to confuse means and ends when it comes to makinga claim that a school has been transformed A run-down facilitywith an obsolete nineteenth- or twentieth-century design might havebeen replaced by a state-of-the-art building that has all the featuresdeemed to be important in a school for the twenty-first centuryThere may have been a transformation in the building but notransformation in achievement

A school may have re-designed its curriculum so that each studentcan find a pathway that matches interest and aspiration but theopportunity for personalising learning may not be there becausethere is no change in pedagogy The school may have highly quali-fied teachers in an academic sense ndash all may have masters degreeswith specialisation in particular disciplines ndash but staff continue touse the same one-approach-suits-all when it came to styles of learn-ing and teaching Alternatively staff may have the know-how tomake change to curriculum and pedagogy but neither curriculum

Chapter 3

nor pedagogy are valued by or are relevant to the community theschool seeks to serve

The point we make is straightforward There must be strengthin every domain but more importantly each of these strengths mustbe aligned with every other strength To illustrate the design ofstate-of-the-art facilities must be consistent with the design of arelevant curriculum that must in turn be delivered through a rangeof pedagogical practices by professionals with the knowledge andskill to accomplish the task with each of these consistent with theneeds of society and the expectations of the community Plans andbudgets should enable this alignment A major purpose of this bookis to explain and illustrate how strength can be developed in eachdomain and how progress in building that strength can be measuredExpressed another way how can the school be assured it is on trackfor transformation

Alignment

A simple analogy is presented by Robert Kaplan and David Nortonin Alignment (Kaplan and Norton 2006) They invite us to considerrowing crews in a river race

Although each shell contains strong highly motivated ath-letes the key to their success is that they row in synchronismImagine a shell populated by eight highly conditioned andtrained rowers but with each rower having a different idea abouthow to achieve success how many strokes per minute wereoptimal and which course the shell should follow given winddirection and speed water current and a curvy course withmultiple bridge underpasses For eight exceptional rowers todevise and attempt to implement independent tactics would bedisastrous

(Kaplan and Norton 2006 p 1)

The same image applies to any enterprise in education and certainlyto schools These questions may be posed Does the school havelsquostrong highly motivated athletesrsquo (a talented team of teachers andother professionals) Do they lsquorow in synchronismrsquo (teachers andother professionals aligned in their efforts to secure success for allstudents) or is it a matter of lsquoeach rower having a different idea abouthow to achieve successrsquo

Alignment 29

Like all images the image of the rowing crew is concerned withonly one facet of what it takes to achieve success In this instance it islsquoalignmentrsquo In other aspects of professional practice a differentimage is more appropriate to the extent for example that a diversityof strengths or a high degree of artistry may be required The imagefor diversity might be of players in a symphony orchestra If creativ-ity and improvisation are valued the image might shift to a jazzband

Kaplan and Norton described a study of practice in three kindsof corporation in which five key processes were assessed mobilisa-tion of effort to achieve change capacity to translate strategy intoaction alignment of different units in the organisation motivationof employees and quality of governance One kind of corporationbelonged to the authorsrsquo lsquohall of famersquo being exemplars in theuse of their highly regarded balanced scorecard approach A secondreported significant benefits from the approach although they werenot in the class of the lsquohall of famersquo A third reported few benefitsafter using the approach The three kinds of corporation were rankedon the basis of their performance in the five key processes and in eachinstance the rank order was the same lsquohall of famersquo performed bestfollowed by lsquohigh benefitrsquo and then last lsquolow benefitrsquo The greatestgap in performance was for alignment of the different units in theorganisation The authors conclude that lsquounderstanding how to cre-ate alignment in organisations is a big deal one capable of producingsignificant payoffs for all kinds of enterprisesrsquo (Kaplan and Norton2006 p 3) After alignment the largest gap in performance was forgovernance

There is little doubt that similar results would be found in theanalysis of performance in many schools where different units areexpected to work together in the implementation of strategies toachieve success Adopting the language of Kaplan and Norton it islikely that schools in the lsquohall of famersquo as far as transformation isconcerned will be strong in each of the five key organisational pro-cesses including alignment of different units within the schoolIn this book we extend the concept to include alignment of theschools with what can be broadly described as societal expectationsfor schools

The concept of alignment is consistent with theory on leadershipand management The distinction that John Kotter makes betweenthe two is helpful as summarised in Table 31

Leadership involves those activities in the right hand column of

30 Alignment

Table 31 It is important to note that leadership does not involveactions on the part of one person only There may be many leadersLeadership is or should be lsquodistributedrsquo in most organisations(Harris A 2005) Leadership calls for establishing the direction ofthe enterprise and then ensuring that all who work in it are alignedin their efforts The image of the rowing crew offered by Kaplan andNorton may be invoked along with clicheacutes such as lsquoall singing off thesame song sheetrsquo or lsquogetting the right people on the busrsquo Leadershipinvolves motivating and inspiring those who are engaged in theendeavour The purpose is to achieve change If no change occurseither none was expected in which case no leadership was requiredor there was a failure in leadership It goes without saying especiallyin education that the desired change should have moral purposeMoral purpose is evident in the view of transformation that hasbeen adopted securing success for all students in all settings thuscontributing to the wellbeing of the student and society

There is alignment of management processes as listed in the leftcolumn of Table 31 with these elements in leadership If leader-ship involves establishing direction then moving in that directioncalls for planning and the preparation of a budget If people are tobe aligned then an important aspect of management is securing thebest people for the task (staffing) and getting some structure in theoperation (organising) A measure of control is required in matterssuch as implementation of the budget Problems will arise andthese must be resolved to keep the enterprise on track Whilechange with moral purpose is desired all who work in the organisa-tion yearn for stability and predictability in the way they goabout it

Table 31 Alignment in leadership and management

Management Leadership

Planning and budgeting Establishing direction

Organising and staffing Aligning people

Controlling and problem-solving Motivating and inspiring

Producing a degree of predictability Achieving change

(Based on Kotter 1990)

Alignment 31

A model for alignment

We propose a model for alignment if transformation is to be achievedThe student lies at its heart This is as it should be given that thepurpose of transformation is to secure success for all students in allsettings Four domains are included and there must be alignment onewith the other Above all there must be alignment with the interestsof students and the goal of transformation Four kinds of capital con-stitute the domains intellectual capital social capital spiritual cap-ital and financial capital Securing alignment between these differenttypes of capital calls for outstanding governance The entire enter-prise must succeed in a context of change ndash local national and inter-national The stakes are high If schools are transformed in the senseunder consideration in this book it opens up an era of unprecedentedopportunity for learners and learning This is a global challenge

The model is illustrated in Figure 31 The following bullet pointscontain brief descriptions of the four kinds of capital along with adefinition of governance

bull Intellectual capital refers to the level of knowledge and skill ofthose who work in or for the school all of whom should be at theforefront of knowledge and skill We prefer the concept of lsquotalentforcersquo to lsquoworkforcersquo

bull Social capital refers to the strength of formal and informal partner-ships and networks involving the school parents communitybusiness and industry indeed all individuals agencies organ-isations and institutions that have the potential to support andwhere appropriate be supported by the school

bull Spiritual capital refers to the strength of moral purpose and thedegree of coherence among values beliefs and attitudes aboutlife and learning For some schools spiritual capital has a foun-dation in religion In other schools spiritual capital may refer toethics and values shared by members of the school and itscommunity

bull Financial capital refers to the monetary resources available tosupport the school as it seeks to achieve transformation securingsuccess for all students It is acknowledged that some schools arein more challenging circumstances than others so the notion ofneeds-based funding is embraced

bull Governance is concerned with the formal decision-making pro-cesses of the school and their interaction with civil society

32 Alignment

which comprises the network of mutually supporting relation-ships with government business industry other services in thepublic and private sectors community home and voluntaryagencies and institutions

Why capital

The choice of the word lsquocapitalrsquo to describe the domains to be alignedwarrants an explanation A major purpose of the book is to provide aset of tools to assist the school assess its progress to transformationThe reader might be expecting an extended list of indicators on

Figure 31 A model for alignment

Alignment 33

curriculum teaching learning and assessment as well as data onoutcomes These are important but whether a high level of perform-ance on each can be attained depends on the resources on which theschool can draw It is in this respect that the concept of capital ishelpful

Capital has several meanings that are relevant in this contextAccording to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary capital refersto lsquoaccumulated goods devoted to the production of other goodsrsquo or lsquoastore of useful assets or advantagesrsquo Intellectual capital for examplemay be viewed as lsquoaccumulated goodsrsquo (lsquothe level of knowledge andskill of those who work in or for the schoolrsquo) devoted to the lsquoproduc-tion of other goodsrsquo (state-of-the-art curriculum and pedagogy lead-ing to lsquosuccess for all studentsrsquo) High levels of capital in each of thefour domains constitute lsquoa store of useful assets or advantagesrsquo

Assessing the degree of alignment in a school

A sense of the degree of alignment in a school can be obtained byinviting the perceptions of key stakeholders on the matter This canbe done formally or informally as part of a planning or professionaldevelopment activity An example of its use in the latter was in aworkshop of school leaders organised by the Specialist Schools andAcademies Trust (SSAT) in London in December 2006 Participantswere principals deputy principals and bursars of affiliated secondaryschools They were invited to rate on a scale from 1 (low) to 10 (high)the strength of each kind of capital in their schools and the degree ofalignment They were briefed on the concept of alignment and eachkind of capital Responses are summarised in Table 32

Mean ratings were modest in the range 56 to 63 for the fourkinds of capital and lowest at 51 for the degree of alignment

Table 32 Assessing the degree of alignment in schools ratings by participants ina London workshop of school leaders on a scale from 1 (low) to 10(high) 23 participants

Item Intellectualcapital

Socialcapital

Spiritualcapital

Financialcapital

Degree ofalignment

Mean 58 63 57 56 51

Range 4ndash9 2ndash9 2ndash8 2ndash8 3ndash8

34 Alignment

Participants provided a wide range of ratings in each instanceNoteworthy is the higher mean rating for the strength of socialcapital (63) possibly reflecting the significant developments in spe-cialist secondary schools in England At the time of the workshopmore than 80 per cent of approximately 3100 secondary schools hadformed partnerships with business and industry (broadly defined) inareas of specialism There is no counterpart to such a development incomparable countries All schools in England have governing bodiesof parents and other members of the community with significantlygreater powers than in the past

Participants were also invited to nominate the part of the modelwhere it is most difficult to secure alignment Spiritual capital andfinancial capital were mentioned most frequently the former tosecure agreement among disparate groups and the latter to ensuremoney is allocated to priorities for learning It was noted in discus-sion that different ratings would be given for different parts of theschool and that trends were as important as assessments at a fixedpoint of time It was agreed that ratings of the kind provided in thiskind of activity are subjective but a useful starting point for stra-tegic conversation Finer-grained assessments of intellectual capitalfinancial capital and governance are discussed in Chapters 4 and 5with related instruments contained in the appendices

Itrsquos time for a new lsquogrand alignmentrsquo

Scientists have coined the term lsquogrand alignmentrsquo to refer to an eventthat occurs about every 20 years when all planets are in alignment onthe same side of the sun It is often the subject of scaremongeringwith alarming predictions of volcanic eruptions earthquakes andtsunamis if not the end of civilisation as we know it The eventpasses without discernible impact There is similarity with expect-ations for many reforms in education that occur every decade or soSome would argue that like the grand alignment in astronomythese are recurring events that have no significant impact or leavelittle of lasting value It is no wonder that many in the educationprofession are cynical about change

There is an important difference between astronomy and educa-tion Alignment in the former has no impact Alignment in thelatter has the potential to have powerful impact but it has rarelyoccurred Failure in educational reform is to a large degree the failureto achieve alignment

Alignment 35

The last grand alignment

A case can be made that there has been no lsquogrand alignmentrsquo ineducation since the late nineteenth century when everything fromschool design to curriculum to the organisation of schools and schoolsystems was based on a lsquofactory modelrsquo that aligned well with theneeds of the manufacturing sector during and following the indus-trial revolution It was arguably one of the great success stories inrecent human history because mass education was an outcome wellmatched to the needs of mass production

Itrsquos time for a new lsquogrand alignmentrsquo Failure in much of schoolreform can be put down to lack of alignment within and betweenthe lsquointernalsrsquo and lsquoexternalsrsquo The lsquointernalsrsquo are what occurs at theschool in curriculum pedagogy and the environment for learningThe lsquoexternalsrsquo refer to the great changes that are occurring in societyand the world of work There is little point in securing alignmentof the former (lsquointernalsrsquo) if there is a mismatch with what isoccurring or what is needed beyond the school (lsquoexternalsrsquo) Onemanifestation of the problem is the current shortage of skills inthe workforce ndash no amount of alignment among the lsquointernalsrsquowill assist if schools and school systems are disconnected to thelsquoexternalsrsquo in this case the needs of society in a time of globalisationIn the larger scheme of things this is the challenge of creating inthe early years of the twenty-first century an lsquoeducation imaginaryrsquothat aligns with the lsquosocial imaginaryrsquo (Hargreaves 2004 Beare2006) Moreover alignment extends to a limited number of lsquointer-nalsrsquo as illustrated by the fact that much of the curriculum andassociated pedagogy cannot be delivered because most school build-ings are obsolete having been designed according to a model thatsuited the last lsquogrand alignmentrsquo

The next grand alignment

There are two issues related to the next lsquogrand alignmentrsquo that are ofparticular concern One is that the lsquoexternalsrsquo are changing at a rapidrate and this makes long-overdue alignment in education very dif-ficult to achieve Expressed another way we are still in lsquocatch-uprsquomode at a time when the world we are catching up with is changingat a rapid rate Former Prime Minister Tony Blair outlined the natureof this change in his valedictory speech to the Labour Party confer-ence in Manchester on 27 September 2006

36 Alignment

The scale of the challenges now dwarf what we faced in 1997[when Labour was elected] They are different deeper biggerhammered out on the anvil of forces global in nature sweepingthe world In 1997 the challenges we faced were essentiallyBritish Today they are essentially global The world today is avast reservoir of potential opportunity New jobs in environ-mental technology the creative industries financial servicesCheap goods and travel The internet Advances in science andtechnology In ten years we will think nothing of school-leaversgoing off to university anywhere in the world But with all theseopportunities comes huge insecurity The British people todayare reluctant global citizens We must make them confidentones

(Blair 2006a)

Tony Blair made clear the impact on schools lsquoThe same global forceschanging business are at work in public services too New ways oftreating New ways of teaching New technologiesrsquo

The Blair government achieved some degree of alignment ineducation moving from a one-size-fits-all approach to secondaryeducation which was well-suited to an era of mass productiontoward a system of specialist schools which takes account of diver-sity interests aptitudes and needs in the twenty-first century Thereis realisation that much of the curriculum and many of theapproaches to learning and teaching cannot be carried out in obsoleteor run-down facilities The Building Schools for the Future pro-gramme is intended to re-build or refurbish in a major way about 90per cent of the space in secondary schools The Blair Governmenttook the lead in personalising learning and good progress has beenmade in many schools The paradox is that personalising learningindeed the personalising of all services must succeed as newopportunities are pursued in an era of globalisation This paradoxwill be resolved it will not disappear with the retirement of TonyBlair His successor as prime minister former Chancellor GordonBrown affirmed this in his address at the same conference

And we cannot leave public services as they were we mustbuild them around the personal aspirations of the individualAnd let me say that the renewal of New Labour must and will bebuilt upon these essential truths a flexible economy reformedand personalised public services public and private sectors not

Alignment 37

at odds but working together so that we can truly deliveropportunity and security not just for some but for all

(Brown 2006)

There is recognition of the need for lsquogrand alignmentrsquo in AustraliaWriting in The Australian editor-at-large Paul Kelly stated that lsquothe21st century task facing Australia is how to leverage its assets tosucceed in the globalised age and this requires a flexible economy ahighly educated workforce and a sound system of governancersquo (Kelly2006a) Two of these requirements as they concern schools are takenup in Chapter 4 (lsquoworkforcersquo) and Chapter 5 (lsquogovernancersquo) Australiawill have a national election in 2007 and Kelly expects that it will belsquoa contest over different models to manage globalisationrsquo This maywell be the case in elections to take place in other nations over thenext five years including the next contest in the UK

The second issue is that while there is broad recognition thatdramatic change is needed even a long overdue lsquogrand alignmentrsquopolicy and practice in most settings are still lsquobusiness as usualrsquo Interms of the famous OECD scenarios for the future of schooling(OECD 2001a) it is still a matter of the status quo in the form oflsquobureaucratic systems continuersquo rather than either of the re-schoolingscenarios lsquoschools as focused learning organisationsrsquo or lsquoschools ascore social centresrsquo There is little sense of the lsquoadaptive statersquo that isacceptance of the idea that lsquowe need new systems capable of continu-ously reconfiguring themselves to create new sources of public valuersquo(Bentley and Wilsdon 2004 p 16)

Some governments have commissioned studies on the future ofschools suggesting a commitment to re-designing current arrange-ments to ensure that the desired future state is achieved Yet thesesame governments are still organised in basically the same way as faras education is concerned They often respond to criticism of theirefforts by offering a traditional defence based on matters such asincreases in levels of funding reductions in class size and growth inthe number of teachers when a lsquonew enterprise logicrsquo is required(Caldwell 2006)

A justified sense of frustration is evident in Essential Questions forthe Future School (Futures Vision Group 2006) Authors made refer-ence to Hedley Bearersquos now famous description of Angelica Heinvited the reader to imagine a child starting school in 2001 and thekind of world in which she will spend the rest of her life lsquoHullo I amAngelica I am 5 years old I really donrsquot have much of a past In fact

38 Alignment

I am the futurersquo (Beare 2001) Beare framed his book around aview of how schools need to change for people like Angelica TheFutures Vision Group declared that lsquoIf we cannot respond toAngelica today what hope have we of responding to her five-year-oldson or daughter in 2025 There is now an urgency that has character-ised schooling for too longrsquo lsquoWe need to be outraged that wehave not responded to the 2001 Angelica If we cannot even todayrespond to her how can we create schools for the futurersquo

The lsquoessential questionsrsquo posed by the Futures Vision Groupinclude the following Why is education configured in the way it isWhat do we take for granted that we might question and changeHow can schools justify much of what they do Why do so manystudents still leave at the end of compulsory education with so littleto show for it Why do we still depend on outmoded industrialage thinking when working with complex organisations Whatare the consequences for students in meeting the challenges of thetwenty-first century if we do not transform our current practiceWhat are the consequences for society if our students are unable tomeet these challenges

Alignment about alignment

This book is not the first in education that places the concept ofalignment at centre-stage in efforts to achieve the transformation ofschools Its uniqueness lies in the extension of our earlier work onself-managing schools the broader notion of resources that draw onfour kinds of capital and the student focus in planning and budget-ing We acknowledge the contributions of others who have paved theway or are moving ahead with different but complementary intent

Much work was done in the 1990s in the United States in par-ticular on efforts to create new designs for schools The aim was tocreate comprehensive consistent and coherent approaches to schoolimprovement drawing on the findings of research on good practiceThere were initially nine designs promoted by the New AmericanSchools Development Corporation (see Stringfield et al 1996) Moredesigns were created and a study of the impact of 29 of these yieldedmixed findings as far as student learning is concerned (Borman et al2003) In their review of these developments Fullan Hill andCreacutevola (2006 pp 44ndash5) suggested five reasons for a failure to meetexpectations (1) focus on a limited range of functions in the oper-ation of schools (2) over-estimation of the capacity of schools (3)

Alignment 39

insufficient attention to teaching and learning (4) focus on externalaspects of design rather than placing the teacher and student at thecentre and (5) failure to tackle the challenge of change at the systemlevel

These shortcomings are addressed in Breakthrough (Fullan et al2006) and we refer to their work in Chapter 4 as it concerns person-alisation and professional learning and in Chapter 9 as it concernslsquoprecisionrsquo that is the gathering and utilisation on a continuousbasis of data that are needed to guide the work of teachers who seekto secure success for all of their students Dimmock also addressedthese shortcomings in Designing the Learning-Centred School(Dimmock 2000) He explicitly acknowledged the importance ofresources and a capacity for self-management and brought an inter-national cross-cultural perspective to the topic

Valuable work has been done in Australia by Frank Crowther andhis colleagues at the University of Southern Queensland (USQ) inthe Innovative Designs for Enhancing Achievement in Schools pro-ject (IDEAS) The IDEAS model seeks alignment between school-wide pedagogy (intellectual capital) cohesive community (socialcapital) strategic foundations (spiritual capital) and infrastructuredesign The integrating mechanism is powerful professional support(intellectual capital) The model has been successfully implementedin Queensland through a partnership of USQ and the Department ofEducation Implementation in a limited number of schools in otherjurisdictions was made possible through funding from the AustralianGovernmentrsquos Quality Teaching Programme In Chapter 10 wedescribe the successful experience of an award-winning school in theAustralian Capital Territory (St Monicarsquos Parish Primary)

Alignment in action

The concept of alignment is starting to find its place in a rangeof educational settings An impressive example may be found inTexas The University of Texas System is a consortium of lsquoNineUniversities Six Health Institutions Unlimited Possibilitiesrsquo It has185000 students 77500 staff and an annual budget of US$96billion Its Board of Regents is understandably concerned to achievealignment among its 15 entities but extends the concept of align-ment to include the needs and aspirations of society in Texas and therequirements of the nation in an era of globalisation Significantlyit works with schools and school systems to secure alignment across

40 Alignment

all sectors of education It has an Assistant Vice-Chancellor forEducational Alignment who heads the Office of Educational SystemAlignment Its Strategic Plan 2006ndash2015 acknowledged that

The twenty-first century will be an era of increasing worldwideintegration and competition in science technology business andeducation The competition for the best minds the best work-force and the best ideas will heighten the importance of educa-tion as a means to social and economic mobility and success

(University of Texas System 2006)

The Office of Educational System Alignment at the University ofTexas System has designed the lsquoEvery Child Every Advantagersquo ini-tiative which is part of the Texas response to the federal No ChildLeft Behind Act of 2001 It provides support for teachers and stu-dents in public schools It administers a US$75 million grant toenhance reading hiring 40 reading specialists to provide deep on-site support to 550 schools in 114 school districts It has establishedits own charter school Along with two other university systems inTexas (Texas A amp M University System and Texas State UniversitySystem) it secured a US$39 million grant from Houston Endow-ment a private philanthropic organisation to enhance teacher edu-cation in 23 colleges of education around the state

In another development in the United States the Governor ofColorado established the Colorado Education Alignment Council in2005 to address the problem of misalignment in a range of edu-cational initiatives in elementary (primary) secondary and highereducation The Governorrsquos Executive Order acknowledged progress

However the development and implementation of thesevarious sets of standards in Kndash12 and higher education levelswere completed independently at different times and with lit-tle or no interagency coordination In order to ensure expect-ations for student achievement are seamless across the Kndash16continuum I hereby determine that Colorado must align itsvarious sets of secondary and post-secondary standards forstudent achievement

(State of Colorado 2005)

Powerful alignment is evident in two systems of education at thetop of the tables in PISA (Programme in International Student

Alignment 41

Assessment) Finland ranks first Alignment is strong in terms ofexpectations and support for schools the status of the teaching pro-fession a focus on creativity and innovation and an absence of publicrelease of school-by-school test results (Harris J 2006) School per-formance is determined largely on the basis of self-assessment withreport to the National Board of Education The results of perform-ance reviews are provided only to the school in question It seemsthat this practice fosters high levels of trust between schools andtheir governing bodies and there are high rates of participation inschool evaluations

Finland ranks third on the Global Creativity Index based on threefactors accounting for economic growth technology talent and tol-erance (Florida 2005) The 12 top ranked nations are Sweden JapanFinland United States Switzerland Denmark Iceland the Nether-lands Norway Germany Canada and Australia ahead of the UnitedKingdom (15th) France (17th) and New Zealand (18th) Strengthon these indicators illustrates the extent of alignment It is anotherreason why closer scrutiny of education in Finland is warranted

The second ranked system in PISA is not a nation but a provincewithin a nation It is Alberta in Canada Alberta is the best perform-ing province in Canada and comes second to Hong Kong in mathe-matics second to Finland in reading and fourth after FinlandJapan and Hong Kong in science

Many educators acknowledge that over the past 30 years Albertahas quietly built the finest public education system in CanadaThe curriculum has been revised stressing core subjects (Eng-lish science mathematics) school facilities and the training ofteachers have been improved clear achievement goals have beenset and a rigorous province-wide testing programme for grades3 (aged 7ndash8) 6 (10ndash11) 9 (13ndash14) and 12 (16ndash17) has beenestablished to ensure they are met

(The Economist 2006b)

A large majority of parents are satisfied with public schools whereasin Canada as a whole the proportion of students in private schoolshas risen by 20 per cent over the last decade

The capital city of Alberta is Edmonton which was a pioneer inself-managing schools It has an impressive system of needs-basedfunding and choice among secondary schools There is a trend tospecialist rather than standard comprehensive schools at the

42 Alignment

secondary level Some private schools have been absorbed into thepublic system

While more needs to be done especially in education for indigen-ous students and raising completion rates at the secondary level thereappears to be a high degree of alignment in Alberta Rather thanBritish Columbia and Ontario which have traditionally attractedattention in the literature what has occurred in Alberta warrantscloser scrutiny

Singapore is a fine example of how alignment is essential if anation is to survive and flourish in an era of globalisation Addressingthe National Day Rally on 21 August 2005 shortly after becomingPrime Minister Lee Hsien Loong (son of founding Prime MinisterLee Kuan Yew) issued a challenge

What will Singapore be like 40 years from now I canrsquot tell youNobody can But I can tell you it must be a totally differentSingapore because if it is the same Singapore as it is today wersquoredead We will be irrelevant marginalised the world will bedifferent You may want to be the same but you canrsquot be thesame Therefore we have to re-make Singapore ndash our economyour education system our mindsets our city

(Lee HL 2005)

In 2005 the Ministry of Education in Singapore released NurturingEvery Child Flexibility amp Diversity in Singapore Schools a policy thatcalled for a more varied curriculum a focus on learning rather thanteaching the creation of specialist schools and more autonomy forschools and teachers (Ministry of Education Singapore 2005) Manywould ask why Singapore should embark on such a change After allSingapore ranked first among 49 nations in each of Grade 4 andGrade 8 for both mathematics and science in the 2003 tests in theTrends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) Singapore is anation whose chief if not sole resource is its human resource Itrealises there is a need to lsquore-make the nationrsquo and accepts that itmust also lsquore-make the schoolrsquo if it is to achieve that end PrimeMinister Lee expressed it this way in his contribution to a specialedition of Newsweek on the theme lsquoThe Knowledge RevolutionWhy Victory will go to the Smartest Nations amp Companiesrsquo lsquoWeare remaking ourselves into a key node in the global knowledgenetwork securing our place under the sunrsquo (Lee HL 2006)

These intentions are remarkable given that Singapore was only

Alignment 43

established as a nation in its own right in 1965 In 40 years it hasbeen transformed from a struggling colony to one of the worldrsquosmost successful multi-cultural nations with a thriving economy asdescribed by founding Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew in From ThirdWorld to First (Lee KY 2000) Singaporersquos vision of lsquoThinkingSchools Learning Nationrsquo captured the imagination of educatorsaround the world when it was announced by former Prime MinisterGoh Chok Tong at the 7th International Conference on Thinking inJune 1997 (Goh 1997) Singapore faces the continuing challenge ofsecuring alignment with the needs of the nation On the basis of itstrack record it is likely to succeed

Alignment may be more difficult to achieve in nations where thereare different levels of government with a major role in educationThis is the case in Australia where the constitution assigns responsi-bility for education to the six states and two territories However thefederal government plays a particularly powerful role because it is theonly level of government that can levy an income tax the proceeds ofwhich are re-distributed to the states and territories in the form ofgrants to which particular conditions can be attached The federalgovernment has used these financial powers to require the introduc-tion of a national system of testing and reporting and more recentlythe re-introduction of history as a subject in schools It has providedfunds to improve the quality of teaching in mathematics science andinformation technology It has been highly critical of directions inschool curriculum in most states and territories

In Australia it could be claimed that there is a higher degree ofalignment of the views of the federal government with those ofparents and the wider community as reflected in public opinionpolling This is a paradox since it is reasonable to expect that stateand territory governments have a better feel of the communitypulse Interestingly all governments in the eight jurisdictions areLabor whereas the federal government is Liberal National CoalitionEditor-at-large at The Australian is Paul Kelly cited earlier in thechapter He presented the case for federal intervention in curriculum(Kelly 2006b) lsquoHow much longer to wait For years the federalgovernment has proposed a series of curriculum changes But itneeds to redouble those efforts and find new mechanisms to reformschool curriculumrsquo Kelly did not have to wait long for a responseOn 6 October 2006 federal minister Julie Bishop proposed anational curriculum drawing an immediate negative response fromher counterparts in states and territories

44 Alignment

Alignment and abandonment

An important reason for misalignment is the failure to abandon oldpractices as new practices are introduced An example is the amountof paperwork that accrues as levels of accountability increase Schoolleaders by and large accept the need for accountability but theyresent the amount of administrative work What needs to be aban-doned is reliance on paper and much of the traditional role of theprincipal Work-flow specialists are needed to streamline administra-tion and help school leaders move as far as possible to a paperlessoffice at the same time providing them with more administrativesupport An extraordinary example was reported to Brian Caldwellduring a national series of workshops in 2006 He participated in atalk-back session in a radio programme dealing with some of thethemes in Re-imagining Educational Leadership (Caldwell 2006) Onelistener reported that the principal of a primary school had spentthe best part of two days meeting the compliance requirements ofkeeping budgerigars in the school

The case for abandonment has been made in powerful terms bythe Futures Vision Group of the Specialist Schools and AcademiesTrust (Futures Vision Group 2006) Andy Schofield Headteacher atVarndean School in Brighton (England) identified eight key issues tobe addressed describing the levers of transformation and practices tobe abandoned For example for school buildings and other placeswhere learning takes place the levers for transformation includelsquoVirtual learning environments redesigned classrooms communityand home based learning extended independent learning assign-mentsrsquo Practices to be abandoned include lsquoRigid learning patternsfor students (eg 9ndash3 190 days per year) provision on one sitedistinction between curricular and extracurricular traditional piece-meal homework timetables uncomfortable plastic chairs traditionallunch times poor quality food uncivilised canteens corridors withlino and lockers traditional unpleasant toiletsrsquo (Schofield 2006)

There is an important qualification to make in respect to the casefor alignment It will be readily apparent to the reader Whilealignment is important it should include a capacity for creativityinnovation exploring the boundaries and developing a new align-ment The last lsquogrand alignmentrsquo resulted in the nineteenth-centuryfactory model of schooling the major features of which are evident intodayrsquos policy and practice There is need for new lsquogrand alignmentrsquoon the scale outlined in this chapter but a capacity to challenge the

Alignment 45

status quo and seek new alignments must also be resourced andrewarded

The way forward

A new lsquogrand alignmentrsquo in education is an exciting prospect Itpresents challenges and creates opportunities for policymakers atevery level This chapter has demonstrated that there are sources ofcapital that have not been tapped to any great extent in most set-tings and transformation on a scale that secures success for all stu-dents demands strength in each type of capital with powerfulalignment that can only be achieved by outstanding governanceThere will always be a concern to build financial capital but moremust be done to build spiritual and social capital The evidence isstrong that the most important resource of a school or school systemis intellectual capital and bold new strategies are required to make itstrong Chapter 4 describes and illustrates the possibilities

46 Alignment

Intellectual capital

Introduction

If outcomes alone are an indicator of the transformation of a schoolthen all one needs to demonstrate success are data on studentachievement given the view that a school has been transformed ifthere has been significant systematic and sustained change thatsecures success for all of its students These data should show theproportion of students who were deemed to have achieved successand how this proportion changed over time This is straightforwardfor secondary schools in England for example where the currentlsquorolled goldrsquo standard is the percentage of students who achieve fivegood passes in examinations for the GCSE In Chapter 2 we provideddata on student achievement from 1998 to 2004 at Bellfield PrimarySchool in Australia which provides an exemplar in transformationwith the proportion of early yearsrsquo students reading with 100 per centaccuracy increasing from about 25 per cent to 100 per cent under themost challenging circumstances

An assessment of capacity for transformation and progress inachieving it can be made if attention is paid to the four forms ofcapital in the model for alignment described in Chapter 3 and howthese are acquired sustained and made effective through goodgovernance While particular attention is given in Chapters 4 and5 to three elements in the model namely intellectual capital socialcapital and governance it is important to note that financial capitalis important to ensure the availability of funds to build intellectualcapital and that social capital is an important aspect of both intel-lectual capital and governance Chapters 6 to 9 deal with financialcapital with the centre-piece being a model for student-focusedplanning and resource allocation

Chapter 4

Chapter 4 calls for a breakthrough in thinking about intellectualcapital in the context of the self-managing school We do this inseveral ways The starting point is recent work by Fullan Hill andCreacutevola (2006) We then describe two new approaches for schoolsthat seek to achieve transformation by building their intellectualcapital We provide an instrument for assessing capacity in animportant aspect of intellectual capital (knowledge management)and offer benchmarks from Australia and England that will assistschools to make judgements on their strength in this area

The need for a breakthrough

We emphasised in our earlier work that providing schools withadditional authority and responsibility to make decisions through acapacity for self-management may have little or no impact on learn-ing unless there are clear considered comprehensive and consistentlinks with learning and teaching and the support of learning andteaching (see especially Caldwell and Spinks 1998) These links willbe strong if the intellectual capital of the school is strong that is ifall who work in or for the school are at the forefront of knowledgeand skill

There is a need for new thinking about the kind of knowledgeand skill that is required to achieve the transformation of schoolsThe engagingly titled award-winning Breakthrough (Fullan et al2006) is a helpful starting point The authors provide evidence of thelimits to improvement under self-management by describing howgains in literacy have plateaued in England and how decentralisationof decision-making in Chicago Milwaukee and Seattle has not led tolarge-scale improvement lsquoThey contain glimpses of what will berequired but they fail to touch deeply day-to-day classroom instruc-tion and to touch it in a way that will get results for allrsquo (Fullan etal 2006 p 6) Drawing on the work of Richard Elmore theydistinguish between external accountability and internal account-ability noting that no amount of the former will impact learningunless the latter is also evident (p 8) We addressed similar issuesin Chapter 3 when we observed that lsquoFailure in much of schoolreform can be put down to lack of alignment within and between theldquointernalsrdquo and ldquoexternalsrdquo rsquo

Fullan Hill and Creacutevola propose a system to lift the performanceof schools to achieve a lsquobreakthroughrsquo There are three componentspersonalisation professional learning and precision lsquoThe glue that

48 Intellectual capital

binds these three is moral purpose education for all that raises thebar as it closes the gaprsquo (p 16) The consistency between these com-ponents and the model for alignment and broad themes of this bookare evident Personalising learning is central ndash the student is themost important unit of organisation ndash and we place students atthe heart of the enterprise with moral purpose expressed as lsquosuccessfor all students in all settingsrsquo Professional learning is essential inthe building of intellectual capital as explained and illustrated inthe pages that follow

Of particular interest is the concept of lsquoprecisionrsquo as it applies tothe gathering and utilisation of data There is an unprecedented levelof data washing around schools and school systems but the break-through will be achieved only when lsquoclassroom instruction in whichthe current sporadic data collection is streamlined analysis is auto-mated and individualised instruction is delivered on a daily basis inevery classroomrsquo (p 20) The acquisition and utilisation of data alongthese lines is a key component of the student-focused planningmodel described in Chapter 8 and illustrated in Chapter 9 It is clearthat the lsquobreakthroughrsquo proposed by Fullan Hill and Creacutevola andtransformation on the scale we propose requires professional talentof the highest order and processes for ensuring that all who work inor for the school are always at the cutting-edge of knowledge andskill It is to these matters that we now turn our attention

From workforce to talent force

There are two important processes in building the intellectualcapital of the school One is identifying selecting and rewarding thebest people to do the work The other is ensuring that all who are soemployed are at ndash and remain at ndash the forefront of knowledge andskill

Schools and school systems have usually followed a traditionalworkforce approach to securing staff If transformation is to beachieved then all who work in or for the school need to be at theforefront of knowledge and this is why the concept of lsquotalent forcersquoshould be adopted for schools as it is now being applied in a growingnumber of enterprises in the public and private sectors The differ-ence between the two approaches is illustrated in Table 41 adaptingto education a comparison proposed by Rueff and Stringer (2006)The approaches are compared on seven dimensions

The first and second are concerned with assumptions about

Intellectual capital 49

availability and processes for procurement of staff For availability(dimension 1) the workforce approach assumes that people to fill avacancy or to be hired to initiate a particular programme or work ona project are out there waiting to be made aware of the employmentopportunity There is a touch of arrogance about this assumptionwhereas a talent force approach calls for a degree of humility thevery best people are needed and it is going to take a considerableamount of work at some cost to locate and interest them in anappointment For procurement (dimension 2) the workforceapproach follows a traditional routine that is an advertisement isdesigned applications are invited a preliminary short list is pre-pared references are sought a final short list is determined inter-views are conducted and an appointment is made In contrast atalent force approach employs new technologies to attract staff Forexample rather than waiting for a vacancy to occur the school isalways searching for the best people and will make an offer tothe very best should they express an interest Websites and searchagencies might be employed Potential employees will register withsearch agencies A line in the budget of the enterprise may be com-mitted to cover the costs of appointment and up to one year ofemployment even though there may not be an immediate need forthe services of a new member of staff

Table 41 Comparing workforce and talent force approaches to building intel-lectual capital (adapted from Rueff and Stringer 2006)

Dimensions Workforce approach Talent force approach

1 Availability Supply is assured Talent is scarce(lsquoarrogancersquo) (lsquohumilityrsquo)

2 Procurement Routine and manual Hi-tech

3 Control Employer in control Shared control

4 Source Local sourcingStable

Global sourcingDynamic shifts

5 Performance lsquoSoftrsquo measures lsquoHardrsquo measures

6 Location Work within bordersWork by locals

Dispersed workImmigrating talent

7 Strategy Short-sighted Strategic compelling


A different approach to the control of staff (dimension 3) isevident if a talent force approach is used Traditionally the employerwas in control and the employee was expected to fall in line In atalent force approach the initiative lies with the employee who hassought-after knowledge and skills to the extent that there will belittle difficulty in the employee taking up an alternative appoint-ment because the search for such capacity by other enterprisesis always on and the employee is always searching for the bestopportunities

The foregoing suggests that sources of staff will be different(dimension 4) In the traditional approach there was considerablelocal sourcing In highly centralised systems a central personnel armof an education department advertises for staff and often makesarrangements with local higher education institutions to employgraduates who are then placed in schools Under a more decentralisedarrangement it may be the school that advertises and works directlywith these institutions In most instances it is local sourcing andrelatively stable sources of staff are assured With a talent forceapproach the search is national or international (global sourcing)and there may be dynamic shifts in arrangements with particularinstitutions that have an interest in securing the best placements fortheir graduates

The approaches differ in respect to performance management(dimension 5) In the traditional workforce approach the process isusually tightly constrained especially where a key stakeholder suchas a union is resistant Where performance management is permittedfor individuals the measures are relatively lsquosoftrsquo and there may belittle differentiation in judgements about performances Incentivesand rewards are not encouraged and where they exist they are usuallyshared On the other hand in a talent force approach performanceindicators are the subject of negotiation and agreement and thesemay be included in contracts of employment Measurable targetsmay be part of the arrangement (lsquohardrsquo measures)

There is an important difference as far as location of employmentis concerned (dimension 6) Traditionally all were expected to workat the school site which invariably limited employment to thosewho lived or were prepared to live locally If the aim of a talent forceapproach is to secure the services of the best people then it may benecessary for appointees to work from another location This is madepossible by advances in technology especially those which allow freeand unlimited time through on-line audio- and video-conferencing


In the case of classroom teaching for example it is possible for twoclassrooms taught by world-class teachers to be located in differenthemispheres (in the same time zone)

The two approaches reflect a different strategy (dimension 7) Thetraditional workforce approach is relatively short-sighted fillingpositions from local sources with lsquosoftrsquo measures of performance thatdo not address in an objective fashion the strategic priorities of theschool to the extent that these exist On the other hand the talentforce approach involves a more-or-less continuous search for the bestpeople to address the strategic priorities of the school somethingthat may call for global sourcing with a focus on performance thatconnects tightly with priorities connected to transformation (lsquohardrsquomeasures) It is a much more strategic and compelling approach tobuilding the intellectual capital of the school

Compared to schools universities have generally adopted a talentforce approach especially for senior academic appointments at thelevel of professor A review of recent advertisements by universi-ties that seek to be world-class reveals an even sharper focus onsuch an approach A remarkable advertisement appeared during the19 workshops conducted by Brian Caldwell around Australia inJuly and August 2006 A four-page advertisement was placed byMacquarie University in Sydney in the higher education supplementof The Australian The first page featured a single statement lsquoWersquorerecruiting for the best research brainsrsquo The second page describedclusters (teams) of traditional research disciplines renamed in rathermore exciting terms ancient cultures cognitive science social inclu-sion animal behaviour earth and planetary evolution lasers andphotonics quantum information science and security functionalproteomics and cellular networks climate riskecology and evolu-tion A third page described in attractive terms the history andvision of the university under the heading lsquoso nowrsquos the time to joinusrsquo The fourth page listed particular positions at different academiclevels for which appointments were sought It was made clear thatwhile appointments would be governed by an existing enterpriseagreement that concluded in 2006 successful applicants would sub-sequently be offered the option of an Australian Workplace Agree-ment which is essentially an individual contract under negotiatedterms and conditions

Why not use the same talent force approach across-the-boardfor schools which seek to build their intellectual capital in pur-suit of transformation Some schools are already doing it Private


non-government independent schools often employ a search agencyto seek out the best lsquotalentrsquo for senior appointment especially at thelevel of principal and negotiate terms and conditions on behalf ofthe governing body One private (non-government independent)school in Victoria has almost every element of the talent forceapproach listed in Table 41 in place A public (government or stateschool) in Tasmania was seriously constrained in its attempt to locatestaff in an area of shortage elsewhere in the state and in anothercountry The Minister for Education Science and Training in theAustralian Government has called for incentives and rewards basedon performance and a capacity for schools in challenging circum-stances to have the financial capacity to attract the best teachersHowever as noted in Chapter 3 education in Australia is theresponsibility of states and territories and there are few plans in placeto adopt such an approach for public (government state) schools

In summary lsquoThe real value of great talent management is not onthe compulsory regulatory or compliance side The real value comeswhen [schools] realise that talent management is one of the greatest[educational] opportunities over the next decade and beyondrsquo(adapted from Rueff and Stringer 2006)

Outsourcing for radical transformation

It was not so long ago that the idea of outsourcing some of thework traditionally reserved for permanent staff in a school or schoolsystem was anathema It was an example of privatisation in publiceducation Until recently it was a practice for the private sector innon-education fields However with the introduction of local man-agement of schools and removal of constraints on where support canbe sourced there are now more examples of outsourcing by schoolswho can select from a range of providers We called for such anapproach in Beyond the Self-Managing School (Caldwell and Spinks1998) One of 100 strategic intentions for schools and school systemswas lsquoSchools seeking more autonomy will utilise every capacity thatis made available under existing schemes of self-managementincluding where possible and feasible the outsourcing of serviceswhere there is a benefit to the schoolrsquo (p 218) Progress since 1998 isillustrated in a small but increasing number of state schools inEngland outsourcing an entire division of their operations forexample financial management

A more systematic approach to outsourcing is now emerging Jane


Linder is Research Director of the Accenture Institute She haswritten an engaging book on the topic under the title Outsourcing forRadical Change A Bold Approach to Enterprise Transformation (Linder2004) She identified eight reasons forbenefits of outsourcing accessto lsquotop-drawerrsquo skills and capacities speed lsquowake-up callsrsquo reducecosts achieve operational visibility build instant capacity gainfinancial flexibility and secure third-party funding She proposedfour ways to outsource depending on the stage in the life cycle of theenterprise when outsourcing has merit With minor adaptationthese are illustrated in Figure 41

Brian Caldwell observed an exemplary approach to outsourcingthat had elements of each of the four approaches illustrated inFigure 41 The setting was the recently created Harefield Academyin England (an academy is a specialist secondary school usually inchallenging circumstances to be re-opened in new premises withadditional public funding and significant support from one or moreprivate sponsors) The visit to the school revealed run-down build-ings offering substandard facilities to staff and students The princi-pal and her leadership team recognised that many students had lowself-esteem and did not have high expectations for what they couldachieve at school The expectations of staff for their students werealso not high There was the possibility that students and staff couldmove to the new setting and little might change as far as outcomeswere concerned It was decided to outsource the task of raisingexpectations and levels of self-esteem and to do so in less than six

Figure 41 Four ways to outsource for radical transformation in schools(adapted from Linder 2004)


months The school secured the services of a small company thatspecialised in this field (Human Utopia at wwwhumanutopiacom)The consultants used a combination of methods They changed theattitudes of students and staff who worked beside the consultantsand gained skills in the process

This is a highly specialised area of work and outsourcing madesense It fitted well with each of the four stages in the maturitycurve illustrated in Figure 41 It was lsquoout of nowherersquo with out-sourcing to ensure rapid start-up when students and staff moved tothe new facility It was an example of the lsquocrouching tigersrsquo approachbecause it was outsourcing to address what was seen as a roadblock tostudent achievement (it is noteworthy that the public face ofAccenture a company that specialises in outsourcing is top golferTiger Woods) It reflected a lsquofallen angelsrsquo approach in the sense thatit energised staff who could then use their newly acquired skills tomaintain this aspect of the transformation It was also a lsquoborn againrsquostrategy because it helped to lsquocatapult the school into a new era oftransformationrsquo

There is little doubt that a shift to a talent force approach in aglobal arena must and will occur It is one of the challenges facingthe public sector in education It is consistent with the challengepresented by Tony Blair in his valedictory speech to the Labour Partyin September 2006 as reported in Chapter 3 This is the context forsecuring alignment of intellectual capital with the needs of schoolsthat have made a commitment to transformation


The shift from a workplace approach to a talent force approachincluding outsourcing is an example of one set of processes to buildthe intellectual capital of the school namely identifying selectingand rewarding the best people to do the work It is also an example ofanother set of processes for ensuring that these people once selectedremain at the forefront of knowledge and skill for as long as theyserve the school This takes us into the field of knowledgemanagement

Knowledge management in education refers to the creation dis-semination and utilisation of knowledge for the purpose of improv-ing learning and teaching and to guide decision-making in everydomain of professional practice According to Bukowitz andWilliams (1999) lsquoknowledge management is the process by which


the organisation generates wealth from its intellectual or knowledge-based assetsrsquo In the case of school education knowledge manage-ment refers to the process by which a school achieves the highestlevels of student learning that are possible from its intellectual orknowledge-based assets

Schools and school systems face the challenge of creating andsustaining a powerful capacity for knowledge management if thevision of transformation is to be realised that is success is secured forall students in all settings This is not simply an enhanced capacityfor in-service training It means ensuring that all teachers and otherswho work in or for the school are at all times at the forefront ofknowledge and skill

Schools that are exemplary in knowledge management use a rangeof approaches Increasingly consistent with the new enterprise logicof schools they do not operate in isolation but join networks to shareknowledge address common problems and pool resources The pur-pose of this section of Chapter 4 is to describe a self-assessmentinstrument that will assist schools to determine their current capa-city for knowledge management and how they can enhance theprocess

The instrument is contained in Appendix 2 as the Self-Assessmentof Intellectual Capital It is a 40-item survey adapted (with permis-sion) for schools from one designed at Create in Tunbridge Wells inEngland (Rajan 1999 as reproduced in Bahra 2001) There are threeparts to the survey systems (14 items) values (14 items) andbehaviours (12 items) Examples of lsquosystemsrsquo include benchmarking(lsquowe identify and implement outstanding practice in or reported byother schools especially those in similar circumstances withappropriate adaptation to suit our settingrsquo) and communities of prac-tice (lsquowe encourage self-organised groups in which staff exchangeideas on common issues practices problems and possibilitiesrsquo)Examples of lsquovaluesrsquo include recognition (lsquowe praise individuals forexemplary work in knowledge managementrsquo) and immediate feed-back (lsquowe ensure that staff receive immediate feedback on theirworkrsquo) Examples of lsquobehavioursrsquo include absence of jargon (lsquowe avoidambiguous meaningless terms which cause confusion and irritationrsquo)and benefits (lsquowe demonstrate that the sharing of professional know-ledge results in a reduction in the intensity of workrsquo)

Completing the instrument was one activity in workshops con-ducted in England in April 2006 organised by the Specialist Schoolsand Academies Trust (SSAT) and in Australia in July and August


2006 organised by the Australian College of Educators Those inEngland were conducted in Birmingham Darlington London andManchester There were 19 workshops in Australia conducted inthe capital cities and at least one regional centre in every state (NewSouth Wales Queensland South Australia Tasmania Victoria andWestern Australia) and territory (Australian Capital Territory andNorthern Territory) Table 42 contains the low and high scores aswell as the mean scores expressed as a percentage in each instance

For each country the average number of responses at each work-shop was about 20 (not all participants completed the survey schoolteams often completed the survey as a group) For England the meanof the 78 responses was 628 with a low of 40 and a high of 84 Thelowest and highest means among the four workshops were 594 and686 respectively For Australia the mean of the 400 responses was584 with a low of 20 and a high of 84 The lowest and highestmeans among the 19 workshops were 487 and 669 respectively

It is not appropriate to report responses on a location-by-locationbasis since those attending could not be considered a representativesample of leaders for each location It is reasonable to regard theoverall mean scores as reported in Table 42 as representative foreach country subject to two qualifications First participants werepre-disposed to professional development (an important aspect ofknowledge management) since they chose to register for the work-shops Second all participants in England were from secondaryschools whereas in Australia while a large majority were fromschools there was representation from primary and secondary schoolsand there were significant numbers from district or regional officesuniversities and technical and further education institutes Subject tothese qualifications it might be surmised that the higher mean scorefor England reflects the relatively greater attention to professionaldevelopment of leaders and networking in schools than is currentlythe case in Australia The wider range of scores in Australia is

Table 42 Benchmarks for knowledge management based on self-assessments inworkshops in Australia and England

Country Workshops Responses Low () High () Mean ()

England 4 78 40 84 628Australia 19 400 20 97 584


noteworthy with the low of 20 being obtained when one participantassigned each of the 40 items the lowest rating of 1 on the five-pointscale and the high of 97 from a participant who scored 5 for virtuallyall items

Apart from its use in workshops the self-assessment survey isuseful as an analytical tool in the school setting and readers maywish to conduct the survey among members of leadership teams orindeed among all staff The benchmarks in Table 42 might be ahelpful guide to the interpretation of results Like all instruments ofthis kind the real value comes from group discussion of the ratingsfor various items and consideration of whether action is required andwhat that action ought to be A number of school teams attended theworkshops in Australia and England and members either completedthe instrument individually and then compared and discussedresponses or they considered each item together as a group andreached a consensus on what the rating ought to be The questionsare posed in terms that suggest strategies to improve performance inknowledge management Successful implementation will help buildthe intellectual capital of the school

The way forward

This chapter arguably presents greater challenges than any other asfar as change to the status quo is concerned The shift in thinkingfrom a workforce to a talent force approach has many implications forattracting preparing assessing rewarding and sustaining the topclass professional The notion that lsquotalent is scarcersquo means that addi-tional financial resources may be needed to attract the best peopleespecially in difficult-to-staff locations or areas of learning Retain-ing the best requires a readiness to reward outstanding performanceand this challenges some powerful interests that argue that tradi-tional approaches to advances in the profession are sufficient or thatit is too hard or too divisive to create such schemes Similar inertiamay be encountered in outsourcing to secure expert support when itis required The case for the status quo is often argued on the basisthat outsourcing will lead to the breakdown or the privatisation ofthe profession An illustration was provided of how the opposite isthe case Indeed strategic outsourcing of support can strengthen theprofession or even prevent its meltdown Every school must build acapacity for knowledge management to ensure that all are at theforefront of knowledge While the evidence points to intellectual


capital as the most important if the aim is to secure success for allstudents schools and school systems need to come to terms with theoften neglected field of social capital Aligning each of the four formsof capital requires outstanding governance These matters are takenup in Chapter 5


Governance andsocial capital

Introduction

The concept of governance is finding its way into the lexicon ofleaders and managers in education Some observers are scepticalIt sounds as if those who use it are adopting a new form of jargonwhen they should be referring to government or they are endeav-ouring to elevate what is essentially a straightforward approach todecision-making by the governing body of the school Such scepti-cism is ill-founded because governance is precisely the right termto describe what is essential if schools in the century are to betransformed It is an especially important concept in achievingalignment Chapter 5 defines governance explains the connections tosocial capital and financial capital makes clear that good governanceis necessary in alignment and describes an instrument for self-assessment of a capacity for good governance and another that focuseson the acquisition and allocation of resources The chapter concludeswith a set of lsquoenduring principlesrsquo complementing lsquofirst principlesrsquo(Chapter 1) and lsquocore principlesrsquo (Chapter 2)

What is governance

A definition of governance and a framework for assessment of itspractice were the starting points in a project of the Human ResourceDevelopment Working Group of Asia Pacific Economic Coopera-tion (APEC) on Best Practice Governance Education Policy and ServiceDelivery (Department of Education Science and Training 2005)The following is based on a definition of governance provided bythe Governance Working Group of the International Institute ofAdministrative Sciences (1996)

Chapter 5

bull Governance refers to the process whereby elements in a societywield power and authority and influence and enact policiesand decisions concerning public life and economic and socialdevelopment

bull Governance is a broader notion than government whose princi-pal elements include the constitution legislature executive andjudiciary Governance involves interaction between these formalinstitutions and those of civil society

This definition suggests that descriptions of governance shouldinclude but go beyond accounts of how policies are determined anddecisions are made and by which institutions The notion that gov-ernance is concerned with the interaction between these and civilsociety suggests a broader approach Civil society is considered hereto be the network of mutually supporting relationships betweengovernment business and industry education and other public andprivate sector services community home and voluntary agenciesand institutions

The applicability of the concept to schools is readily apparent ifone takes account of the extent to which links with civil society havebeen made in successful schools in recent years In the past mostschools had few connections they were to a large extent stand-aloneinstitutions It is for this reason that governing bodies did not con-cern themselves with notions of governance because they could getby with relatively closed approaches to decision-making The readerwill readily see a connection between the links with civil society andthe notion of social capital This connection is considered in moredetail at this point

Social capital and civil society

There is growing recognition of the importance of social capitalboth generally and in relation to education It was not until 2006that the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) released its firstreport on indicators of social capital which it conceived lsquoas being aresource available to individuals and communities founded on net-works of mutual support reciprocity and trustrsquo This view alignswith that adopted in our book social capital provides a pool ofresources that can be employed to support schools The reportrefers to research on lsquothe benefits of social capital for individualoutcomes in areas such as health education employment and family

Governance and social capital 61

wellbeing and also in fostering community strength and resiliencersquo(ABS 2006 p vi)

The OECD defines social capital as lsquonetworks together withshared norms values and understandings that facilitate cooperationwithin and among groupsrsquo (OECD 2001b cited in ABS 2006 p vi)For our purposes we consider social capital to refer to the strength offormal and informal partnerships and networks involving the schoolparents community business and industry indeed all individualsagencies organisations and institutions that have the potential tosupport and where appropriate be supported by the school

One can get a sense of the strength of the social capital of a schoolby addressing six questions listed below The first invites the readerto map the connections between the school and other entities Thesecond considers networking arrangements to be an important aspectof social capital The third acknowledges that the other entity inthe partnership must also gain from the arrangement otherwise thepartnership will not be sustained The fourth acknowledges thatleadership and resources are required for building social capital Thefifth related to the fourth calls for a commitment on the part ofa school system to support schools in their efforts to build socialcapital The sixth deals with a particular way in which social capitalcan be built namely co-locating the school with other services

1 Which individuals organisations agencies and institutionsin the public and private sectors in education and otherfields including business and industry philanthropy and socialentrepreneurship would be included in a mapping of currentpartnerships that support the school

2 Does the school draw from and contribute to networks to shareknowledge address problems and pool resources

3 Have partnerships been developed to the extent that each entitygains from the arrangement Does the school assist each of itspartners to measure outcomes achieve transparency improveaccountability and gain recognition for its efforts Are partner-ships sustained

4 Is there leadership of these efforts in the school Have resourcesbeen committed and have roles and responsibilities been deter-mined where leadership is distributed

5 Do the school and the networks of which it is a part receivesupport at the system level to assist in efforts to build socialcapital Is there appreciation at the central level that it (lsquothe

62 Governance and social capital

centrersquo or its dispersed regional or district offices) is but one ofseveral agencies of support for schools and networks of schoolsand that its chief role in the years ahead is to ensure that thissupport is of the highest standard

6 Is the school co-located with other services in the communityand are these services utilised in support of the school Suchservices include health sport arts knowledge health welfarelaw and religious If co-location does not exist have plans beenmade at the system level for initiatives in the future that reflect awhole-of-government or whole-of-community approach

These questions were posed in four workshops in England inApril 2006 and the 19 workshops conducted throughout Australiain July and August 2006 In each instance participants prepared amap of partnerships between the school and other entities as invitedin Question 1 The maps were complex Most participants agreedthey were far more complex than they would have been if drawnthree years ago and they expect they will become even more complexin the next three years

Good governance is necessary forsuccessful alignment

This complexity is the reason why governance as defined earlier is soimportant if alignment is to be achieved The processes of developingpolicies setting priorities preparing plans and budgets buildingpartnerships to support the effort making decisions on the basis ofgood data and being transparent throughout are far more demand-ing than ever before The four kinds of capital must work together ina coherent and consistent manner This is why governance in a schoolis just as complex as governance in other fields of public and privateendeavour

What a contrast to the days when there were few if any partnershipswith other entities no delegated budgets staff were assigned toschools by a central authority schools were largely data-free environ-ments and there were few demands to ensure success for all studentsin all settings Governance was not an important consideration underthese conditions Leadership in the classic heroic tradition was valuedas was running a tight ship but most decision-making was routine

There are important implications for governing bodies TheDepartment for Education and Skills in England publishes A Guide


to the Law for School Governors (DfES 2006) The following pointssummarise the status and powers of governing bodies as adaptedfrom the indicated sections of the guide

bull The governing bodies of community community special andmaintained nursery schools are corporate bodies (3ndash1) (Chapter 3Paragraph 1)

bull The governing bodies of foundation foundation special volun-tary controlled and voluntary aided schools are corporate bodieswith exempt charitable status (3ndash2)

bull Because it is a corporate body individual governors are generallyprotected from personal liability as a result of the governingbodyrsquos decisions and actions (3ndash4)

bull At a school with a delegated budget the governing body hasgeneral responsibility for the conduct of the school with a viewto promoting high standards of educational achievement (3ndash7)

bull The governing body must exercise its functions with a view tofulfilling a largely strategic role in the running of the school Itshould establish the strategic framework by setting aims andobjectives for the school adopting policies for achieving thoseaims and objectives and setting targets for achieving those aimsand objectives (3ndash18)

bull The headteacher has responsibility for the internal organisationmanagement and control of the school and for the implementa-tion of the strategic framework established by the governingbody (3ndash20)

bull The governing body is responsible to the local education author-ity for the way a school is run (3ndash24)

bull Governing bodies are required to set and publish targets fortheir pupilsrsquo performance in Key Stage 2 and 3 on nationalcurriculum tests and in public examinations at 15 (3ndash26)

bull The governing body as a whole should take out insurance to coverits potential liability for negligence in carrying out its responsi-bilities Cover must now be regarded as essential Although legalaction against teachers and schools for breaches of professionalduty is still rare claims (for example for lsquofailure to educatersquo) arebecoming more frequent (3ndash37) Personal claims against schoolgovernors are very rare indeed (3ndash38)

bull Maintained schools are able to federate under one govern-ing body (21ndash1) A federation shall not contain more thanfive schools (21ndash2) More informal collaborative arrangements


between maintained schools and non-maintained schools such asacademies and independent schools are possible but these maynot include federation of the governing bodies or formal jointcommittees of the governing bodies (21ndash3)

Governing bodies are required to adopt an instrument of govern-ment that complies with constitutional regulations that came intoforce in 2003 The new education bill that provides for schools toacquire a trust employ their own staff and manage their own assetshas major implications for governing bodies that choose to take upthe new arrangements

While these matters are the subject of separate legislation it isevident that issues of corporate governance are very similar to thoseof directors of corporations Leblanc and Gillies (2005) drew on stud-ies of for-profit companies in the private sector government-ownedenterprises and not-for-profit organisations and concluded thatdespite increased attention to governance in the 1990s there is lsquoverylittle knowledge about the relationship of corporate governance tocorporate performance and almost no knowledge about how boardsactually workrsquo (Leblanc and Gillies 2005 p 1) They acknowledgethat in research to date lsquoan explanation of how boards make decisionsis missing although this may well be the most important factorin determining the effectiveness of the governance of an enterprisersquo(p 25)

A model of good governance andpowerful alignment

New approaches to governance in England are especially noteworthyin the case of federations that is in formal partnerships betweenschools that are intended to deliver benefits to participants Fore-most among these are benefits in the way resources are acquired andallocated An example is the Haberdashersrsquo Askersquos Federation inSouth London that comprises two academies One is HaberdashersrsquoAskersquos Hatcham College which has a long association with theHaberdashersrsquo Livery Company that has supported education formore than 300 years and the Knights Academy formerly the MalorySchool They offer specialisms in music and sport respectively oper-ating as separate 11ndash18 (age of students) schools with separate dele-gated budgets from the federation but with a shared sixth form Thefederation was formed in 2005


There is frank and open acknowledgement that this is a federationof the strong and the weak Hatcham had 1384 students in 2006with 94 per cent achieving five good passes in GCSE in that yearup from 73 per cent in 2001 Free school meals (FSM) are provided to18 per cent of students 15 per cent of whom have English as asecond language (ESL) It was judged to be an lsquoexcellent schoolrsquo inan Ofsted inspection in 2003 In contrast Knights Academy has750 students with just 9 per cent of students achieving five goodpasses in GCSE in 2005 rising to 29 per cent in 2006 one year afterfederation At Knights 52 per cent of students receive FSM and20 per cent are ESL students There is a single admissions processwith no more than 10 per cent of students selected by aptitude in thetwo areas of specialism

Dr Elizabeth Sidwell is the Chief Executive Officer that is thesenior educational leader serving both schools She describes the rela-tionship between the two schools in the following terms lsquoThis isour federation the very strong and the very weak Together we areraising the bar and narrowing the gap Both schools now thrive andboth will be strong Itrsquos all about having a vision and sticking withitrsquo That vision lsquois one where all students are inspired to reach theirfull potential no matter their ability or backgroundrsquo Improvementat Knights in lsquonarrowing the gaprsquo in just one year is impressive

The federation has a single governing body whose role and thatof the Chief Executive Officer are clearly defined in a formal state-ment lsquoThe governorsrsquo role is comparable to that of non-executivedirectors The Chairmanrsquos role is that of a non-executive chairman ofa company but of necessity he is required to have a close workingrelationship with the Chief Executive who will in particular circum-stances need to refer to him for ad hoc decisions or endorsements inrespect of matters of urgency which arise These may require actionbetween governorsrsquo meetings but their nature is not such as tonecessitate a special meeting of the board of governors

Fundamentally the main role of the governors is in close con-sultation with the Chief Executive Chief Financial Officer andthe principals of Hatcham and Knights the formulation of pol-icy and strategy for federation Governors do not take directresponsibility for the implementation of policy although theydo have a role in the monitoring of targets (as outlined in theDevelopment Plans) and achievements The governors areaccountable to students to parents and to the local community


as well as to sponsors for the overall performance of theFederation

(Haberdashersrsquo Askersquos Federation 2005 p 1)

The governing body has three committees Finance Premises andGeneral Purposes Standards and Liaison Each of the constituentschools has its own principals and staffing arrangements There aretwo deputy principals with federation-wide responsibilities includ-ing information technology timetabling and assessment for learn-ing They operate at principal level

Dr Sidwell described her role in the text of a speech providedto the authors

I am not a head any more I am a CEO Some of you may flinch atthe corporate language But what other title will do My bursaris a CFO My job is largely strategic but I still do assemblies ndashfewer ndash and lesson observations

I administer two schools over three sites and am in negoti-ations for two primary schools to complete the set Without theprimaries I already lead over three hundred staff and two andhalf thousand children I work as a consultant to other academiesin transition I also head a successful teacher training consortiumof ten schools both state and independent The federationrsquosannual budget puts us in the top ten per cent of all charities inthe country This is a new level of responsibility

It is clear that in these roles Dr Sidwell is an example of a lsquosystemleaderrsquo as that role is emerging in England She considers the feder-ation to have a number of benefits as summarised in these excerptsfrom a presentation

A federation can offer both economies of scale and the advantagesof scale ndash I can retain senior managers within the federation whowould normally have to range from school to school for the rightpromotions I donrsquot lose them but rather see them develop dep-uty principals to principals site managers to facilities managersMy Chief Financial Officer is of a quality that the budget of asingle school could not afford Most of all a federation gives ahead who has reached the top and still looks upward a furtherfinal challenge one that can expand to the limit of your visionWorking within a team ndash everything is made possible


A federation is a way of becoming much bigger without losingthe personal scale at each school It disseminates best practicequickly between sites that still have enough autonomy toinnovate and experiment

Federations are about the long term Bound together in lawSchools with informal ties can be fair weather friends but whenthe pressure drops there is no reason for them to stand by you inthe storm Sustainable even after I go A federation is boundtogether for better or worse that incentive commits us all toseek the best for the future A federation recognises that a schoolis strongest in partnership with other schools

There are several categories of lsquoexecutive headsrsquo in England Sometake on responsibility for schools in difficulties while remaining headsof their own schools There is no formal federation in these circum-stances Dr Sidwell sees particular advantages in a federation lsquoI haveseen super heads brought in and ground down by schools in my areaThey were expected to do it all on their own A federation of thestrong and the weak gives a firm shoulder for a school in difficultiesto lean on as it pushes itself upwardsrsquo

Dr Sidwell agreed to comment on how the different forms ofcapital set out in Chapter 3 are aligned at the HaberdashersrsquoAskersquos Federation As far as intellectual capital is concerned shehighlighted the manner in which the federation can retain itsmost experienced and skilled staff and referred to the way inwhich the federation lsquoinspires staff to greater heights and levels ofinvolvementrsquo She described how a long-serving head of depart-ment in one school was challenged and extended in ways notpossible in the past because he could take up a key post across thefederation The financial capital of the two schools is made moreeffective in a federation with economies of scale in areas like ICTand reprographics and lsquopump primingrsquo when the income from thesixth form enrolments in the stronger school could be used tostimulate enrolments in the other There is one overall incomestream but there are two budgets one for each school but vire-ment (transferability) across each budget is used to good effectSpiritual capital is manifested in the values that have beenembraced with a focus on Haberdashersrsquo motto of lsquoServe andObeyrsquo and the embedding of lsquorespect and responsibilityrsquo in theHaberdashers brand The federation has close links with the com-munity and is an active participant in several networks (social


capital) It is a two-way arrangement with the federation gainingfrom and contributing to others It coordinates primary and sec-ondary sporting activities in the Lewisham borough and is thelead school in an initial teacher education consortium of ten sec-ondary schools

The shared culture is enhanced in a range of ways Students inthe two schools are linked by membership of houses that span bothschools The uniform is the same and there is a shared curriculumlearning ethos and pedagogy Staff in different learning areas in thetwo schools meet together identifying their respective strengthsand priorities for development Each provides support to the otherwith cross-school visits observations joint ventures and lsquojobswapsrsquo

Assessing a schoolrsquos capacity forgood governance

The World Bank Group (2001) proposed a range of indicators forgovernance noting that lsquonew global standards of governance areemergingrsquo and that lsquocitizens are demanding better performanceon the part of their governmentsrsquo Appendix 3 contains an instru-ment that provides a Self-Assessment of Governance It is adaptedfrom the work in the APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation)project (DEST 2005) that drew on the work of the InternationalInstitute of Administrative Sciences (1996) and the World BankGroup (2001)

There are five domains for assessment purpose process policyscope and standards Each domain has one or more elements eachwith one or more indicators lsquoPurposersquo is linked to outcomes withthe indicator being lsquoThere is a clearly stated connection between themission of the school and intended outcomes for studentsrsquo Thisshould be understood in a larger frame that is outcomes shouldreflect the needs and expectations of society as well as the aspirationsof students bearing in mind that the school seeks to secure successfor all students The second domain is lsquoprocessrsquo as it concerns theengagement of stakeholders The indicator is lsquoPolicies and planshave been prepared after consultation with key stakeholders withinthe school and the wider communityrsquo The remaining domainswith associated elements are lsquopolicyrsquo (legitimacy representativenessaccountability and efficiency) lsquoscopersquo (financial capital intellectualcapital social capital) and lsquostandardsrsquo (specificity data transparency


replication and ownership) There are 20 indicators and thosecompleting the instrument rate each on a scale from 1 (low) to 5(high) The total of ratings is therefore a score out of 100

The instrument was adapted for use in four workshops conductedin England in April 2006 Several items were re-worded on theseoccasions to focus specifically on resources Table 51 summarisesthe responses and these may be considered benchmarks for secon-dary schools in England on governance as it concerns resourcesTony Barnes principal of Park High School in Harrow completedthe instrument as it appears in Appendix 3 subsequent to anotherworkshop in December 2006 Governance at Park High was rated aslsquoOutstandingrsquo in an Ofsted inspection in March 2006 Tonyrsquos ratingof governance at his school was 81 well above the mean of 627 inTable 51 and very close to the top of the range of ratings in the fourworkshops Park High is one of five schools included in Chapter 10(Studies of Success)

The same qualifications noted in Chapter 4 in respect to the surveyon knowledge management apply here It is noteworthy that scoreswere spread widely for each domain and for the total The overallmean was 627 with scores ranging from 37 to 86 among the78 individuals or groups that participated in the self-assessment

The instrument is recommended as a tool for analysis in the schoolsetting either in its general form as contained in Appendix 3 orwith adaptation to deal with a specific aspect of governance as wasdone for the workshops in England

The acquisition and allocation of resources

A major responsibility of those with a role in governance is theacquisition and allocation of resources Governing bodies and schoolcouncils normally have responsibility for approving a budget andmonitoring its implementation Consistent with the approach in

Table 51 Benchmarks for governance based on self-assessments in workshopsin England (78 responses in 4 workshops)

Domain(out of)

Purpose(5)

Process(5)

Policy(20)

Scope(15)

Standards(55)

Total(100)

Mean 34 29 128 97 341 627Range 2ndash5 1ndash5 5ndash18 3ndash14 19ndash51 37ndash86


this book resources are defined broadly and the notion of capitalis preferred so this aspect of governance is concerned with the formsof capital considered in Chapter 3 and the importance of aligningthem

The first task is to update a list of indicators for effective resourceallocation in schools The authorsrsquo first book contained a modelfor self-managing schools that proved helpful in several countries(Caldwell and Spinks 1988) The foundation of this work lay in aProject of National Significance in Australia known as the EffectiveResource Allocation in Schools Project (ERASP) Indicators foreffective resource allocation were drawn from the literature of thetime and schools that satisfied the criteria were selected for furtherstudy The outcome was a model for self-management

These indicators are contained in Table 52 They reflect a con-strained view of resources because the focus was on money and the

Table 52 A constrained view of effective resource allocation in schools

Domain Characteristic

Process There is a systematic and identifiable process in which

1 Educational needs are determined and placed in anorder of priority

2 Financial resources are allocated according to prior-ities among educational needs

3 There is opportunity for appropriate involvement ofstaff students and the community

4 Participants are satisfied with their involvement in theprocess

5 Consideration is given to evaluating the impact ofresource allocation

6 A budget document is produced for staff and otherswhich outlines the financial plan in understandablefashion

7 Appropriate accounting procedures are established tomonitor and control expenditure

8 Money can be transferred from one category of thebudget to another as needs change or emerge duringthe period covered by the budget

(Continued overleaf )


preparation of an annual budget It sufficed at the time and in mostrespects it is still a worthwhile guide for the preparation and imple-mentation of a one-year budget However times have changed andthe annual budget is just one of several plans that should be framedby a multi-year development plan for the school Moreover money isnow recognised as just one resource to support the transformation ofthe school

Table 53 offers a contemporary view of effective resource alloca-tion in schools that includes a broader view of resource For example

Table 52 Continued


Outcomes 1 High priority educational goals are consistently satis-fied through the planned allocation of resources of allkinds

2 Actual expenditure matches intended expenditureallowing for flexibility to meet emerging andor chan-ging needs

3 There is general understanding and broad acceptanceof the outcomes of budgeting

(Caldwell and Spinks 1988)

Table 53 A contemporary view of indicators of effective resource allocation



1 Annual planning occurs in the context of a multi-yeardevelopment plan for the school

2 Educational needs are determined and placed in anorder of priority on the basis of data on studentachievement evidence-based practice and targets tobe achieved

3 Resources to be acquired and allocated include intel-lectual and social capital

4 A range of sources are included in plans for theacquisition and allocation of resources including

(Continued overleaf)


intellectual and social capital are included Money allocated tothe school by formula in a lsquoglobal budgetrsquo or lsquoresource packagersquo isjust one source of resource albeit the largest in most schools insystems of public education Multi-year outlooks are included Thereis recognition of the importance of data and an evidence-base together

Table 53 Continued


money allocated by formula from the school systemfunds generated from other sources other kinds ofsupport from public and private organisations andinstitutions and resources shared for the commongood in networks or federations

5 There is appropriate involvement of all stakeholdersin the planning process including representatives ofsources of support

6 The financial plan has a multi-year outlook as well asan annual budget with all components set out in amanner that can be understood by all stakeholders

7 Appropriate accounting procedures are establishedto monitor and control expenditure


9 Plans for knowledge management and the buildingof social capital including philanthropy and the con-tributions of social entrepreneurs are included inor complement the financial plan

10 All plans specify how processes and outcomes are tobe evaluated

Outcomes 1 Targets are consistently achieved through theplanned allocation of resources of all kinds

2 Actual expenditure matches intended expenditureallowing for flexibility to meet emerging andorchanging needs

3 There is general understanding and broad acceptanceof the outcomes of resource acquisition andallocation


with targets The budget is just one of several plans There should alsobe plans for knowledge management and the building of social capitalincluding philanthropy and the contributions of social entrepreneursIt is proposed that indicators in Table 53 be adopted in schools

A self-assessment based on a contemporary view of resources asreflected in the indicators in Table 53 is contained in Appendix 4as the Self-Assessment of Resources It can be completed in similarfashion to Self-Assessment of Intellectual Capital (Appendix 2) andSelf-Assessment of Governance (Appendix 3) A five-point scale isprovided for each item ranging from 1 (low) to 5 (high) There aretwo parts (domains) in the instrument one dealing with processes(ten items) and the other with outcomes (two items) These shouldbe considered separately for a total out of 50 for process and out of10 for outcomes Outcomes are of course the over-riding consi-deration The instrument is a useful starting point for analysis andsubsequent planning by the governing body or school council or byleadership and management teams in the school

Enduring principles

1 Governing bodies should operate to the highest standards of cor-porate governance Priority should be placed on and resourcescommitted to the assessment and development of capacity toachieve them

2 Leaders and managers in schools should operate to the higheststandards of practice in acquiring allocating and utilisingresources Such practice should be student focused data-drivenevidence-based and targeted-oriented Priority should be placedon and resources committed to the assessment and developmentof capacity to achieve these standards

3 Clarity and consensus is required in establishing complementaryroles and responsibilities for governing bodies and principals

4 Consistent with the contemporary view of transformation and itsfocus on personalising learning the student should be the mostimportant unit of analysis in all matters related to governanceand the acquisition allocation and utilisation of resources

5 While legal action is likely to increase with the focus on person-alising learning it will be pre-empted to the extent that thehighest standards of governance and practice in the managementof resources are achieved


The funding of high qualityand high equity

Introduction

Educational reforms are invariably expressed in monetary termsboth in relation to the drivers ndash the inputs and to a lesser extentthe benefits to be derived from them ndash the outputs This reflectsthe perception if not the reality that the allocation of money is afundamental consideration in the pursuit of the transformation ofschools We take the view that financial capital is critical becausemoney is needed to build intellectual capital and financial capital canbe enhanced if social capital is strong

The starting point of this chapter is the identification of criticalissues in the funding of schools at a time when efforts are beingmade to secure success for all students in all settings Developmentsin Australia and the United Kingdom are explored The concepts oflsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo are introduced firstly from an inter-national perspective based on work in the OECD (Organisation forEconomic Cooperation and Development) Drawing on data fromPISA the strength of the relationship between student achievementand social background has been determined enabling countries to beclassified as either lsquohighrsquo or lsquolowrsquo as far as quality and equity areconcerned Australia and the United Kingdom are two countries thatare lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquolow equityrsquo A purpose of this book is toprovide guidelines on how these countries can move to lsquohigh qualityrsquoand lsquohigh equityrsquo Chapter 6 provides the foundation for Chapter 7that proposes lsquonext practicersquo in allocating funds from the centre toschools in systems of self-managing schools and Chapters 8 and 9that describe and illustrate a student-focused planning model toguide the allocation of funds at the school level

Chapter 6

Critical issues

Financial resources must be sufficient to enable schools to meetexpectations The level of funding is a vexed issue It is common tomake comparisons of educational expenditure and learning outcomesbetween countries and between educational systems within coun-tries This practice may be of value but so often variance in expend-iture is a function of cultural and industrial issues rather than issuesrelated to student achievement This has become evident in ourrecent research to find evidence on which to base the design anddevelopment of funding models for different educational jurisdic-tions We find it more useful to identify the level of resources withina system by identification of lsquonext practicersquo schools that are alsolsquoefficientrsquo in the deployment of financial resources in efforts to per-sonalise learning and secure success for all students Consistent withthe model for alignment set out in Chapter 3 we invariably find thatthese schools are also at the forefront of developing and deployingintellectual social and spiritual capital

In summary our exploration of the importance of financial capitalin educational transformation centres around three key issues

bull identification of the level of resources necessary for successbull allocation of resources to schools to match the number nature

and needs of students to ensure expectations can be met espe-cially under challenging circumstances

bull enhancing the capacity of schools to deploy available resources toeffectively and efficiently support the personalisation of learning

Developments in Australia and theUnited Kingdom

We give particular attention in this and subsequent chapters to cur-rent efforts to transform education in Australia and the UnitedKingdom with particular attention to Victoria and England In bothcases educational reforms of the last decade have been driven by anunrelenting focus on learning outcomes This focus continues tointensify It will be the key driver of reform for the next decade andbeyond

Research continues to highlight the increased life chances for stu-dents successfully completing Year 12 in comparison with theirpeers who either disengage from secondary education prior to Year12 or who fail to reach a recognised standard if they reach that point

76 High quality and high equity

The On Track survey by the Department for Education and Trainingin Victoria found that lsquostudents who leave school without complet-ing Year 12 are four times more likely to be unemployed two yearslater compared with those who finish schoolrsquo (The Age December 282005)

In the Australian states of Victoria and South Australia theunrelenting pursuit of learning outcomes is encapsulated in a sharedstatement that lsquo90 per cent of students will successfully completeYear 12 or its equivalentrsquo This target was established by the BracksLabor government on winning office in Victoria in 1999 and reiter-ated in The Blueprint for Government Schools (Department for Educationand Training 2003) This target has subsequently been expanded toencompass lsquoall students achieving improved outcomes and the dim-inution of the disparity in achievement between studentsrsquo In essencethis expansion is based on the view that it is unacceptable for asignificant proportion of students to fail Reducing disparity in stu-dent achievement has significant consequences for educational reformin Victoria and elsewhere

In England education reform is driven by the need for lsquoall pupilsto perform to the maximum of their potentialrsquo Initially thisresulted in a tendency to focus improvement on those studentspredicted to perform just below the level of five good passes (AndashC)in the GCSE However increasing attention is now being given tothose pupils most at risk In a speech about lsquoEducation Improve-ment Partnershipsrsquo on 3 November 2005 Jacqui Smith Minister ofState for Schools emphasised that lsquoone of our most ambitioustargets over the next ten years is to increase the number of 16 yearolds participating in learning from 75 per cent to 90 per centrsquo(Smith 2005)

In essence education reform in the UK and Australia seeks notonly to improve the learning outcomes for all students but also toensure that our most vulnerable children receive appropriate supportand can take their place as successful participants in society to thecommon good

As illustrated by The Blueprint for Government Schools (DET 2003)in Victoria and the Five Year Strategy for Children and Learners(DfES 2004a) in England educational reform is a high priority andis being vigorously pursued through a comprehensive range of strat-egies encompassing all factors known to drive school improvementThese include quality of teaching relevant curriculum flexible ped-agogies effective leadership appropriate infrastructure high levels

High quality and high equity 77

of public trust and of course resources that enable these to beachieved

There is now realisation that the transformation of educa-tion requires personalisation of learning to a degree never beforeattempted if all students are to remain effectively and successfullyengaged until at least the end of Year 12 This personalisation isespecially important for those students who are currently beingfailed by their respective educational systems This position wasadopted by Ruth Kelly former Secretary of State for Educationand Skills when she gave the Ninth Specialist School Trust AnnualLecture in July 2005

At the heart of our drive for school improvement is a moralimperative a drive for social justice a conviction that everychild ndash wherever they come from and whatever their circum-stances ndash deserves a good education and the chance to realisetheir potential a rock solid belief that all children can achieve

(Kelly 2005)

It is this lsquorock solid belief that all children can achieversquo that is centralto the purpose of this book It is recognised that the level ofresourcing to schools must address not only core learning but alsothose impediments to learning that are experienced by our mostvulnerable students

This commitment has remained central to the Labour Governmentin the UK since it was first elected in 1997 as emphasised by formerPrime Minister Blair in his address to the 14th National Conferenceof the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust in November 2006

Education is the most precious gift a society can bestow on itschildren When I said the top three priorities of the Governmentin 1997 would be education education education I knew thenthat changing educational opportunity was the surest way tochanging lives to social justice Irsquom as certain of that today asI was ten years ago when I said it

(Blair 2006b)

It is helpful to explore the resourcing of schools in England andVictoria Not only do they share a common background in pursuingeducational transformation but they have also devolved most of thefinancial resources directly to schools with provision for flexible


deployment at the local level School self-management or local man-agement of schools has been a strong feature in these state (govern-ment) school systems since 1988 in the case of England developingsince 1994 in Victoria so that both are now among the mostdevolved systems in the world

It is intended to explore outstanding practice in these two systemsin allocating resources to schools in a manner consistent with expect-ations for learning and the nature needs aptitudes and aspirations ofstudents It is also intended to explore outstanding practice inschools deploying these resources through effective student-focusedplanning An unrelenting focus on learning outcomes may be driv-ing educational reform but for success to be significant systematicand sustained there needs to be a high level of student-focusedresourcing and student-focused planning Achievement of this con-gruence may well be lsquonext practicersquo

High quality and high equity

The concepts of lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo are introduced atthis point These are not clicheacutes but well-designed evidence-basedterms with international currency that are helpful in framing effortsto allocate resources to schools and within schools The internationalcontext is established with reference to work at the OECD Relateddevelopments are explored with particular reference to VictoriaAustralia

Work at the OECD has illuminated the issue of the relationshipbetween educational achievement and the socio-economic back-ground of students by drawing on the findings of its Programme inInternational Student Assessment (PISA) Former Director for Edu-cation at the OECD Barry McGaw has provided a comprehensiveanalysis (McGaw 2006) from which the following explanations aredrawn (see also the PISA website at wwwpisaoecdorg)

Participating countries were classified according to lsquoqualityrsquo andlsquoequityrsquo lsquoQualityrsquo is measured by the performance of 15-year olds inthe PISA tests lsquoEquityrsquo is indicated by the strength of the relation-ship between studentsrsquo achievements and their socio-economic back-ground information about which was also gathered in PISA Whilethere is an overall positive relationship between the two disadvan-taged background is not necessarily related to poor performance Forexample in Finland and Korea social background is less substan-tially related to educational achievement than among participating


countries taken as a whole whereas in Australia the United King-dom and the United States social background is more substantiallyrelated to educational achievement than in the OECD as a whole

The OECD classified participating countries according to qualityas indicated by results in reading and equity as indicated by thestrength of the relationship between social background and achieve-ment Countries that are lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo are CanadaFinland Hong Kong China Iceland Ireland Japan Korea andSweden In these countries there is no trade-off between qualityand equity Countries that are lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquolow equityrsquo includeAustralia Belgium France New Zealand the United Kingdom andthe United States

There has been a considerable amount of work that explains thefindings about quality and equity Reference was made in Chapter 3to Finland and Alberta the top performing province in Canada withcontributing factors including quality of teaching strong supportin the community for schools and level of funding In these twoinstances there is a high degree of alignment among the differentkinds of capital that are available to support schools Many readers ofthis book reside in countries that are lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquolow equityrsquoand in this chapter and Chapter 7 we consider how the allocation offunds to schools can assist a shift to lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo

The same kinds of analysis can be done at the system and schoollevels In some schools for example the association between socialbackground and student achievement is considerably weaker than itis for schools as a whole The issue here is how these schools set theirpriorities and allocate all of their resources including money InChapters 8 and 9 we describe a student-focused planning model thatwill make a contribution to a successful outcome for all schools

Developments in Australia especially Victoria and the UnitedKingdom especially England (and similar initiatives in New Zealandand some districts in Canada and the United States) demonstrate anacceptance that flexibility in planning and resource allocation isneeded given that there is a unique mix of learning needs in eachschool This lies at the heart of practice in self-managing schoolssuch that as far as possible funds are allocated directly to schoolsfor local decision-making To accomplish this systems of educationhad to develop defensible methods to align school funding withthe number and nature of students It is now history that initialattempts were rudimentary at best but the associated transparencyof the allocations has underpinned a wave of reform addressing the


appropriate funding of schools in the pursuit of improvement inlearning outcomes

Developments along these lines have continued in Victoria whichis a relatively large system of about 1650 government (state) schoolsThe aim is to secure an alignment of the funds allocated to the schooland the unique mix of local learning needs As described above thefocus is on improving learning outcomes for all students and dimin-ishing the disparity of outcomes between students that is to achievelsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo lsquoHigh qualityrsquo is achieved in aneducational system when all students maximise their potential tolearn and lsquohigh equityrsquo is achieved when the challenging environ-mental circumstances of any child do not detract from all childrenmaximising their potential for learning backed by the belief that allchildren have a capacity to succeed

Seeking to align the funding of schools with these changingexpectations means that alignment must be sought not only withthe number and nature of students but also importantly with thelearning needs of students particularly with those needs that act asimpediments to learning Major attention in the development offunding models for self-managing schools has been given to theneeds of children with impairments and disabilities Funding hasalso taken account of socio-economic circumstances language back-ground indigenous culture and isolation However children fromthese environments particularly when these factors occur in combin-ation still predominate among those disengaging from schoolingandor failing to attain success prior to leaving Not only is therea requirement to now address learning and teaching for thesestudents but there is also a requirement to determine appropriatefunding mechanisms This is now receiving attention in England andVictoria The starting point for determining such a mechanism is areview of developments in secondary education Victoria is selectedfor illustration

State (government) provision in secondary education is a rela-tively recent phenomenon in Victoria as in most parts of AustraliaFollowing federation in 1901 education remained a state rather thanfederal responsibility and although primary education was universalsecondary was certainly reserved for a few who gained it in the mainthrough non-government (private) schools It was as recently as 2005that the centenary of the first state government school was celebratedin Victoria (Melbourne High School) Expectations that all studentswould proceed to secondary schooling did not form until several


decades later Four phases can be discerned in these and subsequentdevelopments

Phase 1 Access Beginning in the late 1930s the expectation wasthat all students would gain access to secondary education A pro-gramme of providing secondary schools in regional and rural areasbegan However it was accepted that these schools would varygreatly in the quality of educational provision Major city schoolscompeted with their longer-established private counterparts andwere funded accordingly but outer-suburban regional and espe-cially rural schools were indeed only second cousins or even furtherremoved

Phase 2 Opportunity In the late 1950s expectations changed It wasacknowledged that all students should have equal opportunity togain a quality education irrespective of location and socio-economiccircumstance The emphasis was on lsquoopportunityrsquo and this did notinclude provision to ensure that lsquoopportunity was graspedrsquo Theopportunity expectation gave rise to the lsquocomprehensive secondaryschoolrsquo At least minimum levels of educational provision were iden-tified and established resulting in a more even spread of resources

Phase 3 Outcomes Beginning in the late 1970s the concept ofequity of outcomes for students began to emerge with the conceptbeing defined as lsquoall students achieving or exceeding agreed stand-ardsrsquo It is emphasised that it lsquobegan to emergersquo as it has also takenmany years for this new view of equity to become the expectationIt has been reflected in the diversification of schooling through flexi-bility and self-management to more effectively meet the needs ofstudents and certainly in endeavouring to allocate resources toschools by alignment not only the number and nature of studentsas expressed through the stages of learning but more importantlywith the learning needs of students This has certainly been a keyendeavour in Victoria in recent years This is emerging as thefocus in resourcing schools ndash an unrelenting focus on student out-comes and allocating resources in congruence with student learningneeds There is an expectation that all students can achieve and thatappropriate funding will assist This focus is continuing as schoolsystems seek to achieve the expectation of lsquoall across the linersquo orlsquo90 per cent to successfully complete Year 12rsquo or the like Howeverachievement of the expectation is still some way off


Phase 4 Aspirations Thankfully in education we are never contentwith the present or even content with succeeding with currentexpectations before again pushing the boundaries on expectationsWith many students still failing to achieve targets the pursuit hasbegun to lift expectations to a new height or even perhaps to a newdimension ndash enabling all students to achieve their aspirations Ofcourse if this expectation is to be universal then it pre-supposessuccess with the previous expectation of all students achieving orexceeding targets in the basic outcomes England is leading in thisnew era of expectation through the strategies of lsquopersonalising learn-ingrsquo and lsquoschool specialisationrsquo These strategies are important for allstudents but particularly so for students at risk of disengaging fromschool prior to Year 12 It is with these students above all that choiceand diversity need to be increased in relation to lsquowhat is to be learntrsquoand lsquohow learning is to occurrsquo to ensure curriculum and pedagogicalrelevance to the student These strategies are becoming equally evi-dent in Australia and are succinctly expressed through the priorityof lsquoimproving learning outcomes for all and decreasing (removing)disparity in outcome achievementrsquo

The relationship between needsand outcomes

The relationship between outcomes and needs is illustrated in Figure61 which shows on the vertical axis the percentage of studentsachieving success and on the horizontal axis quintiles of increasingaffluence in family socio-economic circumstance (diminishing stu-dent need) It is family circumstances as expressed by the occupationof the main income earner which is the best predictor of studentsmost at risk of failing to benefit from educational opportunity

The lower line typically illustrates the learning needndashoutcomerelation for Year 12 students in educational jurisdictions in Australiaand comparable countries The upper line represents the requiredrelationship if the commonly expressed target of lsquo90 per cent ofstudents to successfully complete Year 12rsquo is to be achieved

lsquoImproving outcomes for all students and decreasing (removing)disparityrsquo will require a major effort not only in curriculum pedagogyand leadership but also in funding It is readily apparent that themajor endeavour will have to be in respect to the first three quintilesIt is also recognised that the effort and endeavour required increaseexponentially as need increases This relationship is illustrated in


Figure 62 The current and expected outcome lines have beenretained in Figure 62 as illustrative only

The challenge is to now fund students to pursue both equityof outcomes and achievement of aspirations through alignment offunding provision with expectations and the nature and needs ofstudents This higher level of educational expectations might be

Figure 61 Relationship between current and expected outcomes (percentageachieving success) and need (quintiles) (figure devised by Jim Spinks)

Figure 62 Relationship between resource relativities and need (figure devisedby Jim Spinks)


termed lsquoaspirationalrsquo expectations They are the key drivers foreducational transformation

The environment for educational change

We cannot ignore the fact that while higher expectations may be thekey driver of educational change they work in unison with otherfactors within the overall education environment including betterpractices in teaching and learning the nature of schooling and tech-nology This evolving educational environment is itself part of thesimilarly evolving social political and economic environment Theseenvironments are not separate but develop together in a lsquosymbioticevolutionrsquo as illustrated in Figure 63

It is within this relationship driven by expectations for learningthat we must continually seek and correctly align the resourcing ofstudent learning with the nature number interests aptitudes andaspirations of students Failure to do so will limit the achievementof expectations and perpetuate a climate in which failure for somestudents is accepted as inevitable

Figure 63 The environment for educational change ndash a symbiotic relationship(figure devised by Jim Spinks)


The way forward

This chapter shifted the focus to financial capital The starting pointwas the contention that planning and resource allocation must bestudent focused if there is to be success for all students in all settingsReference was made to the OECDrsquos classification of countries basedon results in PISA and the concern that just a small number offereducation that is lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo A brief historicalaccount based on developments in Victoria Australia illustrated howexpectations are changing and that settling for less than lsquohigh qual-ityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo is no longer acceptable Two sets of strategiesmust be developed one is to determine a mechanism for allocatingfunds to schools in a manner that will maximise the opportunityto realise such an outcome Such a mechanism must take accountof factors that are predictors of student achievement Promisingapproaches in Victoria are described in Chapter 6 The other is howfunds once received are allocated at the school level This strategy isaddressed in subsequent chapters


Next practice in thefunding of schools

Introduction

The concern in Chapter 7 is the alignment of funding with thenature and needs of students to achieve lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohighequityrsquo Particular attention is given to the approach in Victoria thatdrew from the findings of a research project proposed in The Blueprintfor Government Schools (Department of Education and Training 2003)

Framework for the allocation of funds toself-managing schools

A system of self-managing schools tends to allocate money to schoolsin the categories shown in Table 71 Most funds come from govern-ment but included in Table 71 is provision for support from busi-ness industry and philanthropic organisations as well as parentalcontributions The former (from business) is more prevalent inEngland while the latter (from parents) is a significant factor inVictoria These developments are not without controversy particu-larly in relation to fairness The following observations can be made

bull The majority of resources are allocated by government but therevenue streams from business philanthropic organisations andparents are becoming increasingly important

bull Student-focused funding relates to the achievement of lsquohighqualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo on an ongoing basis It is about thedesign delivery and support of high value learning and teachingprogrammes

bull Core student learning relates to the number and nature of thestudents (stages of learning) to ensure the achievement of lsquohigh

Chapter 7

Table 71 Classification of budget categories for funding self-managing schools

Core studentlearning

Can includebull the stages of

learning andrelativitiesbetween them

bull translation into perstudent funding

bull a base amountrelating todiseconomies ofscale

Canrepresent75ndash90

TOTA

L SC

HO

OL

FUN

DIN

G

Gov

ernm

ent A

lloca

ted

Fund

ing

Stud

ent F

ocus

ed F

undi

ng

Equity Can includebull disabilities and

impairmentsbull socio-economic

statusbull language

backgroundbull isolated locationbull mobilitybull indigenous

5ndash10

Scho

ol B

ased

Fun

ding

Targetedinitiatives

bull targeted to specificschools orprogrammesusually for specifiedperiods of time

bull often awardedthrough lsquobidsrsquo orsubmissions

bull can be closelyrelated to politicalagendas

2ndash10

Infrastructureoperation andmaintenance

Can includebull utilitiesbull maintenancebull minor development

3ndash5

qualityrsquo It should enable all students from supportive environ-ments to achieve their learning potential

bull Equity relates to the extraordinary needs of the students that isthose factors that can impede students from achieving theirlearning potential The allocation of funds intended to improveequity is usually linked to overcoming the identified impedi-ments and is derived from the degree and density of occurrenceof the impeding factor Allocation is usually formula-driven aspractice demonstrates that allocation through bids or submissionsis no guarantee that the resource will end up in the schools withthe students of greatest need In fact the opposite has beenobserved

Designing a student-focused funding model

This section proposes a strategy for systems to review the allocationof resources to schools to enable the achievement of student potentialIt recognises that students with extraordinary needs related to dis-abilities and impairments andor their environment and backgroundrequire further funding which will be considered in the section onresourcing equity

The strategies will be of particular interest in England where theallocation of resources to schools is still based on Age WeightedPupil Units (AWPU) and Free School Meals (FSM) as an indicator

Infrastructureownership

bull buildings andgrounds majordevelopment

0 + N

on-G

ov F

undi

ng Specificinitiatives orprovisions

bull often targeted tospecific initiatives

bull can be supplied lsquoascash or in kindrsquo

bull an increasinglyimportant sourceof funding

bull parentcontributions

0 +

Next practice in funding 89

of socio-economic disadvantage with bidding for additional resourcesto address other needs and take up particular opportunities Theseapproaches do not hold up under critical scrutiny The strategies thatfollow may be worthy of consideration in the identification of lsquonextpracticersquo in the resourcing of schools

A key feature of the proposed strategies is that the evidence thatunderpins them is gathered from schools that are not only highlyeffective and efficient in significantly and systematically addingvalue to student learning outcomes but which also exhibit the char-acteristics of sustainability in the future Participating schools shouldexhibit the characteristics of best practice in teaching and learningand a culture of continually and avidly doing even better It is pro-posed that patterns of resource deployment in these schools providethe exemplars for the design of models for use across a system

It is acknowledged at the outset that past practices in resourceallocation were mostly historically based with many embedded fea-tures that were unfair and unsustainable Even with the developmentof systems of self-managing schools and related approaches to schoolglobal budgets history had been a major factor in deriving allocationformulae For instance mythology had insisted that the age of thestudent should be a major driver of resourcing and that resourceprovision needed to increase with age Although to some degree thismyth has been shattered in relation to the early years of learning itpersists in the middle years and governs differentiation within thesenior years Perusal of the AWPUs of most local education author-ities in England supports this conclusion with relativities in earlyyears typically around 13 decreasing to 10 in late primary butincreasing from 13 to 16 or more in senior secondary The questionneeds to be asked whether this pattern reflects best practice in theexpenditure of resources in schools achieving high quality

Of course some would ask lsquoDoes it matterrsquo if the school is free todeploy resources as it sees fit in the best interests of students Theanswer is lsquoYesrsquo especially if there is a significant funding differentialacross the stages of learning or age-grades and the proportional mixof students across these categories differs from school to school Thiswas evident in Victoria where historically Years 11 and 12 studentswere funded at a higher level but schools spread this resource acrossall secondary year groups This meant that schools with higher pro-portions of students in Years 11 and 12 were advantaged and yet itwas the schools with the lower proportions of students in Years 11and 12 that desperately needed more resources to address the root

90 Next practice in funding

causes of students disengaging and not continuing to the final yearsIt was evident that disengagement did not just occur at the end ofYear 10 but over Years 9 and 10 A similar situation was evident inSouth Australia where funding also favoured the more senior yearsand yet research demonstrated that school expenditure was relativelyflat across secondary classes and in some large high schools withhigh proportions of students in Years 11ndash12 expenditure on Year 12was the lowest on a per student basis

These examples illustrate the desirability of reviewing andredesigning funding models on the basis of evidence of what occursin schools that plan well in matching their resources to prioritiesfor learning In the past it has been difficult to obtain evidence on therelative costs of education across year groups This problem has beensolved by analysis of expenditure patterns in representative samplesof leading-edge schools known to add value to student learningCentral to this analysis has been consideration of how learning andteaching are delivered and supported rather than a simple financialanalysis In essence information is obtained about learning andteaching which can then be translated into time units and costs Theoutcome is the cost per student in relation to year groups (or othergroups of choice) that accurately expresses how the school has chosento deploy the resources available to it

Guidelines

The following guidelines propose a strategy for aligning the alloca-tion of core student learning resources in a student-focused fundingmodel with the number and nature of students using evidencegained from leading-edge schools which are systematically addingsignificant value to student learning

bull The design of a model for the allocation of funds to schools inself-managing systems should be based on evidence fromschools as it is at the school level that constantly changingeducational and socio-political environments expressed throughever-increasing expectations have implications for studentfunding

bull School principals are the critical participants in gathering evi-dence as they are in the best position to know the implicationsof changing expectations for student funding (the pre-eminentleadership position in education is that of principal)


bull Evidence of resource deployment should be sought through afocus on how peopleprogrammes contribute to learning andteaching or the support of learning and teaching and notthrough simple financial analysis

bull Information should be gathered from schools that are representa-tive of type size location and socio-economic circumstance andthat are known to significantly systematically and sustainablyadd value to student learning outcomes

bull These schools should exhibit best practice in learning and teach-ing and in those characteristics related to the nature of schoolingas it is likely to evolve in the future

bull These schools should exhibit a culture of continually and avidlyseeking better practice

bull Evidence should include analysis of all activities that enhanceor support learning irrespective of the source of the relatedfunding

bull There may be a need to consider compensation for diseconomiesof scale for some schools through the application of variable baseallocations

bull Parallel evidence should be sought from a random sample ofschools to ascertain whether there is a relationship between schoolnature student performance and school resource deploymentpatterns

bull Resource provision should be driven by the recipients of school-ing and this should be reflected in allocation models

bull Models should ensure maximum flexibility for schools to deployresources as expectations and the educational environmentchange

bull Any resource allocation model can only reflect the expectationsand environment of the lsquonearrsquo future There is a need to updateevidence and refine models on at least a triennial basis

Resourcing quality

The resourcing of schools to ensure that all students achieve successat the level of their potential calls for alignment of resources and thenumber and nature of students in the context of emerging bestpractice in learning and teaching The following is a summary ofdevelopments in efforts to resource quality

bull Educational funding is shifting from funding schools to funding


students and relating that funding to the nature needs aptitudesand aspirations of students

bull Student funding should directly relate to changing expectationsfor learning emerging better practices in learning and teachingand the evolving nature of schooling

bull The focus of data collection in the first instance must be clearly onthe nature and quality of the delivery and support of learning andteaching rather than on the cost implications of these activities

bull Changing expectations for student learning are part of an evolv-ing complex of inter-related social political economic and tech-nological developments Strategies should continuously generateresponsive models for educational resource allocation

bull Resource allocation models should look forwards and not back-wards or sideways The best source of data is to be found inleading-edge schools where the characteristics of the future arealready being exhibited in outcomes practices and intentions

bull Principals as educational leaders are the best source of informa-tion as they grapple daily with the relationships between expec-tations best available practices outcomes available resourcesand future requirements

bull Comprehensive data bases within school systems are enablingresource allocation models to be developed on evidence ratherthan hypothesis and history

Resourcing equity

lsquoHigh equityrsquo is achieved when all students achieve good educationaloutcomes irrespective of their background and circumstance Typic-ally it is students from low socio-economic family circumstancesEnglish as a second language (ESL) backgrounds and those living inisolated rural areas who are overly represented among those dis-engaging from school prior to Year 12 or who are not achievinggood educational outcomes at the completion of Year 12 For thesestudents the commencement of school is often hampered by limitedlanguage skills low aspirations and expectations and a restrictedrange of experiences on which to construct learning These problemscan be exacerbated for older students by frequent school changes alack of or poor prior school experiences and a social environmentwhere learning is under-valued Their life chances are not positiveand achieving good educational outcomes is fundamental to revers-ing this situation


Achieving high equity and removing the disparity in educationaloutcomes between students on the basis of environment has becomethe moral and social imperative of our time It requires outstandingalignment of resources with learning needs To date substantial fundshave been spent but whether these are sufficient or correctly targetedis unknown in many settings What is known is that these studentsare still overly represented amongst our failing students

Ruth Kelly former Secretary of State for Education and Skills setthe challenge as quoted in Chapter 6 ndash lsquoa rock solid belief that allchildren can achieversquo and a lsquoconviction that every child deserves agood educationrsquo Consistent with Kellyrsquos call for moral purpose andsocial justice David Hopkins in his keynote presentation at the 13thNational Conference of the Specialist Schools and Academies Trustin November 2005 further challenged the system to boldly devise astrategy to lsquoequalise life chances by tilting against inequality withinnovation and collaboration to improve standardsrsquo and to providelsquosufficient funding devolved to school level and allocated to needrsquo(Hopkins 2005) In his opening address at the same conference SirCyril Taylor Chair of the Specialist Schools and Academies Trustissued the same challenge to provide for the most vulnerablechildren

A commitment to ensure that all students successfully completetheir secondary education is not yet at the top of priorities in theagenda for educational reform To date the focus has been on maxi-mising the learning potential of every student This has producedremarkable progress particularly in England in encouraging schoolsto ensure that larger numbers of students achieve at least five goodgrades at GCSE This endeavour has tended to focus the attention ofschools on those students perceived as being at risk of performingat just below the lsquofive good gradesrsquo criterion It is time to includestudents at risk in the lowest orders of achievement and ensure thattheir achievement is improved above and beyond an acceptableminimum standard of learning outcomes

The student resource package in Victoria

Victoria is an example of a system that wishes to achieve a strongeralignment of student-focused funding and success for all studentsIt requires some fundamental re-thinking about engagement cur-riculum pedagogy and resourcing


Research project

In April 2003 the Expenditure Review Committee (ERC) of theVictorian Department of Premier and Cabinet initiated the devel-opment of a student-focused school funding model based on stagesof schooling and equity component benchmarks The project becameknown as the Student Resource Package Research Project A keypurpose of the project was to determine the elements relativities andeducational rationale underpinning the provision of equity fundingwith the longer-term goal of ensuring that 90 per cent of all studentssuccessfully complete Year 12

The University of Melbourne was commissioned to undertakea project to establish the necessary benchmarks and develop a newstudent-focused resource allocation model to be implemented for2005 The research project was led by Professor Richard Teese fromthe Faculty of Education assisted by Associate Professor StephenLamb and Senior Fellow Jim Spinks

Methodology

Effective schools were identified by aggregating a number of per-formance indicators for groups of schools with similar student intakecharacteristics (socio-economic and location) Performance indicatorswere averaged over a period of two to three years depending on dataavailability Indicators for secondary schools included student reten-tion student absence Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) scorespost-Year 12 transition and teacher morale For primary schools theindicators were AIM (Assessment Improvement Monitor) scores inkey learning areas for Years 3 and 5 For each indicator the residualvalue between the expected and observed outcome was deter-mined taking into account the influence of student intake and con-textual factors An aggregate measure of effectiveness was createdby summing the residuals for each school Efficient schools werethose operating on a lsquoleast costrsquo per student basis Items over whichschools did not have management control andor were included inschool budgets as an administrative convenience were excluded Arepresentative sample of 42 effective and efficient schools wasselected by merging data on effective schools with data on efficientschools grouped according to size of school Atypical schools wereexcluded

Data were gathered on site to establish per student expenditure


patterns across the year groups within the school All inputs wereconverted to per student costs These inputs included teachingorganisation management leadership care and wellbeing counsel-ling planning materials and equipment The process called for themapping of each individualrsquos contribution as agreed in discussionswith the principal conversion of the activity contribution map to atime analysis in relation to student year groups and determination ofa per student cost by translating time against a salary or programmecost Summation of total contributions established the patterns ofresource deployment in relation to selected groupings of students

A more detailed account of how the information gathered in thisprocess was used in determining allocations to schools is availablefrom the Department of Education and Training (DET nd) Asummary of the funding mechanism updated to 2007 is contained inAppendix 5 (Department of Education and Training Victoria 2006)

Critical issues

A critical aspect in developing the student-focused resource alloca-tion model was the funding of students with different learning needsThis aspect of the project was addressed by Stephen Lamb whoseresearch (Lamb 2004) identified the factors that are significant pre-dictors of failure (Lamb and Teese (2003) did not recoil from the useof the word lsquofailurersquo it is the eradication of failure that was the over-arching intention) These factors were low socio-economic statusdisabilities and impairments rural location English as a second lan-guage mobility indigenous students and small school size

Lamb (2004) offered the following points to guide the develop-ment of a student-focused funding model

bull Any need factor is not randomly distributed across schools butconcentrated in particular communities and schools

bull The density of incidence of a need factor within a school popula-tion is critical to the overall impact on student performance

bull A multiplicity of high density impediments often occurs par-ticularly in schools serving low socio-economic communities

bull Effort required to overcome these impediments increasesexponentially as density of occurrence increases within the school

bull Although impediments inter-relate separate targeting isrequired

bull Resourcing does make a difference


bull In general past equity allocations were insufficient and spreadtoo thinly across schools to be effective

Implications for other countries

The Victorian approach to equity in resource allocation contrastswith developments in other places such as England where there is agreater emphasis on schools lsquobiddingrsquo for additional resources If thisbidding is restricted to those schools considered eligible on the basisof student characteristics then it is appropriate to obtain prioragreement on intended deployment and accountability require-ments However there is an inherent problem of some schools withhigh needs students being differentially funded If student-focusedfunding is to be pursued as a means of supporting student-focusedoutcomes and student-focused learning then it follows that student-focused funding should be strongly related to the nature and needs ofthe students irrespective of their location rather than on the cap-acity of the school to win at bidding There is also the question ofresource guarantee to underpin confidence in long-term planning asdramatically and sustainably changing the outcomes for high needsstudents is a long-term process

Bidding for resources to explore better learning and teachingpractices through innovation is more appropriate In this instance itis usually recognised that good practice is already in place but thereis a strong desire to identify even better practice

The pursuit of equity or diminishing the disparity of outcomesbetween students is dependent on additional resources As DavidHopkins (2005) stated it requires lsquoa strategy to equalise life chancesby tilting against inequality with innovation and collaboration toimprove standardsrsquo and lsquosufficient funding devolved to school leveland allocated to needrsquo The following guidelines are offered for thedevelopment of student-focus funding models that take account ofevidence on the achievement of equity

bull The development of up-to-date and comprehensive databases of school characteristics and performance is essential forinvestigating and improving resource allocation models toensure the maximisation of the learning potential of everystudent

bull These data bases enable hypotheses about learning outcomes andfunding models to be tested and established on the basis of


evidence There should be evidence to support any resourceallocation model currently in use

bull Resource models to allocate student-focused funding shouldenable specific targeting in congruence with the needs of theindividual student

bull Optimum model development requires the identification of spe-cific indices for each category of need that accurately predictthose students most at risk enable differentiation betweendegrees of need and provide congruent funding allocationsComplex multi-faceted indices can obscure the importance of aspecific need for an individual student or school

bull Indices of need to drive resource allocation formulae should becontinuous functions to avoid threshold points where significantchanges in resources can occur as a result of minor changes in thevalue of the index

bull Base data for an index of need should be averaged over a suitablenumber of years to reduce the impact of atypical fluctuations

bull Base data for an index of need should relate to the studentsattending the school and not the geographic location of theschool

bull There is recognition that degree of need density of incidence ofstudents with that need within the school and endurance of theneed within the school over time are all factors to be consideredin allocating funds

bull Student-focused funding should be allocated on the basis of for-mulae driven processes to ensure transparency fairness andequity and be dependent on the needs of students rather than thecapacity of the school to bid for resources

bull Student-focused funding models need to be continuallyupdated through review of impact on the learning outcomes ofstudents

Resourcing for special or additional needs

The initial research in Victoria to develop a new student-focusedmodel for allocating resources to schools did not address the needs ofstudents with additional or special needs This was a separate andsubsequent project The special needs of these students differ fromthe categories of need considered previously in that they are theoutcome of the lsquochances of birthrsquo and are mostly unrelated tosocio-economic and other family circumstances These needs include


physical and intellectual disabilities and sensory behaviour learningand autistic spectrum disorders as well as mental illnesses Typic-ally each of these occur across a range of expressions from normal tomild to moderate to severe to profound

For the past decade lsquostudents with disabilities and impairmentsrsquohave been funded on a per student basis using a model which identi-fies firstly the stage of schooling of the student and secondly thelevel of disability The three stages of schooling relation to age andthe 2006 allocation are given in Table 72

The major component is the level of disability allocation deter-mined on the basis of responses to an Educational Needs Question-naire (ENQ) This allocation is divided into six levels in relation toincreasing levels of need as indicated in Table 73

Table 72 Stage of schooling disability allocation inVictoria (2006)

Stage Age Allocation per student(AU$)

1 5ndash10 $53972 11ndash16 $38593 17ndash18 $4247

Table 73 Educational Needs Question-naire (ENQ) allocations inVictoria (2006)

ENQ level Allocation per student(AU$)

1 $48862 $113003 $178384 $243465 $308036 $37292


Minor differences in allocations occur depending on whether thestudent is enrolled in a special or mainstream school Allocationsalong the lines illustrated in Table 72 are similar to the pioneeringapproach in Edmonton Canada commencing in the late 1970s

Although the Victorian model has served its purpose as a student-focused approach dissatisfaction has been growing within theprofession in relation to the accuracy of the ENQ in assessing thesupport required to achieve the desired outcomes for these highneeds students There is also dissatisfaction emanating from thenegative focus of the ENQ on lsquowhat the child cannot dorsquo as well asconsistency of assessments

The disquiet with the ENQ and the provision for students withadditional or special needs in Victoria is addressed in the work ofa Ministerial Advisory Group Its functions include the initiation ofresearch into the funding of special needs the review of all pro-grammes for students with special needs and the identification ofmeasures to better align per student resourcing with the nature andneeds of students

The disquiet in relation to provisions for students with specialneeds in Victoria is paralleled in the United Kingdom Severalreviews have been undertaken with reports including RemovingBarriers to Achievement The Governmentrsquos Strategy for Special EducationNeeds (DfES 2004b) Special Education Needs Report (House of Com-mons Education and Skills Committee 2006) and Special EducationalNeeds and Disability Towards Inclusive Schools (Ofsted 2004)

The current concern in Victoria and England centres not only onfunding but also on the very nature of lsquoinclusiversquo education for stu-dents with special needs Too often this term is narrowly consideredto mean all students with special needs attending mainstream schoolsRecent reviews are clarifying the matter with the definition oflsquoinclusive educationrsquo becoming more comprehensive The followingdefinition is representative of emerging views

Inclusive education provides opportunities for children withadditional needs to enrol in a variety of school settings It ischaracterised by a blurring of the boundaries between childrenwith and those without additional learning needs so that thefocus is on

bull the level of capacity to learn and progress that each individualpossesses


bull the learning outcomes soughtbull the environment and support which the school that the

child attends (regardless of type) undertakes to provide

The delivery of genuinely inclusive practices will be system-wide Schools will welcome diversity among their students anddemonstrate exceptional skills in personalising their learningpathways to maximise learning and wellbeing outcomes forall

Such definitions highlight the growing preference in the field ofspecial education to move from a deficit or negative approach tofunding special student needs to a model based on the capacities thatthe students bring with them It is recognised that currentapproaches to funding developed from emotional overbalancing fol-lowing decades of political and social neglect It has resulted infunding models whereby the allocation increases in direct proportionto the number of deficits identified Principals often describe thetrauma for parents and teachers in assessment sessions where theemphasis is on the identification of as many deficits for learning aspossible to maximise funding This approach certainly does not assistthe initial development of positive feelings and confidence It alsodoes not assist in finding the way forward for the student in terms oflearning

There is a growing preference for developing models based on thecapacities that these students individually bring to the learning pro-cess as the starting point for efforts to optimise their learning andwellbeing in general This preference suggests the possibility of anapproach along the following lines

bull Initial acceptance of a student with a disability into specialneeds programmes based on medical or clinical evidence anddiagnosis

bull Assessment of the studentrsquos capacitiescapabilities for learningand the establishment of related learning and wellbeingtargets

bull Proposal of a potential pathway to these outcomes taking intoaccount developmental risk factors and with associated fundingdetermined by reference to a set of standard pathways identifiedthrough research of existing successful pathways

bull Capacitiescapabilities outcome targets potential pathways and


developmental risk factors would be assessed by professionalagencies from outside the special education provider group

bull Independent reviews would be conducted on a triennial basis

Although this preference is attractive particularly as there is anemphasis on learning and wellbeing outcomes with the existingcapacities of the student as the starting point it is acknowledgedthat the initial assessment process would be expensive As well theidentification of a set of standard pathways and the associated sup-port requirements would need extensive research to glean data fromsuccessful wellbeing and learning outcome programmes

It is possible that the assessment cost could be substantiallydiminished by limiting assessment to those students medically orclinically identified as being in the moderatesevere to profoundrange of the disability or disorder There is evidence that the occurrenceof students within the mildmoderate range can more readily bepredicted on census-based population distributions with modifica-tion for known distribution patterns within populations This allowsthe allocation of available resources directly to schools with furthermodification in relation to stages of schooling to enhance early inter-vention capacities

The outcome could be the development of a funding model wherethe allocation for the student with special needs is sufficient toensure the optimal achievement of learning and wellbeing outcomesidentified as being the potential of the student based on their capaci-ties for learning and personal development and growth This alloca-tion would be irrespective of the type or category of disability ordisorder The focus would be on the potential of the student forlearning growth and development

The exploration of capacity-based models for students with specialneeds to replace current deficit based models is in its infancy Thereare attractive features but further work is required to determinevalidity and gain the necessary support of parents and special educa-tion providers

The way forward

The next step for Victoria is to align resources and aspirations Thereis a view that student aspiration encompasses what is to be learnt andhow learning is to occur It is closely allied with the concepts ofpersonalising learning and school specialisation where it is envis-


aged that new curriculum as well as changed pedagogy could be theoutcome This differs in some ways from personalising learning andspecialisation in England where the emphasis is more strongly onestablishing personal learning targets and changing pedagogy butwithin the confines of existing curriculum structure Both approacheshave strengths and there is a case for each to be considered by theother particularly in relation to the capacity within Victoria toestablish personal learning targets regarding processes and outcomes


A student-focusedplanning model

Introduction

Ensuring that all students secure success and attain the necessaryskills and capacities to lead successful and productive lives requiresan alignment of funding and these intended outcomes This impera-tive lay at the heart of Chapter 7 where the issue was the manner inwhich resources are allocated to schools in a self-managing systemHowever ensuring that schools are sufficiently and appropriatelyfunded is only the beginning It is then the responsibility of theprincipal and others in the school community to ensure that theresources that have been allocated are deployed in the most effectiveand efficient ways possible to enable expectations for each and everystudent to be realised

It is important to reiterate that money alone does not guaranteeoutcomes on the scale of transformation It is but one element in thematrix of high quality teaching relevant and challenging curric-ulum appropriate pedagogy community support and trust alongwith masterful leadership and good governance that includes effect-ive and efficient management of resources This is the unifyingtheme of the book and central to the model for alignment set out inChapter 3

The purpose of this chapter is to describe a model to guide thedeployment of resources at the school level in a manner that ensuresthat the student is at the centre of the process We describe this asa student-focused planning model The need for such a model isconsistent with the new enterprise logic of schools set out inChapter 1 Two important elements are that lsquothe student is the mostimportant unit of organisationrsquo and lsquonew approaches to the allocationof resources are requiredrsquo

Chapter 8

The journey so far

Our earlier work on self-managing schools yielded models for policy-making planning and budgeting that seemed well suited to thetimes (Caldwell and Spinks 1988 1992 1998) However BrianCaldwellrsquos work in the early 2000s as self-managing schools becomepart of the scene in places like Australia England and New Zealandled to the view that it is time for the concept of self-managementto catch up with its best practice Schools are doing remarkablethings with their new authorities and responsibilities He drewimplications for leadership in Re-imagining Educational Leadership(Caldwell 2006)

At the same time Jim Spinks was engaged in research and devel-opment in Victoria and South Australia that led to a new frameworkfor allocating resources to schools within self-managing systemsalong the lines set out in Chapter 7 He gathered evidence of howprincipals and other leaders at the school level were deploying thoseresources in imaginative ways that focused more than ever on theneeds interests aptitudes and aspirations of students He also notedprogress in England We pooled our knowledge to see how schools inthese different settings were drawing on four sources of capital asthey went about their work and this led to the model of alignmentthat frames the book We now complete the picture by explainingand illustrating a student-focused planning model In essence we arelsquore-imagining the resourcing of schoolsrsquo

Design parameters

The student-focused planning model was designed with the follow-ing parameters in mind

1 The student and hisher learning should be the focus The stu-dent should be the starting point for planning and the basis onwhich to allocate resources and evaluate the outcomes

2 Models should reflect emerging best practice in exemplaryvalue-adding schools

3 Models are not just a recipe they provide frameworks for identi-fying the many activities that ought to take place within aschool

4 It is important that the relationship between the many activitiesis clearly identified

A student-focused planning model 105

5 Models should reflect how a school works over a period of yearsas well as on a day-to-day basis

6 Models should reflect the pattern of leadership across the schooland how people work together in teams

7 Models should be straightforward and easily understood as a keypurpose for them is to explain how a school makes decisions

8 Models are frameworks not detailed management strategiesto be imposed on schools Their main function is to encourageand assist schools to develop their own approaches that identifyand explain how the school operates

In essence a model for school planning identifies key activities andthe relationships among them These activities range from settingindividual learning targets for students to monitoring the achieve-ment of those targets and student wellbeing to creating strategicalliances in support of the effort to designing and delivering curric-ulum to creating school budgets to celebrating success and every-thing in between

These parameters and a range of major activities have beenbrought together in the model in Figure 81 It is not intended to bethe definitive model but a starting point to assist schools in thedesign of their own approach

The student as an individual is the focus of the model both at thebeginning of the planning process and at the point at which intendedlearning outcomes are identified and used as the basis for learningand teaching as well as programme evaluation The student andhisher characteristics are also considered in the context of valuespurposes and expectations as these might be endorsed by a leadershipteam or governing body Alignment is intended but if there aredivergences then at least they need to be known understood andaccepted by all parties

The student is viewed as central to school strategic planning but moreimportantly to a process of student personalised planning to ensure rele-vance of curriculum and pedagogy to the characteristics and expect-ations for the studentrsquos learning School strategic planning remains anecessary activity to effectively plan future changes and address long-term issues This planning needs to reflect trends in expectations forlearning and performance in relation to those expectations

Student personalised planning and school strategic planning pro-vide the basis for designing curriculum and planning for student access to acurriculum of relevance to learning targets This may well involve

106 A student-focused planning model

Figu

re8

1St

uden

t-fo

cuse

d pl

anni

ng m

odel

the construction of new curriculum in the school to meet the specificrequirements for learning for a particular student This is a test of thepriority the school places on personalising learning The model illus-trated in Figure 81 refers to three learning strands with the possibil-ity of further division into sub-categories or domains The terminologyreflects that of the Victorian Essential Learning Standards (VELS) thenew curriculum for students in primary and lower secondary inVictoria (Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2005)For England these would be replaced with the ten Key LearningAreas (KLAs) from the national curriculum The model also includesa program of specialisation and a group of support programmeswhich could include ICT library administration buildings andgrounds Planning for each programme would include targets con-tent delivery resources and approaches to evaluation

The studentrsquos outcomes provide the basis for monitoring progress andassessing the performance of the individual student and collectivelythe basis for the review and evaluation of learning and teachingprogrammes and programmes that support them

It should be noted that student personalised planning school stra-tegic planning and the studentrsquos outcomes are backed by lsquoimplemen-tationrsquo indicators Similarly lsquoimplementationrsquo becomes a key aspectfor the programmes identified in learning and teaching and thatsupport learning and teaching The requirement for resources toimplement each programme includes consideration of student learn-ing time learning space and the financial implications for humanresources and material support Planning should emphasise the rela-tionship of resource requirements to learning targets and prioritiesThe sum of the programme implementation plans would form theproposed school budget If the sum exceeds availability then areview of targets and priorities informs the balancing process

This overview of the model is intentionally brief to help developunderstanding of the model as student focused and different from pastmodels with their focus on the school as a collection of classroomsrather than individual students Each component and its relationshipto the model in general are now described in more detail

Details of the model

The student-focused planning model described in this section con-siders the student to be the most important unit in the organisationThe mission of the school is to ensure that all students secure success


and that disparities between studentsrsquo achievements are diminishedAll activities are focused on this endeavour Planning starts with thestudentrsquos expectations for learning and finishes with the studentrsquosoutcomes In between there is an intensity of curriculum design anddelivery with constant monitoring and guidance of the studentrsquosprogress

The model is not intended to be the definitive model butan example Schools are encouraged to develop their own modelsthat reflect the unique and distinct characteristics of their owncircumstances

The student

The model begins with lsquothe studentrsquo This refers to each and everystudent and hisher family undertaking a process of school choiceand possible entry

The nature needs interests aptitudes current attainments andfuture aspirations of the student are central to the process both interms of the student and hisher family and the school Even withinthe scope of unlimited imagination a school cannot be all thingsto all people For this reason it is also important to include themajor activities and related statements of lsquoValues and Purposesrsquo andlsquoExpectations for Learningrsquo as these traditionally have been used byschools and their governing bodies to describe key characteristics andby parents to ascertain the suitability of the school in relation to thebeliefs values and aspirations of the family In the past the emphasishas been on what the school can offer the student subject to the viewthat all students will in the main follow a similar path In the futurethe focus becomes lsquoGiven the nature needs interests aptitudescurrent attainments and aspirations of the student what outcomescan the school envisage as a set of realistic expectations for thestudent while attending the schoolrsquo This approach is now evident at


schools like Lymm High School in Cheshire and de Ferrers SpecialistTechnology College in Burton on Trent

The student and hisher individual characteristics and expect-ations are the starting point for school planning This contrastswith the declining practice of providing all students with a com-mon curriculum and expectations with some modification as thestudent progresses through the school This leap to addressingpersonal expectations for learning based on individual targets thatare realistic and achievable is a vital outcome of current reform inEngland It is recommended that other countries examine thesedevelopments if they wish to pursue the personalising of learningWithout personal targets as the starting point personalised learn-ing is restricted to what is learnt and how it is learnt rather thanbeing inclusive of why to what purpose and for which expectedoutcomes

Personalising student learning from the very beginning of entry toa school based on the current attainments of the student as well asthe nature needs interests aptitudes and aspirations of the studentis fundamental to pre-school to Year 12 being a smooth continuumof learning and development Too often the transition from oneschool to another (and even from one year group to another) hasbecome a disruption to the student and detrimental to hisher overallschool achievement

Values and purposes

Schools cannot be all things to all people Even with the student asthe most important unit in the organisation there is still the need forthe school to clearly articulate a set of values and purposes aboutchildren and their learning and development This statement is usu-ally a key part of the school charter or mission and often developedjointly by the school principal staff and community through thegoverning body There needs to be agreement and commitment to


these values and purposes They also become a key reference point forthe resolution of difficulties in the planning of change

Expectations for learning

Well articulated statements of expectations for learning have becomeimportant in planning for schools They help shape national stand-ards for student learning as well as local priorities The developmentof a capacity in schools in England to quantify what value is to beadded in relation to student learning and to set school-wide targetsfor value adding is a significant advance Too often lsquovalue-addingrsquo hasremained a concept that could be claimed but not demonstrated

In late 2005 Jim Spinks visited Lymm High School in Cheshireand Bishop Walsh Catholic School and Turves Green Boysrsquo TechnicalSchool in Birmingham All three schools demonstrated signifi-cant lsquovalue addedrsquo through the percentage of students achieving orexceeding five good GCSE passes or their equivalent in relationto expectation Even more impressive was the fact that this signifi-cant value-adding was sustained over several years and had becomean important aspect of school ethos Students lsquoexpected to exceedexpectationsrsquo

It is proposed that an lsquoinclusive ethosrsquo be an expectation for learn-ing An lsquoinclusive ethosrsquo expresses the expectation that all studentswill be included in learning outcome success It is based on the beliefthat lsquoall children have the capacity to learnrsquo and that all students canachieve or exceed a benchmark standard that will enable them tosuccessfully participate in society This expectation underpins theVictorian and South Australian targets that 90 per cent of studentswill successfully complete Years 12 or 13 or their equivalent Itis also strongly expressed by former Secretary of State Ruth Kelly(2005) as lsquoa rock solid belief that all children can achieversquo andby Minister Jacqui Smith (2005) as a target lsquoto increase the num-


ber of 16 year olds participating in learning from 75 per cent to90 per centrsquo

As illustrated by the three schools above many English schools areexcelling in adding value as measured by the percentages of studentsexceeding the expectation for those gaining at least five good GCSEpasses with the expectation based on student attainments at entryThe amendment in 2006 of the lsquofive good GCSE passesrsquo benchmarkto include English and mathematics is welcomed The challenge isalso to establish a minimum set of standards the attainment ofwhich will indicate the likelihood of successful participation of eachand every student in society

Student personalised learning

With student individual characteristics and expectations the startingpoint for school planning strategic planning remains a key activityfor the principal and staff for planning in the medium to long termHowever even more important is the activity of lsquoStudent Personal-ised Planningrsquo to determine the expectations to be agreed for eachstudent

Based on the studentrsquos current attainments realistic targets can beset using the available data bases that can assist in correlating currentattainment and future expectations The development of these databases is an impressive aspect of current education reform in England

The endeavours in other countries to personalise learning areseverely limited by the lack of a capacity to set individual learningtargets that relate to the nature needs interests aptitudes currentattainments and aspirations of the student and that are evidencebased The development of a central data base of student character-istics and achievements to enable realistic targets to be set for eachstudent based on the achievements of other students with similarprofiles adds a dimension of reality to the task of individual target


setting These targets not only enable measures of value added to bemade but even more importantly provide an incentive for studentlearning that is personal rather than merely aiming at a nationalbenchmark

It is evident that the development of a student characteristic andoutcome achievement central data base with some 600000 newstudents added on an annual basis is a fundamental underpinning ofeducation reform in England Other countries intent on similarreform would be well advised to consider the development of asimilar data base a high priority

Learning targets should also reflect the needs of the student andhisher aspirations for learning and through learning The edu-cational targets set for the student should also take account of thestudentrsquos capacity for personal growth and development

In the broader sense student personalised planning is not only anactivity to set appropriate learning targets for each student but alsoto plan for support and monitoring of the studentrsquos progress towardsthose targets This involves planning for counselling exercisingchoice coaching mentoring and celebrating success Studentpersonalised planning also involves planning for access to relevantcurriculum and ensuring that the desired learning occurs This con-trasts with the past where this kind of attention was given to studentsafter the onset of failure not as a strategy to ensure that failure doesnot occur For every school this enhanced responsibility is a tall orderIt cannot be effectively undertaken after problems arise as the studentmay well have already wasted precious learning time moving down thewrong pathways It needs to become central to school operation per-haps initially with those students identified as being most at risk asthe school develops the capacity for undertaking this activity

Many schools have attempted to include these approaches to per-sonal planning in student home groups with a teacher taking on thisresponsibility for 25ndash30 students Some have been successful butinsufficient in respect to the time that is required if each and everystudent is to optimise hisher learning potential and all students areto successfully complete Years 12 or13

Student personalised planning is not an activity that can betreated as an lsquoadd-onrsquo It needs to become a key pathway to curric-ulum design and delivery and learning support For this reason themodel proposes that an implementation plan should be developed onan annual basis to underpin the activity with this plan identifyingpurposes guidelines activities resources and evaluation strategies


It is similarly proposed that leadership of student personalised plan-ning should become the responsibility of a senior member of staffworking with a team that includes some of the best teachers Animpressive approach along these lines has been implemented atLymm High School in Cheshire

Lymm High School with approximately 2000 students is proudof its reputation for high quality and annually having 90 per cent ofits students achieve five good passes at GCSE Headteacher RogerLounds explained to Jim Spinks that this was the outcome of theschoolrsquos lsquowarp and weftrsquo approach to student care A meeting withthe three heads of Key Stages quickly demonstrated the intensity andzeal with which the school pursued the achievement of student per-sonal targets for learning with comprehensive ongoing monitoringand mentoring programmes Another meeting with the five heads ofhalls (each hall included students from Years 7 to 13) also demon-strated the high degree of care and support extended to studentsHigh quality programmes of monitoring counselling mentoringand celebrating were in evidence The weave of the many layers ofsafety nets was very tight indeed

Schools often endeavour to provide this level and quality of sup-port through one line of activity and responsibility The lsquowarp andweftrsquo approach at Lymm may well be more expensive in terms ofleadership and teacher time but the outcomes speak for themselvesIt was also interesting to investigate whether there could be tensionbetween the zeal for target-setting and compassion for children Anassistant head teacher explained that the two aspects of supportquickly joined for a student in crisis This meant that student well-being was pre-eminent but every endeavour was also made to sup-port the student in maintaining learning progress as time lost fromlearning is nigh impossible to retrieve Roger Lounds and the Lymmteam have certainly re-imagined their own student-focused schoolThe fact that it is a large school yet has developed a truly supportiveschool environment is to their credit

Outwood Grange College in Wakefield with 1800 studentsis another outstanding school with a special emphasis on personalis-ing student planning to ensure that all students optimise theirpotential for learning and developing Strategic leadership positionsndash Director of Performance and Director of Quality Assurance ndash aredesigned around support for students It is interesting to comparethese positions with the more traditional senior appointments relatedto curriculum areas


Michael Wilkins the Headteacher of Outwood Grange is pas-sionate and eloquent in explaining the details of its lsquoPraising Starsrsquoprogramme which centres on information gathering identifyingwhere a difference can be made intervening systematically and mak-ing an impact on student achievement This programme has beenfundamental to the improvement in the proportion of students gain-ing at least five AndashC results in the GCSE from 46 per cent in 2003to 90 per cent in 2006 Sixth form A-level results have similarlyimproved with achievement now ranked in the top 10 per centnationally In the past four years the college has progressed fromproviding students with opportunities for learning to ensuring thatevery student successfully grasps those opportunities The college isachieving both quality and equity Outwood Grange has certainlyfulfilled its motto of lsquostudents firstrsquo

School strategic planning

Strategic planning remains a key activity for the principal and staffto guide school change in the medium to long term In past planningmodels strategic planning was critically informed by changingvalues and purposes for education andor changing expectations forlearning at the national or local level These influences continue forstudent-focused planning models but with an emphasis on therequirements for personalised planning This could require the con-struction of new curriculum and the development of new pedagogiesto meet the aspirations of students In addition the implementationof student personalised planning to the extent demonstrated byLymm High School takes time It requires a partial school re-organisation and a shift in priorities for the deployment of resources

A majority of schools are now well versed in strategic plan-ning due to the requirements of self-management and relatedresponsibilities and accountabilities In the sense of re-imagining the


self-managing school though strategic planning is envisaged asincluding not only an outline of proposed major changes and possi-bilities for progressive implementation over a set period but also thedevelopment of lsquostrategic intentions to guide the management ofcontinuous and often turbulent changersquo (Caldwell and Spinks 1998)Strategic planning is also envisaged as encompassing the develop-ment of major policies initiating and undertaking research anddevelopment projects and creating strategic alliances The student-focused school is characterised by an avid seeking of better practicesto advance student learning This requires schools to be proactive inidentifying and developing promising ideas as well as being at theforefront of innovative practice It is not possible for schools toattempt these endeavours alone and hence the need for creating stra-tegic alliances and participating in networks to share the effort andcost and increase the knowledge base The Specialist Schools andAcademies Trust (SSAT) has been successful in encouraging thedevelopment of networks of schools in the UK and internationallythrough iNet

Strategic planning in the student-focused school is a critical activ-ity It can no longer be left to committees of volunteers It nowrequires the distribution of leadership and a commitment of resourcesto ensure that it is a driving force for research and developmentin the school Like student personalised planning it requires animplementation plan to be developed on an annual basis to underpinthe activity with this plan identifying purposes guidelines activ-ities resources and evaluation strategies This would include notonly those elements of major change but also those elements andresources necessary to underpin the processes of strategic planning

Design of and access to learning programmes

The outcome of student personalised planning and school strategicplanning is the design of relevant learning programmes and plan-ning to ensure that each student has access to those programmesuniquely suited to hisher learning targets needs interests aptitudesand aspirations

Providing a curriculum and related pedagogy that is uniquelysuited to each student is no easy task particularly within a crowdedcurriculum Some schools are also constrained by the requirements ofa national curriculum Tasmania developed a new kindergarten toYear 10 curriculum around lsquoEssential Learningsrsquo (Department of


Education Tasmania 2002) It was designed as a response to both thecrowded curriculum and the need to engage students more deeply inrelevant learning focusing on high-order thinking The curriculumis constructed around a framework of thinking communicatingsocial responsibility personal futures and world futures Victoria ispursuing a similar development based on a set of lsquoEssential LearningStandardsrsquo (VELS ndash Victorian Essential Learning Standards)

The Tasmanian curriculum was reviewed in 2006 when contro-versy arose about the language of the reform as well as approaches toassessment and reporting However the purpose remained intactlsquoStudents are learning to learn think know and understand createpurposeful futures act ethically relate participate and care and leadfull healthy livesrsquo (Department of Education Tasmania 2006)

Providing a curriculum that is uniquely suited to each studentdoes not mean that the curriculum for each student will be entirelydifferent from any other There will be many overlaps and it is stillpossible to group students for access to a common curriculum Theimportant consideration is that the timetable does not dictate cur-riculum possibilities for the student but that it is constructed toenable each student to access the programmes suited to hisher tar-gets needs interests aptitudes and aspirations This approach hasbecome the culture in many schools especially where there is greaterflexibility in curriculum construction Technology has assisted inthis development by easing the burden of constructing timetables inlarge complex schools Wendy Johnson Principal of Victor HarborHigh School in South Australia is developing an approach where thestudents in the one lsquoclassrsquo are each pursuing a different learningactivity uniquely suited to the individualrsquos needs with the teacherbeing a facilitator of learning rather than a provider of learningMany other schools in Victoria and South Australia are pursuingsimilar objectives through multiple learning pathways

Providing a curriculum that is uniquely suited to each student


may also require schools to create new curriculum As indicated in anearlier section this may well be an indicator of the degree to which aschool has truly personalised student learning On a recent visit byJim Spinks to Reece High School in Tasmania Principal ShereeVertigan described the construction of a new curriculum that wasrequired to meet the learning needs of a student with aspirations insound engineering

A major issue facing schools in providing curriculum uniquelysuited to each student relates to time for learning The curriculumdesigned to meet specific studentsrsquo targets needs interests aptitudesand aspirations does not necessarily fit within the confines of thestandard student learning week This is an issue of some importanceto specialist schools where the specialism can involve considerableadditional time This can be addressed by a transfer of time from thenon-specialist curriculum areas but probably not without a decreasein related attainments An answer is to plan to use a more flexibleapproach to the school day with variable lengths dependent on therequirements of individual students This could increase the demandon resources for additional staff Taylor and Ryan (2005) report thesuccess of John Cabot City Technology College in Bristol in signifi-cantly adding value to student learning and noted that extending thelearning week from 25 to 30 hours was a key strategy contributing tothat success

The design of and access to learning programmes and otherprogrammes that provide necessary support is the core business ofschools It requires exceptional leadership and management by keypersonnel within the school It is usually divided up into a set ofrelated programmes reflecting the nature of the curriculum depend-ing on whether the focus is on a curriculum organised as traditionallearning disciplines or as an integrated set of strands as in theVictorian Essential Learning Standards (VELS) Support programmesinclude administration ICT library and learning resources Eachprogramme becomes the responsibility of a leader who works with ateam of teachers and other professionals

Programme teams are responsible for both design and delivery ofprogrammes within the requirements of student personalised plan-ning and the school strategic plan This involves not only curriculumdesign and pedagogical development but also the preparation ofassociated policies and implementation plans including budgetproposals and processes for monitoring and evaluation

Resource planning involves the allocation of student learning


time student-focused funding and learning space availability in rela-tion to priorities for learning both across all programmes in theschool and within each programme In this sense the professionalswho work in each programme are best equipped to prepare animplementation plan and budget If the sum of the proposals exceedsthe learning time money and space available then the balance can beachieved through an assessment of competing priorities in relation tothe overall priorities for the school as expressed in strategic plansThe achievement of this balance requires sensitive leadership andmanagement particularly within schools in England where the over-all school budget can include responsibility for major infrastructuredevelopment and expenditure and where significant revenue streamsoriginate from business partnerships philanthropic organisationsand specific funding to address agreed targets

This approach may challenge some current practice wherebybudget preparation is identified as mainly the realm of businessmanagers In this respect there is a need to distinguish betweencreating budgets coordinating budgets and managing budgetsCoordination and the management of budgets are best undertakenby trained specialised personnel It is in the creation of budgets thatcritical input is required from those responsible for the design anddelivery of student learning in relation to targets and prioritiesUnfortunately resource planning has become too segmented intohuman resource management and financial management These cat-egories are a convenience for the coordination and management ofthe budget but do not necessarily assist in the creation of a budgetwhere there is a need to consider resources in the global sense toensure that the most effective and efficient benefit is gained in rela-tion to student learning Involving the same personnel in creatingbudgets and managing budgets can result in the preservation of thestatus quo andor some lsquoadd-onsrsquo where some degree of abandonmentis necessary This situation is often expressed in claims of a lack offlexibility in resource deployment

Student-focused funding allocations to schools need to take accountof the changing patterns in the nature needs interests aptitudes andaspirations of students and related targets for learning Schools needto maintain flexibility to deploy resources to reflect changing pat-terns The participation of all staff in their programme teams increating resource proposals ensures that the required flexibility is atthe forefront in planning The inclusion of personalised provisionparticularly for those students identified to be at risk needs to be


given some emphasis Examples of budget planning in relation tothese students are given in Chapter 9

The studentrsquos outcomes

A planning model is incomplete without provision of processes formonitoring and evaluation including strategic and student personal-ised planning and design and delivery of programmes relating tolearning and teaching and their support These processes are nowcommon practice in most schools However it is also common prac-tice to aggregate student data by class or subject and to includeindicative data Indicative data may well facilitate student learningprogress but they do not necessarily guarantee that progress hasoccurred or will occur Data relating to staff professional develop-ment student attendance and student retention are examples ofindicative information

The advent of an unrelenting spotlight on student-focused out-comes in the 1990s followed by student-focused funding and nowstudent-focused planning with its strong emphasis on the achieve-ments of the individual student means that it is now an imperativethat lsquothe studentrsquos outcomesrsquo provide the critical basis for evaluationand review All planning and provision is initiated by the natureneeds interests aptitudes and aspirations of individual studentsReview therefore must focus on the outcomes and achievements ofeach student in relation to hisher targets for learning developmentand growth as a person and aspirations for learning and throughlearning In England the percentage of students achieving five goodGCSE passes has served as a good indicator of the success of reformsto date but transformation of the kind under consideration in thisbook also requires an indicator such as the percentage of studentsachieving or exceeding their personal outcome targets with all tar-gets being above a standard set on the basis of that required to enable


a student to positively participate in society In summary all evalu-ation and review should be informed by the degree to which eachstudentrsquos outcomes meet expectations as initially established and asthey relate to the specific programme under review

There will still be a need for other data which may be indicativein nature Such information can be valuable in proposing how pro-grammes can be re-designed and further developed to overcomeidentified gaps when students do not achieve outcomes identified inpersonal targets

Evaluation for improvement is but one reason for undertakingthese activities An equally if not more important activity is toprovide data to lay the foundation for celebrations of the success ofindividual students in achieving targets and the overall success of theschool in securing success for its students

Evaluation and review of all programmes in relation to each stu-dent achieving personal targets is a key activity in the school Likestrategic and personalised student planning it requires supportthrough high-level leadership and allocation of key personnel Forthis reason it is proposed that a separate implementation plan andbudget be created on an annual basis to ensure that evaluation andreview is central to ongoing efforts to achieve transformation

Developing a student-focused planning model

The model is not intended to be definitive but to illustrate anapproach that recognises the student as the most important unit oforganisation Although schools have aspired to this in the pastclasses or groups of students have invariably been treated as themost important unit of the organisation The capacity to place thestudent at the centre is now an imperative Transformation alongthese lines will be an incremental process in most schools withthe initial emphasis on students most at risk although manyschools have made remarkable progress towards re-imagining the


self-managing school since the beginning of the twenty-first centuryThis progress occurs in the context of continuous and often turbulentchange

The way forward

Progress to transformation can be assisted by a set of strategic inten-tions that guide the change and ensure that the ideal is not lost in theturbulence The following points are offered for this purpose Theyare not intended to be definitive or exhaustive schools should formtheir own

1 The nature needs interests aptitudes and aspirations of thestudent provide the basis for setting targets that are realisticand achievable shaping a planning process that will optimiselearning and personal growth

2 It is an expectation that all students will achieve a minimumstandard sufficient to ensure their positive and successful par-ticipation in society

3 Although the studentrsquos outcomes are central to the operation ofthe school there still needs to be an agreed set of values pur-poses and expectations with application to all students thusensuring coherence and harmony in the operation of the school

4 The setting of outcome targets for each student should be paral-leled by capacities to continually monitor progress and providesupportive counselling mentoring and coaching

5 Although the student as an individual is central to school plan-ning there is a need to strategically plan for overall schooldevelopment particularly in relation to where significant gapsare identified between outcome targets and achievement andwhere new trends are identified that may shape the setting ofnew targets

6 School priorities should be set to close unacceptable gapsbetween student outcome targets and achievement in particularareas of learning

7 Curriculum and pedagogy need to be designed and deliveredto ensure that the outcome targets for each student are matchedby relevant learning activities Although this provision maybe made through a number of elements they should lsquojigsawrsquotogether with the whole possibly exceeding the sum of its partsin relation to essential learnings for the future


8 A school may need to design new curriculum to optimisethe achievement of learning potential for particular studentsSharing the overall provision for a student with other learningand teaching entities may be an option

9 Meeting outcome targets for students requires schools to avidlyseek to identify and encompass emerging better practices Form-ing strategic alliances or networks with other schools or entitiesmay assist in these processes by sharing expertise experienceand cost

10 The deployment of resources (learning time student-focusedfunding and learning space) in the best interests of studentsas they seek to achieve their outcome targets is central to creat-ing school budgets Budget planning should include demonstra-tion of the links between planned student learning and thedeployment of all resources

11 The capacity of the school to lsquovalue-addrsquo to student learning isthe measure of the degree to which each student exceeds hisheroutcome targets set in relation to their nature needs interestsaptitudes and aspirations

12 The monitoring evaluation and review of all school programmesshould be focused on the degree of achievement of related studentoutcome targets


Student-focused planningin action

Introduction

Personalising learning is central to success in the student-focusedschool The curriculum is based on the nature needs interestsaptitudes and aspirations of the student for whom realistic outcomesare set The progress and performance of each student are carefullymonitored to ensure that all is on track Counselling coaching andmentoring are provided as required The student-focused school alsoensures that every student achieves or exceeds the minimum standardsnecessary for positive and successful participation in society

The student-focused planning model in Chapter 8 provides aframework for action It was developed from practice in schoolsthat are succeeding in their efforts to secure success for all studentsregardless of personal and socio-economic circumstance

The purpose of Chapter 9 is to illustrate the student-focusedschool in action This can be best accomplished by describing theapproach as it is applied to individual students Bridget Joseph andKyle have been selected as a sample They attend different highschools or secondary colleges with features evident in both Englandand Australia These descriptions do not refer to any particularperson or school The chapter concludes with a proposed budgetstructure that specifies allocations to support students like BridgetJoseph and Kyle and an outline of requirements for precision inmonitoring readiness and progress to guide the design of instructionon a day-by-day basis taking up proposals in Breakthrough (Fullanet al 2006) introduced in Chapters 3 and 4

We begin with the story of Bridget a young girl brimmingwith confidence followed by the stories of Joseph and Kyle Josephhas recently arrived as a refugee from Sudan and approaches his

Chapter 9

experience at the school with trepidation Kyle has spent a consider-able time in care and remains reluctant to commit to school but istempted by the possibilities

Bridget brimming with confidence and talent

Nature needs interests aptitudes and aspirations

Bridget commenced Year 7 in 2004 In primary school she hadalways exceeded expectations for learning particularly in relation tolanguages thinking learning skills and interpersonal developmentHer primary school provided a bilingual programme in JapaneseBridget had participated in this programme for six years withhalf her learning time across the curriculum being undertaken inJapanese She excelled in this learning environment and was assessedas being fluent for her age in reading writing and speaking inJapanese Her attainments on entry to high school are summarisedin Table 91

Targets for learning

Based on her attainments on entry to high school and related data onexpected outcomes the following targets were set for Bridgetrsquos highschool career Discussion with Bridget and her family was also anessential factor in the target-setting process

bull Achievement of at least ten learning area awards at A or B levelin Year 10

bull Achievement of a Secondary Certificate of Education (SCE)score of 98ndash100 to ensure entry of her choice to any Australianuniversity language course

bull Inclusion of two Asian languages in her learning programmethroughout high school

bull Successful completion of the International Baccalaureate exam-inations in Year 12 to guarantee entry to international tertiaryinstitutions if required

Curriculum provision

Bridget successfully sought entry to a specialist school in the studyof foreign languages The curriculum in Years 7ndash8 was constructed

Student-focused planning in action 125

around lsquoessential learningrsquo strands of physical personal and sociallearning discipline-based learning and interdisciplinary learning(these are the strands in the Victorian Essential Learning Standardsprogramme selected here for the purposes of illustration)

Within these strands it was possible to personalise learning inrelation to targets However within the discipline-based learningstrand provision could only be made for Bridget to study Cantoneseas a foreign language as well as address other expectations To meether target to study two foreign languages in each year of high school

Table 91 Summary of Bridgetrsquos progress report Term 4 2005

Progress ReportStudent Bridget

Term 4 2005Year 6

Learning Area Rating

English ndash ReadingWritingSpeaking and Listening

AAA

Mathematics BScience BInformation and Communications Technology AThinking ALearning Skills AInterpersonal Development AHealth and Physical Education BCivics and Citizenship BSociety and the Environment BLanguages ( Japanese) A+Design Creativity and Technology BThe Arts B

RatingsA Well above the expected standard by approximately 2 yearsB Above the expected standard by approximately 1 yearC At the expected standardD Below the expected standardE Well below the expected standard

(Based on Victorian Essential Learning Standards (VCAA 2005) and ratings for reportcards in Victoria (DET 2005))

126 Student-focused planning in action

provision was made for her to study Indonesian independentlywith tutorial support of one hour per week provided by a seniorlanguage teacher The cost of learning support materials and thetutorials was covered from the school lsquospecialistrsquo budget of AU$500per student per annum successfully undertaking a foreign languagestudy and AU$800 per student successfully undertaking two foreignlanguage studies (all amounts in this chapter are in AustralianDollars)

There was concern in relation to Bridget maintaining develop-ment of her fluency in Japanese This was addressed by her participa-tion in the schoolrsquos AustraliandashJapan programme including a keyrole in assisting in the development of the network between theschools with conversational communication between Japanese andAustralian students on the internet using Skype By Year 8 Bridgetwas also conducting after school tutorials for Year 10ndash12 studentsstudying Japanese

Monitoring and support

Bridgetrsquos progress in achieving her learning targets was closelymonitored by the Essential Learning Coordinator for Years 7 and 8who monitored the learning outcomes performance data base Hername always appeared in lsquogreenrsquo indicating that she was always ontrack to achieve her targets according to the correlations betweencurrent attainment and predicted outcomes

Bridgetrsquos personal growth and development was monitored byher Home Group Teacher and the Home Group Coordinator forthe sub-school (the school was organised as four sub-schools eachconsisting of a number of home groups with students from Years 7to 12 in each) There was always concern that Bridgetrsquos work loadcould be detrimental to her personal growth and developmentparticularly in relation to her interpersonal development and herskills in listening and responding Ongoing counselling and sup-port were provided to ensure that a balance of studies and personaldevelopment was maintained

A progress report for Bridget at the completion of Year 8 isshown in Table 92 It should be noted that the A and B awardsrefer to expected standards two or one year respectively above thecurrent year of enrolment of the student Bridget is well on trackto achieve her personal learning targets Her current levels ofattainment provide a sound basis for the construction of Years 9ndash10


curriculum and the pursuit of her aspirations for learning andthrough learning

Joseph excited but tentative


Joseph and his family are refugees from Sudan He is 12 but hasno prior experience of school and no knowledge of English The


Progress ReportStudent BRIDGET

Term 4 2007Year 8

Learning Strand Learning Area Rating

Physical Personaland Social learning

Health amp Physical EducationInterpersonal DevelopmentPersonal Learning ManagementCivics and Citizenship

CBAA

Discipline-basedLearning

The ArtsEnglishSociety and the EnvironmentLanguages ndash CantoneseLanguages ndash IndonesianLanguages ndash JapaneseMathematicsScience

BABBAA+CC

InterdisciplinaryLearning

CommunicationDesign Creativity and TechnologyICTThinking

BBAA




neighbourhood school in which Joseph is enrolling is a specialistschool in ICT and language development There are significantnumbers of students from refugee families in the school It is locatedin an urban area of socio-economic deprivation Josephrsquos father andmother successfully sought refugee status for the family through theUnited Nations Commission for Refugees As yet no family memberhas been successful in gaining employment

His family has high hopes for Joseph and considers that the schoolis a vital part of his future Joseph is small well coordinated andloves games Some interest has been expressed by his family inJoseph later transferring to a nearby specialist sports school in viewof his love for and success in games

Joseph has extreme levels of need in relation to gaining Englishlanguage skills It is also highly probable that he has extreme needin gaining basic learning skills due to his lack of prior schoolexperience and his lack of familiarity with Australian customs andvalues


Apart from the eventual outcome target of at least six awards atC level (including English and mathematics) at the end of Year 10 toprovide a sound basis for his senior years it is unrealistic to setspecific learning targets for Joseph at this point in time It is moreappropriate to focus on his need to gain English language and gen-eral learning skills and to pursue these goals with the maximumsupport possible His learning goals should also address his need togain an understanding of Australian customs and values Attendanceand school participation goals should also be set to assist his overallintegration and valuing of learning


A personal curriculum for Joseph is of the highest priority He needssupport from adults to build confidence and yet needs independenceas a young adolescent through which to establish positive relationswith his peers He needs to maintain his Sudanese language skillsand yet rapidly become literate in English He needs to maintain hisstrong family relationships and yet rapidly gain an understandingand an appreciation of local customs and values

Personalising Josephrsquos learning within these parameters presents a


challenge However student-focused funding ensures that his needscan be met Using Victoria for the purpose of illustration a typicalstudent-focused funding model would provide the followingresources each year

Core student learning AU$5800ESL (new arrival in high Student FamilyOccupation (SFO) index school) 4000Student in a high SFO index school 500Year 7ndash9 student in very high SFO index school 1750

Total student-focused funding AU$12050

This amount does not have to be spent directly and entirely on Josephas some will be required for the overall operation of the school and tosupport groups of students However the amount is substantial andshould be deployed in the best interests of student learning on aschool-wide basis but with a particular focus on Joseph

In consultation with the family the school decided to trial thefollowing approach to curriculum provision

bull Include Joseph in a small group of similar students in a before-school one hour per school day language programme com-mencing with breakfast and focusing intensely on spoken andwritten language correlated to his immediate needs to be literatein English both within the school and within the community

bull Include Joseph within the curriculum expectations for all Year 7students to ensure his normal association with peers and toenable him to gain experience across the whole curriculum Themajority of his teachers will be experienced in working withgroups of students that include recent refugees All his classeswill include other recent arrivals from Sudan Language aidesupport in the classroom will be provided to Joseph on an lsquoasrequiredrsquo basis especially when his confidence in the learningarea is of concern or if there is a possible issue of safety throughJoseph not being able to readily understand safety requirementsIt is expected that the language aide time would diminish as hisconfidence and language skills develop Aide time will then beshifted to continuing arrivals through the refugee programme

bull Build on Josephrsquos attributes in relation to games and coordina-tion and keep open the later possibility of transferring to the


nearby sport specialist school by immediately linking with thatschoolrsquos after-school development programme This programmeoperates three afternoons a week and emphasises the develop-ment of skill speed strength endurance health and nutritionThe programme is partially supported by an international sportsequipment manufacturer and a government agency for urbandevelopment It is a popular programme for boys and girls ofJosephrsquos age As part of this support participating students areoften provided with free entry to major local and state sportingevents in a supervised group Such involvement could also assistJoseph with his understanding of local customs and values


Josephrsquos progress in all learning areas will be closely monitored on aweekly basis by the Essential Learning Coordinator for Years 7 and 8The initial emphasis will be on encouraging and rewarding anymeasurable progress with the intention of assessing his potential tolearn and setting achievable and short-term learning targets Progressreports will be provided at fortnightly intervals with the languageaide ensuring understanding by the family The progress reports willfocus on success

Josephrsquos progress in his personal growth and development will beclosely monitored by his Home Group Teacher and his Sub-SchoolCoordinator Counselling will be provided on at least a weekly basisAn immediate goal will be to identify a mentor for Joseph fromamong the senior students in his sub-school Coordination withthe programme provided by the sports specialist school will be theresponsibility of the Sub-School Coordinator Reports on progress inJosephrsquos personal growth and development will be an important partof his fortnightly progress report

Finalising the fortnightly progress report will be the responsibilityof the Sub-School Coordinator assisted by the Year 7 and 8 EssentialLearning Coordinator If progress does not occur or drops unexpect-edly then immediate action will be initiated to identify problemsand provide Joseph with care and support


Kyle reluctant but tempted


Kyle entered the school in April 2004 when he was 13 Most of hislife has been spent in care (in several care homes) due to the frequentincarceration of his mother for substance abuse and related offencesHis mother left school at 14 The whereabouts of his father isunknown and relatives have not been prepared to take responsibilityfor his care although his grandmother was a strong support untilher death Prior to high school Kyle had a very poor record ofschool attendance and a history of substance abuse and petty crimeHe suffers from poor health and low self-esteem School and associ-ated learning has been a low priority for Kyle His learning needsare a reflection of family socio-economic background with lowvaluing of learning illiteracy and rejection of many of the structuresof society

A summary of Kylersquos progress report from primary school is shownin Table 93 It should be noted that the A to E ratings indicate thelevel of learning in relation to the expected standard for the yearconcerned which is expressed as C The B and A ratings are awardedin relation to the student achieving at the standard of expectation forone or two years above current year of learning respectively Kyle iscommencing high school with exceedingly poor preparation and hisprospects are far from good

Surprisingly Kyle has a positive outlook on life and sees his futureas possibly related to the automotive industry At least this providesa possibility around which to construct a learning programme forhim that he might see as desirable and achievable


The outcome predictions based on Kylersquos Year 6 attainments do notinclude any C level awards at the end of Year 10 For entry to anapprenticeship course at the end of Year 10 the minimum require-ments are five C level awards including English mathematics scienceand ICT This means that Kylersquos learning targets have to be set abovethose predicted to be reasonable and achievable based on his pastperformance For Kyle to achieve these targets the school is acknow-ledging that it will need to add value to his learning to a very highdegree


Following discussion with Kyle his carers and staff from theDepartment of Childrenrsquos Welfare the following outcome targetswere set for Kyle

bull Fortnightly attendance target of 90 per centbull Nil suspensionsbull 100 per cent participation in monitoring and support sessionsbull Five subject awards at D level by the end of Year 7 includ-

ing English mathematics science and ICT

Table 93 Summary of Kylersquos progress report Term 4 2005

Progress ReportStudent Kyle

Term 4 2005Year 6



EED

Mathematics EScience EInformation and Communications Technology CThinking ELearning Skills EInterpersonal Development EHealth and Physical Education ECivics and Citizenship ESociety and the Environment ELanguagesDesign Creativity and Technology EThe Arts D




bull Five subject awards at C level by the end of Year 8 includingEnglish mathematics science and ICT



Providing Kyle with a curriculum to enable him to achieve thesetargets was a challenge In essence he was required to acceleratehis learning as well as significantly modify his behaviour and valuesbase The school has a very high density of high need students withcommensurate access to student-focused funding which recognisesthat the cost of supporting Kylersquos learning would be high Student-focused funding provided to the school in relation to Kyle is asfollows

Core student learning (Year 7ndash8) AU$5800Student in a high SFO index school 500Year 7ndash9 student in very high SFO index school 1750Year 7ndash8 student identified at exceptional risk 3000


It was considered imperative for Kyle to have access to a comprehen-sive curriculum that covers all the essentials for learning now and inthe future However this did not allow sufficient learning time to bedevoted to accelerating his learning to the required degree particu-larly in literacy and numeracy It was decided to extend his schoolday by one hour prior to the beginning of the day and to use thisadditional time to focus on nutrition presentation literacy andnumeracy with the learning geared to assisting with his normalschool curriculum For this before-school session Kyle joined a groupof six other boys needing to accelerate their learning

The school also recognised the likelihood of Kyle experiencing realdifficulties in his transition to high school particularly in his firstyear where the temptation to return to school avoidance would bestrong To increase support to cover this possibility it was decided toinclude Kyle in an industry outreach programme providing mentor-ing to high risk students The programme is partially supported byan automotive manufacturer but required deployment of some stu-dent-focused funding to ensure that Kyle had access to his mentor


for at least three hours per week after school The mentor providedby the programme had the capacity to tutor as well as provide sup-port to help Kyle overcome obstacles to successful school attendanceand participation


Kylersquos progress in all learning areas was closely monitored on aweekly basis by the Essential Learning Coordinator for Years 7 and 8The initial emphasis was on encouraging and rewarding any measur-able progress including gains from his before-school accelerationprogramme Reports were provided at fortnightly intervals

Kylersquos progress in his personal growth and development wasclosely monitored by his Home Group Teacher and his Sub-SchoolCoordinator Counselling occurred on at least a weekly basisClose contact was maintained with Kylersquos mentor to gain furtherinsights that might assist his development and to alert school staffto any known out-of-school factors that might impede hisdevelopment

Finalising the fortnightly progress report was the responsibility ofthe Sub-School Coordinator assisted by the Years 7 and 8 EssentialLearning Coordinator If progress did not occur or dropped unex-pectedly then immediate action was initiated to identify problemsand provide Kyle with additional care and support

After a shaky start Kyle successfully adapted to the schoollearning environment He thoroughly tested the school position ofnever giving up on any student His mentor was very important insupporting him through the early period particularly in relation toconnecting the satisfaction of overcoming difficulties in learningwith the possible later rewards of an apprenticeship leading toemployment His progress report is summarised in Table 94

Kyle successfully achieved his learning and personal targets for theend of Year 8 Attendance was 92 per cent with no suspensionsSeven awards at C level had been achieved including the necessaryEnglish mathematics science and ICT As the predicted outcomebased on Year 6 attainment was zero awards at level C the schoolhad added considerable value As well he had remained with thesame care family for 2004 and 2005 and re-established connectionswith his mother His Sub-School Coordinator arranged for Kylersquosmother to receive copies of his fortnightly progress reports She isnow looking forward to her own future on release from prison with


Kylersquos continuing progress in learning at school as central to thatfuture

Kyle is now ready to proceed to Year 9 with his end of Year 10targets well in sight Although his learning acceleration was impres-sive it was successfully argued that he was still lsquoa student at high riskrsquoThis enables the lsquostudent high riskrsquo additional funding of AU$3000per annum to be retained to support Kylersquos continuation in thementoring programme with expansion to include onsite workplaceexperience in an automotive plant for the Friday of each school week


Progress ReportStudent KYLE

Term 4 2007Year 8


Physical Personaland Social Learning

Health and Physical EducationInterpersonal DevelopmentPersonal Learning ManagementCivics and Citizenship

CDCD


The ArtsEnglishSociety and the EnvironmentLanguagesMathematicsScience

ECE

CC



DCCD




This means a diminution of time in some learning areas Monitoringand reporting is being maintained at previous levels with provisionfor a return to before-school tutoring should Kyle become at risk offaltering on the way to achieving his subject target levels

Saving Kyle a lsquodefault positionrsquo

In a presentation at the 14th National Conference of the SpecialistSchools and Academies Trust in November 2006 Sir Dexter HuttExecutive Headteacher of Ninestiles Community School Birming-ham related the lsquoSaving of Coreyrsquo ndash a story of personalising thelearning of a young lad remarkably similar in background to KyleAfter years of struggle support intervention laughter despair andcelebration Corey successfully completed secondary education atNinestiles and is now a positive and thriving participant in the widercommunity

Hutt remarked that it is not unusual for a Corey to be saved in atwentieth-century school but that it is certainly not the lsquodefaultpositionrsquo with a guarantee that all students from sad and dys-functional backgrounds will successfully complete school and useeducation as a launching pad for positive participation in the worldat large All schools are only too aware of the many Kyles and Coreyswho fall through even the best safety nets

In proposing a characteristic of the twenty-first-century schoolHutt challenged his audience to regard the saving of the Kyles andthe Coreys as the lsquodefault positionrsquo In the twentieth-century schoolthis would be but a hope However success for all students in allsettings is possible with current advances in personalising learningincluding the capacity to set targets design and deliver learning andteaching of the highest quality carefully and intensively monitorprogress positively intervene where necessary and preparedness tojudge schools on the outcomes

It is certain that former Prime Minister Tony Blair would supportthe default position for the twenty-first century schools proposed bySir Dexter Hutt In his Prime Ministerial address to the 14thNational Conference of the Specialist Schools and Academies Trustin November 2006 he challenged headteachers and all educators in aconcluding statement

The vision is clear a state sector that has independent non-fee-paying schools which remain utterly true to the principle of


educating all children whatever their background or ability tothe highest possible level With your leadership and examplewe now have a once-in-a-generation opportunity to forge anational consensus around this vision You who have done somuch to change education in Britain for the better are thosewho can translate that vision into practice

(Blair 2006b)

A lsquore-imagined schoolrsquo for Bridget Josephand Kyle

Leading-edge schools in Australia England and many other coun-tries are successfully lsquore-imagining the self-managing schoolrsquo to thebenefit of students They characteristically sustain their success inadding significant value to student learning outcomes BridgetJoseph and Kyle along with their school colleagues are enjoying thebenefits As these schools are student focused it is appropriate toidentify their characteristics through the eyes of students as a way ofsummarising what has been presented thus far in Chapter 9

lsquoIn my school rsquo

lsquoThe principalheadteacher knows my name and always speaks tomersquolsquoAll staff smile and listen during conversations with mersquolsquoEveryone is as concerned about my welfare and wellbeing as they arewith the achievement of my learning outcome targetsrsquolsquoMy parentscarers think my school is fantasticrsquolsquoAll my friends have personal learning targets that they see as chal-lenging but achievable I certainly like minersquolsquoI feel that my teachers trust me to make good choices about whatand how I learnrsquolsquoStaff do not give up on me if I make mistakes or fall down onexpectations Instead they encourage and support me to try againrsquolsquoAll my friends love their learning programmes No one hasclasses that they hate All my teachers are very enthusiastic about ourworkrsquolsquoWe have very few students who misbehave in class as we all enjoyour learning and want to make good progressrsquo


lsquoThe school has superb resources to support our learning Laptopsand musical instruments are even available for those studentswithout home computers or their own musical instrumentsrsquolsquoWe can use the school laptops anywhere within the school buildingsusing the wireless network We can even link our own laptops intothe networkrsquolsquoI can often use school resources and sports facilities after schoolrsquolsquoI often link to students in other schools and countries who share mylearning interestsrsquolsquoEveryone is pleased when I do well and it feels good to becongratulatedrsquolsquoMy Sub-School Coordinator and Home Group Teacher are reallysupportive and interested in everything I dorsquolsquoMy Year Group Coordinator is fantastic in telling me if all mylearning targets are on track and finding extra help when there issome slippagersquolsquoMy school is always in the news All students seem to perform verywell and this often receives positive commentrsquolsquoThere are many opportunities to play sport and become involved inother activities with my friendsrsquolsquoI love going to school with my friends Missing school days is not onmy agendarsquo

Budget structure

What would be the structure of a school budget with full implemen-tation of student-focused planning and personalised learning Wouldit be different from the structure of the past when the unit of organi-sation was the school or classroom rather than the student Can itexplicitly address the resources to support students like BridgetJoseph and Kyle

We have searched for evidence of change in the structure ofschool budgets as the concepts of student-focused planning andpersonalising learning have developed in recent years To date nosignificant structural changes have been found This is surprisingas student-focused allocation of resources to schools and increasingpersonalising of learning requires a different approach to the deploy-ment of resources to meet the specific learning needs of individualstudents It follows that the planning and tracking of such deploy-


ment would be enhanced if it was readily identifiable in the schoolbudget

There seem to be constraints associated with the inflexibility ofcurrent school accounting systems or the fact that personalisinglearning has yet to develop to the extent of encompassing all of theelements of need identification target setting monitoring indi-vidualised curriculum design and delivery monitoring and evalu-ation for all students Planning at this level of detail for every studentis a very large task for a school and at most schools appear to be onlyattempting this for those students known to be at risk In this con-text can a budget structure be developed that would assist schools toallocate and track expenditure for all students

The following budget structure is proposed for considerationby those schools endeavouring to more carefully align resourcedeployment with the personalising of learning It is designed to takeaccount of the very high importance placed on the processes of plan-ning for personalising learning strategic planning and evaluationand review as outlined in the model for student-focused planning inChapter 8

It is proposed that the school budget be structured around thefollowing headings

Student Personalised PlanningStrategic PlanningLeadership and AdministrationLearning ProgrammesIndividual InterventionLearning SupportEvaluation and ReviewPremises Grounds and Utilities

Preparation of the Student Personalised Planning Strategic Plan-ning and Evaluation and Review budgets has been described inthe associated sections in the student-focused planning model inChapter 8 The Leadership and Administration and PremisesGrounds and Utilities components are self-explanatory LearningSupport includes library ICT and any other support to learningprogrammes

Learning programmes may vary in number and type dependingon the nature of the curriculum It is through these programmes thatcurriculum is designed and delivered to students In the past students


chose from a standard curriculum but with personalising learningthere is the possibility that curriculum may have to be lsquocreatedrsquo tomeet the aspiration of students for learning and through learning

In Victoria learning programmes would normally be related tothe Victorian Essential Learning Standards (VELS) as illustrated inthe proposed student-focused planning model This would entail thepreparation of plans and budgets to design and deliver curriculum inthe domains of physical personal and social learning discipline-based learning and interdisciplinary learning Larger schools maywell subdivide each strand into its composite strands for planningpurposes In England learning programmes are more likely to relateto the ten key areas of the national curriculum

In the past these programmes have provided comprehensive cover-age for planning and budgeting But do they sufficiently cover thosestudents where extraordinary provision and support needs to bemade to ensure that learning is optimised and learning targets metPlanning for this provision can be made through the IndividualIntervention Programme which covers provision for individualstudents above and beyond the standard learning programmes Thistype of provision is illustrated in the proposed student-focused plan-ning model as it was applied for Bridget Joseph and Kyle in the firstpart of this chapter It particularly relates to situations where thelength of the lsquolearning weekrsquo is extended or intensive tutoring ormentoring are provided to overcome learning impediments Planningshould include provision for cases known at the commencement ofthe year as well as estimation of possible requirements that mayemerge as the year proceeds

For each of the above planning and budgeting components it isproposed that initial estimates should be provided by the teamresponsible for design and delivery of the programme Plans andestimates should follow an agreed format to facilitate within-schoolcomparisons and refinements It is suggested that each programmeplan should include the following

bull name of programmebull programme purposebull outcome targetsbull planning elements including costs for personnel and materialsbull performance monitoringbull evaluation and review


Plans of this nature need not be lengthy Many schools already usesimilar mechanisms and limit each programme plan to two typedpages Elements of the plan include short descriptions of howlearning or support is to occur with estimates of the associatedcosts of personnel materials travel and so on For the IndividualIntervention Programme each student should be represented as aseparate planning element

Planning may well reveal a need to more closely align the lsquoteachingrsquowith the intended lsquolearningrsquo and this requires a talent force approachto ensure that the right mix of knowledge and skill is readily avail-able to optimise outcomes for all students irrespective of backgroundand circumstances In essence planning to maximise intellectualcapital is a necessity if there is to be success for all students

Programme plans and budgets provide the estimates for develop-ing the overall school budget These may well initially exceed avail-able funds with a balanced budget being achieved through referenceto the priorities expressed in the strategic plan and the overall targetsfor student learning In balancing the overall school budget it is alsonecessary to be cognisant of the totality of resources available to theschool including those provided by the wider community lsquoBalancingthe budgetrsquo is total alignment of student learning outcome expecta-tions not only with financial resources but also the social intellectualand spiritual capital available to the school

It is emphasised that the suggested approach to school budgeting isnot a pure approach to the resourcing of learning that is personalisedbut it incorporates an Individual Intervention Programme to accom-modate the associated cost of the extraordinary provision some stu-dents require if their learning is to be optimised and good outcomesare to be achieved The search for an ideal approach continues where apersonalised learning plan and budget is generated for every student

Precision in monitoring readiness andprogress in student achievement

Central to success in implementing the student-focused planningmodel is a capacity for monitoring the readiness and progress ofstudents to assist teachers and those who support them in the designand delivery of appropriate programmes of instruction Such a cap-acity was a feature in the studies of Bridget Joseph and Kyle Akey issue is the extent to which schools have a capacity to providedata and teachers have the capacity including time and know-how


to utilise them (see Matters 2006 for a comprehensive account ofissues related to the use of data to support learning and teachingin schools)

In Chapter 3 we described the work of Michael Fullan Peter Hilland Carmel Creacutevola in Breakthrough They proposed a system to liftthe performance of schools There are three components personalisa-tion professional learning and precision lsquoThe glue that binds thesethree is moral purpose education for all that raises the bar as it closesthe gaprsquo (Fullan et al 2006 p 16) The consistency between thesecomponents and the model for alignment and broad themes of thisbook is evident

Of particular interest at this point is the concept of lsquoprecisionrsquo asit applies to the gathering and utilisation of data Fullan Hill andCreacutevola contend that a breakthrough will be achieved only whenlsquoclassroom instruction in which the current sporadic data collectionis streamlined analysis is automated and individualised instructionis delivered on a daily basis in every classroomrsquo (p 20) There are fourlsquoingredientsrsquo in such an approach

1 A set of powerful and aligned assessment tools tied to the learn-ing objectives of each lesson that gives the teacher access toaccurate and comprehensive information on the progress of eachstudent on a daily basis

2 A method of allowing the formal assessment data to be capturedin a way that is not time consuming

3 A means of using the assessment information on each student todesign and implement personalised instruction

4 A built-in means of monitoring and managing learning(Adapted from Fullan et al 2006 pp 36ndash7)

While they acknowledge the limitations of a transfer of practiceFullan Hill and Creacutevola draw from the field of health care to proposeCritical Learning Instructional Paths (CLIPs) for each studentThey demonstrate how CLIPs combined with assessments with theabove ingredients can be applied (Fullan et al 2006 Chapter 5)Their work continues in the design of the software programmes tosupport such an approach The outcome and similar work by othersin respect to lsquoassessment for learningrsquo will form part of lsquonextpracticersquo

Some school systems have already made a start An example isCatholic Education in the Archdiocese of Melbourne that has


created three portals to assist schools set priorities and implementprogrammes on a school class and student basis (MyinternetMyclasses and Myportfolio) It is noteworthy that a substantialpart of the foundation for Breakthrough was laid by CatholicEducation in Melbourne Carmel Creacutevola and Peter Hill led theChildrenrsquos Literacy Success Strategy (CLaSS) project for CatholicEducation in Melbourne in which more than 300 schools have par-ticipated since 1998 CLaSS was shaped in part by a model foralignment of standards and targets monitoring and assessmentclassroom teaching programmes professional learning teams schooland class organisation intervention and special assistance homeschool and community partnerships and leadership and organisa-tion with the focus and integrating force being beliefs andunderstandings about teaching and learning (Hill and Creacutevola2000 p 123)

A noteworthy but informal indicator of the growing interest inprecision in the use of data as described above may be observed inthe exhibition areas of large conferences in England where assess-ment for learning is one of nine lsquogatewaysrsquo to personalising learning(Hargreaves 2004 2006 Sims 2006) We have attended the annualconference of the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust in recentyears It attracts nearly 2000 school leaders and is supported byan exhibition (trade) area with more than 200 exhibitors Untilthe early 2000s most exhibitors displayed books and other printmaterials of various kinds From about 2005 the majority haveexhibited computer-based programmes that assist the gatheringinterpretation and utilisation of data of one kind or another much ofwhich is student focused

The way forward

This chapter illustrated what has hitherto been considered impos-sible in schools organised along traditional lines namely that therecan be individual learning plans for students whose nature needsinterests aptitudes and aspirations cover the gamut of possibilitiesand even more that a budget for the school can be assembled on thebasis of such plans Student-focused planning and budgeting alongthese lines is rare and it will be a significant achievement if themajority of schools can build their capacity to do this by the endof the decade However the way forward must be guided by aneven more demanding challenge along the lines advocated by Fullan


Hill and Creacutevola (2006) namely to work out Critical LearningInstructional Paths for each student in an educational counterpart toemerging practice in health and ensure that there is parallel precisionin assessment


Studies of success

Introduction

The four sources of capital which are central to success should bealigned in pursuit of significant systematic and sustained changethat secures success for all students in all settings The complexity ofthe task means that more attention must be given than ever before tothe matter of governance It is not just a simple process of decision-making in a school closed off from its community These were themajor themes in preceding chapters

Chapter 10 provides examples of successful alignment in fiveschools Three are from Australia (Australian Science and Mathemat-ics School in South Australia Glen Waverley Secondary College inVictoria and St Monicarsquos Parish Primary School in the AustralianCapital Territory) one is from a commune (municipality) in Chile(Maria Louisa Bombal School in Vitacura Santiago) and one is froma local authority in England (Park High School in the LondonBorough of Harrow) A recurring feature in these studies is theimportance of facilities that align with curriculum and pedagogyand we explore this theme before telling the five stories of success

School design as symbol and substance inalignment for transformation

There is a trend in curriculum to complement traditional discipline-based learning with interdisciplinary learning and to provide stu-dents with multiple pathways through a rich range of offerings toenable them to complete secondary school taking account of theirneeds interests aptitudes and aspirations Developments in curric-ulum are matched by developments in pedagogy that focus on

Chapter 10

personalised learning and lsquolearning to learnrsquo In England where theconcepts have been widely embraced and an increasing number ofschools can justifiably lay claim to their practice it has been helpfulto conceive of personalising learning as a journey through nine inter-connected lsquogatewaysrsquo curriculum workforce development schoolorganisation and design student voice mentoring learning to learnassessment for learning new technologies and advice and guidance(Hargreaves 2004)

Key elements of these developments in curriculum and pedagogycan only be delivered with difficulty in traditional classroom set-tings given their standard size lack of flexibility and a configurationthat is not conducive to intensive use of new technologies Thispresents the challenge of replacing or refurbishing much of the learn-ing space where these developments are a priority It is important tonote that this is the primary reason for major change Another reasonis the run-down condition of many schools Both reasons explain aworld-wide surge of interest in school design suited to the centuryand the upgrading where possible of existing facilities Noteworthyare commitments in England in the Building Schools for the Futureprogramme in which 90 per cent of space in secondary schools willbe rebuilt or refurbished and the intention in Victoria to do thesame for all of its more than 1600 state schools

Such developments assume a connection between school designand learning outcomes Research is sparse Underpinning the com-mitment in England are two studies conducted for the Departmentfor Education and Skills (DfES) by PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC)The first was published in 2000 and it found lsquoqualitative evidenceand some quantitative evidence to support the view that a positiveand significant association existed between schools capital invest-ment and student performancersquo (PricewaterhouseCoopers 2003 p i)The second published in 2003 was more fine-grained distin-guishing between different kinds of investment Data were drawnfrom 900 schools Quantitative evidence confirmed the connectionbetween level of investment and performance in community primaryschools and for investment in curriculum-related projects such asthose related to ICT and science Qualitative evidence confirmed aconnection between level of investment and the extent to which thecommunity in low socio-economic settings made use of school build-ings Teacher and student morale improved when investment wasrelated to the curriculum and to the improvement of run-down facil-ities Principals in very low socio-economic settings doubted that

Studies of success 147

capital investment on its own could help improve student perform-ance given the significance of family-related factors (these findingsdrawn from PricewaterhouseCoopers 2003)

In one the most significant studies of its kind Bunting (2005)highlighted the importance of facilities and likely and desired direc-tions for their design in the future He conducted a rigorous investi-gation that sought the views of 23 architects and 23 educators whowere leaders in their respective fields They were based in AustraliaHong Kong New Zealand and the United States He engaged theseexperts in the exploration of societal and educational factors that willinfluence the design of secondary schools in the twenty-first centuryThree rounds of questions were posed the first to secure answers toten sub-questions the second to seek ratings of the desirability ofoccurrence and the third to seek ratings of probability of occurrenceParticipants could confirm or change their ratings in the light oftheir knowledge of the ratings of fellow participants in previousrounds and further developments in the field

Bunting found that lsquodevelopments in transport and communica-tions technology have severed the nexus between space place andtime ndash the foundations of traditional architecturersquo This calls intoquestion lsquothe need to attend school in the traditional wayrsquo Moreoverhe found that lsquopeople were desirous of a re-conceived sense of com-munityrsquo Developments in curriculum and alternative forms of learn-ing were described He concluded that the lsquoneed for secondaryschools needs to be re-conceptualisedrsquo Recommendations included lsquoare-examination of the provision of secondary schools to foster theirgreater relevance and use as elements of community infrastructurersquoand lsquoconsideration of the concept of learning centres as opposed tosecondary schoolsrsquo He referred to the importance of all studentsremaining in secondary schools for as long as possible somethingthat requires that all experience success to get to this point Schoolsshould be social as well as educational places lsquothe places of learningmust be conducive to learning and congregatingrsquo (these excerptsfrom Bunting 2005 pp ii-iv)

The OECD has published three reports on outstanding edu-cational designs at all levels including pre-school and tertiary withan expert panel assessing nominations of schools in member nationsFor the third report (OECD 2006 p 8) the panel employed fivecriteria flexibility community needs sustainability safety and secur-ity and alternative financing The first flexibility sought designsthat were closely aligned with trends in curriculum and pedagogy

148 Studies of success

buildings or grounds that are adapted to new forms of learningand research institutions that make special use of informationand communications technology or special educational facil-ities Characteristics include transformable learning spaces stu-dent-centredness problem-based learning facilities or provisionfor students with physical learning or behavioural difficulties orfor lsquoat-riskrsquo students

The criterion for community needs was concerned with lsquoinstitu-tions that encourage community involvement andor access by giv-ing multiple stakeholders the opportunity to participate in theirdesign planning or day-to-day management by catering to lifelonglearning or by sharing the facilities with studentsrsquo families orothersrsquo Sustainability was concerned with lsquofacilities that demon-strate consideration for the environment through the efficient useof energy choice of materials local or natural resources sitingor managementrsquo Alternative financing included the use of pri-vate financing or lsquobuildings where life-cycle costs are sustainablersquoSixty-five institutions were selected for inclusion in the report Eachmet at least one of the criteria They could be either newly built orrenovated facilities

It is evident that there is a high degree of alignment of thesecriteria not only in matters related to curriculum and pedagogy butalso with prevailing or emerging values in relation to links with thecommunity (social capital) and sustainability

Australian Science and Mathematics School(ASMS) in South Australia

Included in the OECD report was the Australian Science and Mathe-matics School (ASMS) in Adelaide (South Australia) a specialistnon-selective school on the site of and enjoying a close associationwith Flinders University Opened in 2003 it was nominated for theOECD project on the criteria of flexibility and sustainability Thecitation in the OECD report (2006 p 130) included the followingobservations

The design of the schoolrsquos learning and physical environment isbased on pivotal beliefs about student-centred teaching andlearning lifelong learning the relevance of science andmathematics to the worldrsquos future the interconnectedness of


knowledge and the importance of human communication in allits forms

The building itself is considered a lsquolearning toolrsquo in lsquosustainabledesign and intelligent building conceptsrsquo The working spaces ofstudents and teachers are known as lsquocommonsrsquo or lsquostudiosrsquo

Each student has his or her own lsquohome-basersquo work station locatedin one of the learning commons and the studios are fitted outwith specialist services and hands-on facilities to enable studentsto undertake practical work and experiments which supportactivities in the learning commonsrsquo

Brian Caldwell visited the school and saw the space utilised in themanner described above In one component of the programme stu-dents are engaged in projects in which they explore critical questionsover a number of weeks prepare reports and make presentationsto other students and teachers There is a relaxed yet purposefulatmosphere The school is carpeted throughout and graffiti has neverbeen a problem Teachers have a tutor role providing support for12ndash14 students with whom they spend 40 minutes every dayTutors receive and read every piece of work completed by studentsin their group after it has been assessed by the subject teacherThese are good indicators of personalised learning There were about260 students in 2006 still under the capacity of 400 with studentscoming from about 65 schools in and around Adelaide Some comefrom other states or from overseas There are 26 teachers on the staffThe school is immediately adjacent to the School of Education atFlinders University enabling it to serve as a lsquolaboratoryrsquo for thelatter There is also strong collaboration with academic and researchstaff in science and mathematics at the university (the concept of theASMS originated with academic staff at Flinders)

There is powerful alignment of curriculum pedagogy professionalroles professional learning school design and values in relation topersonalised learning and sustainability There is misalignment tothe extent that resources are not allocated to the school in a mannerconsistent with the student being the key unit of organisation andthe school being organised around tutor groups in learning commonsor studios rather than formal classrooms Staff are allocated to theschool on the same basis as all other schools with the addition ofthree teachers because the school serves as a centre for professional


development for the school system Cash allocations to the schoolfrom the Department of Education and Childrenrsquos Services (DECS)are made on the same system-wide basis The school supplements itsincome through fees charged to the large number of visitors who seekto learn about the school Staff are appointed to the school on thebasis of application to the ASMS Applicants are aware of the curric-ulum and pedagogy and are normally fully committed to the visionof the school Intellectual capital is addressed with each memberof staff having an Individual Professional Development Plan Nineof 26 members of staff are pursuing higher degrees PrincipalJim Davies (who serves as adjunct professor at Flinders) DeputyPrincipal Graeme Oliver and Assistant Principal Jayne Heath con-tribute on a regular basis to conferences and publications Linkswith business and industry are modest but increasing Governancearrangements are similar to other schools in a government systemthat has limited school self-management although the governingcouncil has a standing sub-committee that has a key role of monitor-ing and supporting the partnership between the school and FlindersUniversity

The school has links with specialist schools in other places not-ably the NUS School of Science and Mathematics in Singaporeattached to the National University of Singapore also cited in theOECD report for its innovative design on the same criteria (flexibil-ity and sustainability) The ASMS is an active participant in iNet(International Networking for Educational Transformation) of theLondon-based Specialist Schools and Academies Trust It is seekinginternational accreditation for its programmes

Glen Waverley Secondary College (GWSC)in Victoria

Glen Waverley Secondary College (GWSC) is a Years 7 to 12 second-ary school with about 1900 students in an eastern suburb ofMelbourne Australia It serves a medium to high socio-economiccommunity and attracts about 50 students from other countries It isan example of a school that has changed in barely a decade from onethat offered a more-or-less traditional approach to schooling in atraditional mid-twentieth-century setting to one that is technologyrich and provides a curriculum and especially a pedagogy that ispersonalised with a focus on learning to learn The concept oflsquopowerful learningrsquo has been adopted for students and staff alike and


a particular element that warrants its inclusion is the manner inwhich the intellectual capital of its staff has been developed andmaintained The change is now deeply embedded in the culture ofthe school suggesting that it has the major features of transform-ation as defined in this book especially being change that is lsquosignifi-cant systematic and sustainedrsquo

It was apparent as the changes got underway that there was amisalignment of curriculum and pedagogy on the one hand and thedesign of the school buildings on the other A staged re-buildingprogramme was enabled by government grants and locally-raisedfunds and most of the facilities may now be considered state of theart Many of the old buildings have been bulldozed

There have been three principals over this period but a coherentand compelling vision has been sustained In each instance successioncame from within the school The second of these principals DarrellFraser was appointed towards the end of the decade of developmentas Deputy Secretary (Schools) in the Department of Education andTraining (DET) with responsibility for the system-wide develop-ment of government (state) schools in Victoria Two members of hissenior leadership team at GWSC have joined him at DET ensuring adegree of system alignment with what transpired at Glen Waverley

There are some features in common with the Australian Scienceand Mathematics School especially in regard to pedagogy andsome aspects of the new facilities although GWSC is a compre-hensive high school that opened in 1960 but was transformedfrom twentieth-century to twenty-first-century schooling by 2006whereas ASMS is a specialist school in science and mathematics thatwas purpose built on a green-field site in 2003 There is however aninformal partnership between the two schools GWSC was selectedby OECD as model of impact of ICT on the quality of learning and areport was prepared (Toomey and Associates 2000) As noted in theprevious section ASMS was selected by OECD for exemplary schooldesign (OECD 2006)

GWSC is an interesting example of continuity and change acrosstwo governments The Kennett Liberal National Coalition Govern-ment (1992ndash1999) was conservative in many respects but radical inthe changes it made to the system of government (state) schoolsGovernment schools were previously self-managing to a modestdegree but under an initiative known as Schools of the Future morethan 90 per cent of the statersquos education budget was decentralisedto schools for local decision-making State-wide curriculum and


standards frameworks were introduced along with standardised testsin basic subjects in primary and early years of secondary A perform-ance appraisal system was introduced for teachers and principals ICTwas implemented on an unprecedented scale Victoria was in finan-cial crisis at the start of this period and this combined with sharplydeclining enrolments in many schools led to the closure of nearly300 of the about 1900 schools with most of the affected secondaryschools amalgamating with others

Glen Waverley Secondary College seized the opportunities createdby Schools of the Future As noted in the OECD report lsquoSchools ofthe Future has been a crucial and enabling feature of the whole schoolchange which has taken place at GWSC It has provided financialflexibility and freedom to determine a vision and to be able to put inplace the components to realise this vision And at the same time ithas provided an accountability frameworkrsquo (Toomey and Associates2000 p 42) The school became a lsquosystem leaderrsquo in the sense that itwas selected as a site for the extensive introduction of ICT It wasdesignated as a lsquoNavigator Schoolrsquo serving as a centre for professionaldevelopment for other schools in the introduction of technologyThis leadership continues The school was also part of the closure andamalgamation programme with two nearby schools experiencingdramatic decline in enrolments closing and agreeing to amalgamateand re-locate to the site of GWSC

The Kennett Government was defeated in the election of 1999and replaced by the Bracks Labor Government re-elected for a thirdterm in 2006 The new government abandoned the terminology butmaintained and in some instances extended the features of Schoolsof the Future Once again GWSC seized the opportunities that werecreated and assumed an even more significant role as a system leaderwith its principal and two members of its leadership team assumingsystem-wide roles as described above The government prepared acomprehensive and coherent strategy under the title of The Blueprintfor Government Schools (Department of Education and Training 2003)much of which has been implemented Its features are evident in thecontinuing transformation at GWSC As noted in the schoolrsquos suc-cessful submission for support from the Leading Schools Fund

In 2003 the Boston Consulting Report the research thatunderpinned the Ministerial Blueprint contended that thereexists in the Victorian system no example of a transformedschool The report did however identify pockets of transformed


practice in a number of schools One of these schools was GlenWaverley Secondary College The journey the College embarkedon nearly a decade ago has generated innovation that hasattracted international attention It spawned a learning culturecapable of sustaining a first generation of change in teaching andlearning practice that has delivered highly impressive outcomesMore importantly however it has established the preconditionsnecessary to support a second generation of change ndash transform-ational change

(GWSC Leading Schools Fund Submission p 4)

Examination of the academic achievements of students the reportsof professional development of staff interviews with students andsenior staff and observation of the new facilities in action confirm thestatements set out above The school achieves at a higher level thanlsquolike schoolsrsquo (those with a similar socio-economic profile) and on apar with the often more highly profiled non-government (private)schools in similar settings Students undertake individual projectsthat are triggered by lsquorich questionsrsquo An example explained to BrianCaldwell by students on one of his visits was concerned with sustain-ability with participants examining ways to save paper the findingsof which are of immediate benefit to the school The concept ofsustainability is embedded in the vision and values of GWSC Asnoted above leadership sustainability is evident

The school has a Teacher Learning Improvement Plan thatoffers a remarkable array of professional development opportunitiesincluding mentoring conference participation informal professionalexchange in-house professional development team teaching self-directed learning and reading action research learning area forumsand participation in school-based practice teaching The programmefor leadership development is particularly impressive and this isclosely integrated with the cycle of activities for school developmentLeadership retreats are a feature These are now embedded in the lifeof the school (culture) and leaders recounted a number of ritualsassociated with the induction of staff and the conduct of meetings(symbols) illustrating cultural and symbolic leadership in theSergiovanni formulation (Sergiovanni 1984) In addition to ThomasSergiovanni the school draws extensively from the work of inter-national scholars including Richard Elmore Daniel Goleman DavidPerkins and Peter Senge from the USA Michael Fullan from Canadaand Guy Claxton from the UK Australian scholar Hedley Beare


helped energise the commitment to transformation in the mid-1990s and highly-regarded Australian education consultant JuliaAtkin is a valued facilitator of professional development

Except for special purpose grants that have been secured fromtime to time and a relatively high level of locally-raised funds theschool is funded on the same basis as like schools under Victoriarsquossystem of needs-based funding for self-managing schools Its govern-ance arrangements are also similar with a school council on whichparents form a majority Partnerships with and support from othersfollow a general pattern for schools in Victoria with the social capitalof such schools generally weaker than their counterparts in England

In summary Glen Waverley Secondary College is characterised bypowerful alignment of spiritual intellectual and financial capitalfocused on a coherent vision for learning with the student at thecentre It is a vision that has been sustained for more than a decadewith alignment strengthened by the design of new facilities Theschool should be considered a model of sustainable leadership Therehas been strong alignment with the policies of successive govern-ments and the school and its leaders have become system leaders inboth traditional and contemporary senses of the term

St Monicarsquos Parish Primary School in theAustralian Capital Territory

St Monicarsquos Parish Primary School is a non-government Catholicschool in Canberra Australian Capital Territory that serves about450 students from Kindergarten to Year 6 It serves a mid-rangesocio-economic community In 2006 St Monicarsquos was recognised byTeaching Australia for Excellence in School Improvement (TeachingAustralia is a national organisation funded by the Australian Gov-ernment that supports and presents awards for quality in teaching andschool leadership) St Monicarsquos is in the system administered by theCatholic Education Office (CEO) in the Canberra-Goulburn Diocese

The principal of St Monicarsquos Mary Dorrian was appointed in2003 In the first year of her leadership the school implemented animprovement programme based on the Innovative Designs forEnhancing Achievements in Schools project (IDEAS) funded by theAustralian Governmentrsquos Quality Teaching Programme IDEAS is aresearch-based school development initiative that resulted from apartnership of the University of Southern Queensland (USQ) andEducation Queensland The research and development team was led


by Professor Frank Crowther former dean of education at USQ Thecentre-piece in IDEAS is a model that has much in common withthat adopted in this book as described in Chapter 3 Alignment issought between school-wide pedagogy (intellectual capital) cohesivecommunity (social capital) strategic foundations (spiritual capital)and infrastructure design The integrating mechanism is powerfulprofessional support (intellectual capital)

St Monicarsquos was one of the first Catholic schools to adopt IDEASwhich the school board has used since 2003 to assist with strategicplanning Mary Dorrian believes the approach was the key tosuccess in a number of initiatives including a literacy strategy whichdescribes anticipated outcomes for students at all levels supportedby integrated curriculum planning The success of the literacy pro-gramme may be seen in national literacy testing in Year 3 where77 per cent of students from St Monicarsquos were ranked in the twohighest skill bands for reading

St Monicarsquos literacy strategy was also informed by research onearly literacy and literacy interventions by New Zealandrsquos ProfessorDame Marie Clay Training was provided to staff to introduce aReading Recovery programme to assist students from Kindergartento Year 2 who were having difficulty achieving the literacy outcomesfor their level

Professional development for all staff has been a priority forSt Monicarsquos This is provided by education consultants from the CEOand an independent consultant engaged by the school since 2003According to the schoolrsquos citation in the 2006 Australian NationalAwards for Quality Schooling lsquostaff have undertaken significantpedagogical change that has resulted in improved literacy resultsand students developing and practising the skills to be creativeresearchers of the futurersquo The total costs of professional developmentexceed AU$30000 each year and this covers consultants and reliefteachers to enable staff to meet in groups for a half-day on fouroccasions each year Support and training has also been given tonon-teaching staff

In addition to fostering academic social and personal qualitiesSt Monicarsquos promotes the development of spiritual (Catholic) valueswithin its student body Every term the entire school focuses on akey concept which is highlighted through the teaching of tworelated values Examples include lsquodoing our bestrsquo honesty theenvironment and community

St Monicarsquos networks with a range of schools and community


organisations It has a strong relationship with the parish com-munity and welcomes the use of school facilities for parish functionsThe Canberra-Goulburn CEO has established a loose network andsystem of support for about 50 Catholic schools in the diocese Aformal network has been established between the 16 Catholic schoolsthat are currently participating in the IDEAS project These andother schools around the country using IDEAS have created a largernetwork which provides an environment for exploring the approach

St Monicarsquos participates in an international lsquosister schoolrsquo relation-ship with Tezukayama Primary School in Nara City Japan Com-munication between these schools has supported St Monicarsquos JapaneseLanguage Program A visit by 22 students from their lsquosister schoolrsquoin 2006 strengthened the relationship and gave students from bothschools the opportunity to further their language skills and learnabout a different culture

The school has a strong relationship with its parent communitywhich is established when their children enter school at St MonicarsquosEach year the school invites parents of children entering compulsoryschooling to come together as a group and assists in organising socialactivities These are chosen by the parent group and may includesocial evenings parent meetings or exercise classes

The high level of social capital has been credited with assisting theschool in winning regional fundraising competitions An annual fecircterun by the school and its community provides a high level of locally-raised funds The school community has assisted St Monicarsquos byparticipating in the lsquoShop for your Schoolrsquo competition that is runannually by the Westfield Group St Monicarsquos won first prize in 2005and 2006 providing over AU$15000 worth of ICT equipment oneach occasion

There is a current misalignment between the high level of innova-tive planning and professional development for staff at St Monicarsquosand the design of the buildings The school was built around30 years ago and many of the buildings remain substantiallyunchanged The school has worked with the CEO to prepare a SchoolMaster Plan which involves the refurbishment of all work areasin the school to better align these facilities with learning in thetwenty-first century

A new school wing consists of five classrooms for Years 5 and 6Each classroom is clearly visible through sliding glass doors and allcan be opened up to a large area An open plan will provide studentswith quiet areas and access to books ICT and other resources designed


to nurture research skills and collaborative learning Funds for thiswork come from the Australian Government through its Investingin Our Schools Programme (AU$500000) Catholic Education(AU$30000) and locally-raised funds (AU$126000)

St Monicarsquos illustrates the benefits that can be achieved when aschool grounds its strategic planning in the concept of alignmentand focuses on the success of all students Under Mary Dorrianrsquosleadership there has been substantial investment in professionaldevelopment to ensure that all staff are at the forefront of professionalknowledge It continues to develop high levels of both spiritualand social capital with the latter an important factor in ensuringstudents have access to technology and new facilities that align withpedagogical change Alignment is evident in the adoption of theIDEAS approach

Maria Luisa Bombal School (MLBS)in Santiago

The Maria Luisa Bombal School (MLBS) is located in the commune(municipality) of Vitacura a suburb of Santiago the largest city inChile While constitutional powers to make laws and set policiesin relation to education lie with the national government theadministration of schools is a municipal responsibility

In 2006 there were 520 students at MLBS from pre-school tosenior secondary with one class for each of the 14 grades It wasestablished as a primary school in 1958 with the addition of a pre-school in 1991 and secondary years from 2000 A distinctive featureis that its governing body consists of the teachers at the school one ofonly five schools in Chile to be governed in this way The schoolsubmitted a successful bid to the municipality for such an arrange-ment with the legal entity being a Public Educational CorporationThe school has autonomy in respect to curriculum pedagogy financeand administration It is therefore a publicly-funded self-managingschool The principal is Nilda Sotelo Sorribes who provided theinformation for this study

While Vitacura is a higher socio-economic community significantnumbers of students at MLBS come from lower socio-economicfamilies and 20 per cent of students have a disability (neurological71 per cent emotional 54 per cent learning 54 per cent and lan-guage 21 per cent) A majority (65 per cent) come from the localcommune meaning that approximately one-third travel from other


communes to attend the school Classes commence at 8 am andconclude at 4 pm It was only towards the end of the 1990s that fullschool days were introduced in Chile and many have yet to adopt thearrangement

The school has been highly successful on a number of indicatorsIt has received the Academic Excellence Award of the Ministry ofEducation on four successive occasions This provides a monetaryreward to members of staff The school was one of the first in thecountry to receive the prestigious certificate of quality in manage-ment awarded by Fundacioacuten Chile It is the top ranked school in thecommune in student achievement at fourth and eighth grade andachieves well above national average scores in key learning areas atfourth eighth and tenth grade At completion of high schoolseventy-two per cent proceed to university or higher educationeleven per cent to intensive preparation programmes for universityselection and eighteen per cent proceed directly to employment

Of particular interest is the special arrangement for governancethe initiative for which was taken by the municipal authority led bythe mayor Nine months elapsed from the preparation of the proposalto the disengagement of teachers from their contract with the muni-cipality A committee of teachers prepared the proposal whichincluded administrative and financial arrangements Legal serviceswere provided by the commune The Public Educational Corporationconsists of the 32 teachers at the school who are the stockholdersand partners in the enterprise with each teacher holding oneshare The corporation appoints a Board of Directors consistingof three teachers who serve a two-year term All policies for theschool are approved by the board The arrangement commenced inMarch 2002

The school has a clearly articulated mission to lsquogive a scientific-humanistic education of excellence oriented toward higher educa-tion and the creation of people with visions of the futurersquo Attitudesto be inculcated include self-responsibility self-respect honestysolidarity freedom love and equality This school is highly strategicin the way it goes about its work with its own models for curriculumplanning and quality assurance including performance evaluation ofteachers

The organisational structure resembles a private school more thana public school The principal has responsibility for implementationof every aspect of the schoolrsquos operations which are organised on aproject basis There are six areas of operation administration and


finance curriculum and pedagogy teaching research and trainingfamily counselling and behaviour and conduct regulations Theschool receives a grant from the Ministry of Education and the muni-cipality to operate the school with the latter providing the largershare The initial capital of the corporation in 2002 was US$5926It was US$215205 in 2006

Principal Nilda Sotelo Sorribes described the advantages of theapproach The school designs its own curriculum and approachesto teaching and learning but generally follows the programmes ofthe Ministry of Education The school also offers its own comple-mentary programmes in an extended school day The organisationalarrangements reflect the priorities of the school The profiles forevery position are designed by the school Staff are contracted to theschool and are assured the same salaries professional developmentopportunities and other benefits as their counterparts elsewhere inpublic education but in addition receive bonuses for reaching peda-gogical and administrative targets and special bonuses for nationalholidays Professional development is fully funded Where incomeexceeds expenditure profits are allocated to projects to support theachievement of higher academic standards Some may be distributedto staff

All services that are not directly related to teaching and learningare outsourced including accounting legal cleaning and securityBrian Caldwell visited the school in 2005 and noted in particularthe exceptional cleanliness of the school and its grounds Expertconsultants are employed to provide support to staff in areas of thecurriculum where improvement in teaching and learning is soughtA consulting company is employed to evaluate programmes inEnglish languages mathematics and science Additional funds havebeen obtained from a range of foundations and these have been allo-cated to science laboratories the media centre and learning resourcecentre Professional development is intensive and targeted at areasof high priority for the school Arrangements are made with a rangeof community organisations for the use of sporting facilities

A high degree of alignment is evident among the four forms ofcapital made effective through its unusual approach to governanceSome observers on initially learning of the arrangement wherein thegoverning body and shareholders are the teachers themselves mightexpect the school to be inward looking with the most powerfulalignment to be found between the policies approved by the boardand narrowly-defined professional interests Instead one finds a high


level of social capital indicated by the alignment of school pro-grammes and a national framework complemented by local designthat reflects the interests and aspirations of students and their par-ents Support is sought from a range of public and private sourceswith surpluses (profits) ploughed into the further developmentand refinement of academic programmes but also shared amongstaff Intellectual capital is made strong with powerful professionaldevelopment programmes for teachers but also the outsourcing ofparticular functions to expert consultants Talent force and out-sourcing initiatives along the lines described in Chapter 4 are evi-dent at MLBS Spiritual capital is strong as far as a unifying set ofvalues is concerned Everything is geared to providing the bestpossible outcomes for all students with success indicated in Ministryof Education awards and comparisons with like schools The qualityof its governance leadership management and administration isindicated in the school being an early recipient of certification byFundacioacuten Chile

Park High School in London

Park High School is in the London Borough of Harrow and has1120 students aged 12 to 16 Since 2002 it has offered a specialismin technology with a sixth form added in 2007 It is a multiculturalschool with about 40 languages spoken although most studentsspeak English fluently The largest ethnic group about 60 per centof students is Asian About 8 per cent of students (just less than halfthe national average) receive Free School Meals (FSM) and the pro-portion with Special Education Needs (SEN) is about the nationalaverage In 2006 74 per cent of students received at least 5 AndashCgrades at GCSE most including English and mathematics whichis a record high for the school As a result the school has beendescribed by the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) asone of the most improved and successful in London The school issignificantly oversubscribed

The school has been selected as a study of success because of theoutstanding quality of its governance as assessed by Ofsted in March2006 the evolution of a student-focused planning model the sys-tematic efforts to build the intellectual and social capital of theschool and the contributions these developments are making toimprovement in learning outcomes

The school is aware of the need to meet challenging national


targets on pupil achievement but is keen to do so in a way thatsupports students as lifelong learners Managing this dilemma is thekey leadership concern and is included in the schoolrsquos strategic aimsThere were two key thrusts for school development in 2005 and2006 (1) the development of the schoolrsquos tracking of individualpupil progress and the effective use of this both by teachers in theclassroom and by those in curriculum leadership roles and (2) thedeepening of teachersrsquo understanding of how students learn and howlsquodeep learningrsquo can be supported throughout the school Supportingboth these developments are two major strengths of the school rec-ognised by Ofsted the influence of lsquostudent voicersquo and the extent andquality of professional development for teachers The Ofsted reportof March 2006 included the following observations

The school is very well led and managed The headteacher [TonyBarnes] has an innovative and successful approach to raisingstandards For example the ldquoBuilding Learning Powerrdquo [basedon a programme developed by Guy Claxton] and the staff profes-sional development programme are beginning to raise achieve-ment across the school These initiatives have focused theschoolrsquos attention on improving learning for all students Theway in which the governing body has been involved in thesedevelopments is an example of their outstanding work Theyprovide challenge rigour and a clear strategic direction Theheadteacher is well supported by a very able senior leadershipteam Resources are used well The whole school community iseffectively consulted on key issues

(Ofsted 2006)

A feature of governance explained Tony Barnes is the systematicapproach to planning with senior staff preparing review and plan-ning papers each up to five pages in length which guide the work ofstaff but also serve as reports to the governing body A commonformat is emerging for these papers context and review of theprevious year strengths weaknesses and priorities and targets

The schoolrsquos Review and Planning Paper 13 prepared in February2006 prior to the inspection in March was concerned with equityIt summarised past efforts and described the new ContextualisedValue-Added (CVA) data base on student achievement which haddifferent classifications all learners girls at three levels of priorattainment boys at three levels of prior attainment and learners


classified according to Free School Meals Special Education Needsfirst language of English and ten different ethnic groups A student-focused approach means that there is more effective tracking of pro-gress for all students Particular students were identified for supportthrough a coaching initiative at Key Stage 4 Plans were made forstaff development on the impact of social class on underachievementand provision of one-to-one support for students with particularneeds even if they are not on the SEN register

Review and Planning Paper 20 was prepared in May 2006 follow-ing the inspection It summarised strengths as identified in theinspection report and areas where improvement was required Prior-ities for action were prepared with particular attention being givento a more systematic approach to review A review and planningpaper on teaching quality one of 21 to be scheduled for 2006ndash2007was considered by governors in October 2006

The school has a four-year improvement plan that is updated eachyear It is summarised on an A4 page and this makes it readilyaccessible to staff and other stakeholders Strategies and targetsare set in three areas pupil outcomes learning and teaching andleadership management and professional development The widercontext is the schoolrsquos plan for the allocation of resources A moredetailed document that maps past current and future plans forimprovement is also prepared using a format developed by ProfessorDavid Hopkins

John Wise Chair of Governors who acknowledges the value ofthe review and planning papers explained the approach to govern-ance that was rated so highly in the Ofsted report

Governors understand that they are there to set the strategicdirection for the school to oversee planning and major strategicdecisions and to be accountable for statutory duties and financialresponsibilities They are there ultimately to hold theheadteacher and his staff accountable but not to interfere in themanagement and organisation of the school This leaves theGoverning Body free to focus on the governance issues that arereally important and to make their contribution to a successfulschool without being distracted by unnecessary detail

(Wise 2006)

In view of the outstanding governance as assessed by Ofsted weinvited Tony Barnes to complete a self-assessment of governance


at the school using the instrument in Appendix 3 His rating was81 per cent well above the mean rating of participants in four work-shops conducted in England in April 2006 and close to the highscore of 86 (see Table 51 in Chapter 5) Governance at Park Highmay thus be considered benchmark practice

The way forward

There are different configurations in the successful alignment in thefive schools described in the preceding pages The Australian Mathe-matics and Science School demonstrates alignment of curriculumpedagogy the design of school buildings and personalising learningIt was established on a green-field site in 2003 Glen WaverleySecondary College has the same alignments but is particularly note-worthy because the school was established in 1960 and many of itsbuildings have been bulldozed with replacement by a state-of-the-art design Moreover alignment has been sustained for a decadeSt Monicarsquos Parish Primary School has adopted an approach to schooldevelopment (IDEAS) that calls for alignment along similar lines tothat employed in this book Alignment of each of the four kinds ofcapital is evident with realisation that the replacement of existingfacilities is necessary if alignment is to be effective Maria LuisaBombal School demonstrates a rare kind of alignment in that gov-ernance and intellectual capital are perfectly aligned in the pursuit ofsuccess for all students teachers are the shareholders and theirelected representatives constitute the board of directors Park HighSchool has been recognised for its outstanding governance and animportant mechanism in achieving this distinction is a clear delinea-tion of roles and the use of review and planning papers that focusunrelentingly on improving learning outcomes In each school thereis evidence of effective and efficient use of money (financial capital)There is powerful moral purpose clearly articulated underpinningvalues and passionate commitment to the wellbeing of the learner(spiritual capital) These studies of success suggest a way forward forpolicymakers and practitioners and we make recommendations foraction in the final chapter


New challenges for policyand practice

Introduction

The stories in Chapter 10 serve two purposes One is to show howsuccessful schools on three continents have each drawn on at leastthree of four kinds of capital as they seek to secure success for all oftheir students Each of their principals readily acknowledges thatthere is more to be done in achieving transformation on this scale andalso in fully utilising all of the resources that are potentially availableto them They may be stories of success but they are still works inprogress There is a second related purpose The stories demonstratehow far schools have travelled in barely a decade This is a relativelyshort period of time in the history of public education that for mostof the countries from which we have drawn our information or inwhich this book shall be read began a little over one century agoIn the context of the movement to self-managing schools theseaccounts provide further illustration of the need to lsquore-imagine theself-managing schoolrsquo It is fitting therefore that we commence thelast chapter with a celebration of what these schools have accom-plished and an acknowledgement that there are many implicationsfor policy and practice from what has been achieved thus far

Drawing implications from these stories of success and imple-menting the many guidelines contained in the first ten chaptersappear at first sight to be a relatively straightforward task for policy-makers and practitioners It is no such thing Even the choice ofthe word lsquochallengersquo to describe what confronts them does not dojustice to the urgency of the situation in most settings Progress isslow in scaling up across a system what has been successfully accom-plished in a minority of schools We need only to refer to the findingsin PISA (Programme in International Student Assessment) to make

Chapter 11

the point As explained in Chapter 6 Australia Belgium FranceNew Zealand the United Kingdom and the United States are coun-tries that are described by OECD as lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquolow equityrsquowhereas Canada Finland Hong Kong China Iceland Ireland JapanKorea and Sweden are lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo In thesecountries there is no trade-off between quality and equity If it canbe accomplished in these countries why not in others If it can beaccomplished in schools whose success is celebrated in Chapter 10and others chosen for illustration in earlier chapters why not in allschools

A new default position

In Chapter 9 we referred to the view of Sir Dexter Hutt ExecutiveHeadteacher of Ninestiles Community School that successfullyaddressing the needs of students who in the past would have droppedout of school must become the lsquodefault positionrsquo as far as expectat-ions are concerned He was speaking in 2006 at the 14th NationalConference of the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust Address-ing the same conference former Prime Minister Tony Blair offered avision of schools that lsquoremain utterly true to the principle of educat-ing all children whatever their background or ability to the highestpossible levelrsquo He called for a national consensus around such avision We provided illustrations in Chapter 9 of how success can besecured for all students through the personalising of learning and theapplication of a student-focused planning model

The notion of a lsquodefault positionrsquo should be applied to other areasof school operations Traditionally the default position is that schoolsat a particular level should by-and-large be built and operated on theprinciple of lsquoone-size-fits-allrsquo Equity means lsquosamenessrsquo in virtuallyevery aspect of policy and practice The lsquodefault positionrsquo in staffingis a workforce rather than talent force approach and schools havelittle discretion about who comes to work for them There are fewopportunities for rewards and incentives for outstanding professionalpractice Direction and support are typically provided in a hierarchicaland bureaucratic arrangement There is little outsourcing

Another area is concerned with what Fullan Hill and Creacutevola(2006) describe as lsquoprecisionrsquo in the gathering and utilisation on adaily basis of data about student readiness and progress in learning(see Chapter 9) Traditionally whether such data were gathered andhow they were used was a matter for judgement by individual

166 Challenges in policy and practice

teachers In too many settings this is still the lsquodefault positionrsquoRichard Elmore highlights the limitations in this way

lsquoWhere virtually all decisions about accountability are decisions(made by default) by individual teachers based on their individualconceptions of what they and their students can do it seems unlikelythat decisions will somehow aggregate into overall improvementfor the schoolrsquo (Elmore 2004 p 197 cited by Fullan et al 2006p 8)

The lsquodefault positionrsquo for many school systems as far as decentral-isation of authority and responsibility are concerned is still to takethe centralised option and limit the capacity of schools to make deci-sions and mix and match their resources to meet priorities among theneeds interests aptitudes and aspirations of their students Theylimit the capacity of schools to do what has been demonstrated in thestories of success in Chapter 10

Self-management can be the lsquodefault positionrsquo in countries wherethere are cultural or political barriers to adopting the approachAn example is presented in Israel where the government has decen-tralised a significant amount of authority and responsibility to self-managing schools However it has not worked for one group ofschools namely those in Bedouin communities Omar Mizel studiedthe reasons in his doctoral research and found that cultural factorsincluding the role of the sheikh who serves as head of a tribe andlong-standing tribal traditions in relation to decision-making andaccountability were barriers to successful implementation Further-more the Ministry of Education was reluctant to extend the samedegree of authority and responsibility to Arab and Bedouin schools asit did to Jewish schools because of a general concern about grantingthem a higher degree of autonomy (Mizel 2007)

We recommend that every proposal in preceding chapters shouldbecome a lsquodefault positionrsquo and that traditional approaches as illus-trated above be maintained only in special circumstances where thelsquodefault positionrsquo is impossible This means that the following willbecome the normal arrangements

bull Schools are self-managingbull There is student-focused planning with lsquoprecisionrsquo in the gather-

ing and utilisation on a daily basis of data about studentreadiness and progress in learning

bull Learning is personalisedbull A talent force approach replaces a workforce approach and

Challenges in policy and practice 167

schools are empowered and supported to seek out the bestprofessional talent no matter where it is to be found

bull Schools are not limited in where they can secure the best servicesand outsourcing is encouraged when it delivers such services inan effective efficient and timely manner

bull Schools either individually or in federations or networks havethe authority to select staff and other services that are best suitedto meet the needs interests aptitudes and aspirations of studentsand subject to due process have the authority to terminateservices on the basis of poor performance or when they are nolonger needed

bull Schools have the authority to offer rewards and incentives to staffon the basis of outstanding professional practice

Every conceivable reason has been offered as to why such positionscannot be taken in systems of public education In respect to selec-tion of staff senior officers often refer to the fact that such anapproach is not possible in remote locations or difficult-to-staffschools We contend that an exception to the lsquodefault positionrsquo can beadopted when these conditions apply It is also claimed that profes-sional performance in schools cannot be objectively or validly meas-ured so it is not appropriate to offer rewards and incentives It is saidthat such a practice will place teachers in schools in challengingcircumstances at a disadvantage We contend that these argumentsdo not stand up to critical scrutiny given advances in knowledgeabout what constitutes good professional practice and when themeans are at hand to show improvement in learning for the schoolas a whole and for each of its students Experience in England inparticular shows how outstanding professional practice has resultedin dramatic improvement in the most challenging circumstancesExperience in Finland shows that such practice can by-and-large befound in every school and that all students can secure success It isappropriate in many settings for rewards and incentives to be sharedamong members of a professional team rather than allocation on anindividual basis The argument that teachers and other professionalsin schools cannot be recognised in this way no longer holds

We call on ministers in governments senior policymakers teacherunions and professional associations to set a new lsquodefault positionrsquoin matters such as these and deal with exceptional circumstancesas they arise We call for abandonment of the tired positions on theleft and right of the political spectrum for they do grave harm to


students and society On the left this calls for abandonment ofthe view that all publicgovernmentstate schools should be builtowned operated funded and supported by public funds and publicentities in a traditional hierarchical bureaucratic arrangement withequity defined as sameness services allocated from the centre min-imal discretion at the local level and much of the community andsignificant stakeholders in civil society locked out of the decision-making process On the right the view that publicgovernmentstateschools should be wound back in favour of privatenon-governmentindependent schools should be abandoned for it flies in the face ofevidence in this book and elsewhere that lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohighequityrsquo can be achieved even under the most challenging circum-stances if there is alignment of all of the resources available to schoolsand there is good governance While the concept has its limitationswe contend that a lsquothird wayrsquo is needed as evident for example inFinland and other Scandinavian and Nordic countries and althoughmuch remains to be done in England

lsquoNext practicersquo in allocation of fundsto schools

Assuming that the lsquodefault positionrsquo of self-management is adoptedwe challenge policy makers and senior leaders in school systems tocommission on a continuous basis the work required to allocate fundsto schools in a way that reflects the unique mix of needs interestsaptitudes and aspirations at the local level In Chapter 7 we describedthe approach in Victoria where about 94 per cent of the statersquos educa-tion budget is decentralised to schools for local decision-makingThis is the second major iteration of the approach The first was anoutcome of the School Global Budget Research Project from 1994 to1996 (see Caldwell and Hill 1999 and Levacic and Ross 1999 foraccounts of the methodology) A survey conducted by the Inter-national Institute for Educational Planning (UNESCO) found thatlsquoEngland and Victoria have the systems with the greatest level of dele-gation with Victoria offering the clearer and more stable needs-ledfunding methodologyrsquo (Levacic and Downes 2004 p 131)

The work in the School Global Budget Research Project was con-ducted at a time when there was a rudimentary data base on studentachievement and limited funds to allocate to schools as Victoriawas still working its way out of a financial crisis (see Caldwell andHayward 1998 for an account of these constraints) A decade later


with continuing concern about quality and equity a better data baserecord levels of revenue at the state level a change in government anda blueprint for reform (DET 2003) the Student Resource PackageResearch Project was undertaken leading to the approach describedin Chapter 7 with the basis for allocation of funds to schools in2007 summarised in Appendix 5 This second iteration comes closeto what might be taken up as lsquonext practicersquo in systems that haveembarked on such an approach

We stress that this kind of work must be ongoing as methodologiesimprove experience in implementation is gained and most import-ant more schools succeed in transformation securing success for allstudents An exemplar in this regard is the Edmonton Public SchoolDistrict in Alberta Canada that has had nearly 30 years of experiencein self-managing schools We described the accomplishments ofEdmonton in Chapter 3

The funding mechanism described in Chapter 7 and illustrated inAppendix 5 was an outcome of research in a representative sample ofschools that were judged to be effective and efficient on a range ofindicators The system has played its part in ensuring that schoolshave the best possible mix of funds within the budget available toschools in the state This does not mean that the same levels ofeffectiveness and efficiency as attained in the exemplar schools in theresearch project will as a matter of course be attained in all schoolsSchools must play their part in deploying their funds in a way thataddresses in optimal fashion the unique mix of needs interests apti-tudes and aspirations of their students The fact that many schoolscannot do this well lies at the heart of concern about lsquohigh qualityrsquoand lsquolow equityrsquo

Differences among schools were illustrated in graphic fashion inChapter 2 summarised in Table 21 in the experience of BellfieldPrimary School in Melbourne a school in a highly disadvantagedsetting that secured success on an important criterion for 100 per centof its students in the early years compared to a success rate of about25 per cent for lsquolike schoolsrsquo As explained in Chapter 2 Bellfieldeffectively deployed its financial capital to build its intellectual cap-ital so that all staff had the knowledge and skill to ensure that allstudents in the early years could read with 100 per cent accuracy atthe relevant standard It is noteworthy that the work of Peter Hilland Carmel Creacutevola now updated in Breakthrough (Fullan et al2006) helped shape professional practice in many schools includingBellfield introducing greater precision in the acquisition and


utilisation of data to guide the work of teachers Former principalJohn Fleming illustrates lsquoEach term I get each teacherrsquos data abouttheir kids and it is quite comprehensive and we are looking to findkids who are under-performing so that we can make sure that theyare on the right trackrsquo (from a master class described in Caldwell2006 p 141) Securing success for all is the lsquodefault positionrsquo atBellfield

Therersquos something special aboutspecial schools

We are finding in the course of our work that some of the bestexamples of precision in the use of data and personalising the learn-ing programme for every student can be found in special schoolsthat is schools for students with moderate to severe disabilities Wehave visited two on several occasions One is the Western AutisticSchool (WAS) in the urban Western Metropolitan Region of theDepartment of Education and Training in Victoria Its programmesaddress the needs of about 240 young learners and adolescents withAutism and Asperger Syndrome The scale of transformation is indi-cated by its development from a small school in a church in the mid-1970s to one that operates on three sites and achieves its target ofplacing close to 100 per cent of its students in mainstream or genericspecial schools within three years of entry Curriculum and pedagogyis personalised to meet each studentrsquos needs taking account ofcapacity for learning

A feature of the school under the leadership of principal Val Gill isthe priority it places on building intellectual capital Staff from WASand similar schools in urban and rural regions can be at the forefrontof knowledge and skill with the opening in 2006 of the AutismTeaching Institute (ATI) that offers university-accredited teachereducation programmes (wwwautismteachinginstituteorgau) TheATI was conceived planned and implemented by WAS whichoperates it under the leadership of a director who is an assistantprincipal

Another exemplar is the Port Phillip Specialist School in PortMelbourne which is noteworthy for the manner in which it alignseach of the four kinds of capital Of particular interest is its approachto precision personalisation and professional learning (the threecomponents in the Fullan Hill and Creacutevola approach)

Port Phillip Specialist School serves about 140 students andbrings together on one site a range of education and health services


It is a model of a lsquofull service schoolrsquo Each Wednesday morning from815 to 1000 a teacher discusses the work of each of her students ina meeting attended by principal Bella Irlicht and others includingseveral psychologists a social worker an assistant principal and amember of staff These meetings are held with different teachersevery second Wednesday so it is possible to plan for and monitor thework of each student on a regular basis Meetings on the alternateWednesday are devoted to follow-up of actions taken in earlier meet-ings The approach at Port Phillip can be adapted to any school nomatter the size Teachers at Port Phillip need to be at the forefront ofknowledge and skill and there is a range of approaches to continuousprofessional learning at the school The school networks the supportof its teachers with several experts in the private and public sectorson call to assist on any matter These characteristics illustrate a shiftfrom a workforce approach to a talent force approach as explainedand illustrated in Chapter 4

Under-utilisation of social capital

A striking feature of Port Phillip Specialist School is the way itnetworks support from the wider community The school was estab-lished in 1997 re-located from the South Melbourne Special Devel-opmental School which had about 20 students in a small crampedhouse that was infested with white ants Financial support for theformer school was limited mainly to public funds The schoolnow attracts millions of dollars from a range of public and privatesources A Centre for the Performing Arts was opened in 2005 at acost of AU$22 million with funding from the Victorian Govern-ment (AU$1 million) the Pratt Foundation (AU$300000) and arange of organisations from philanthropic and private sectors Theschool has established a foundation to secure this kind of supportwith several large events that have become part of Melbournersquos socialscene including an annual breakfast for about 1000 people featur-ing leading football personalities and a ball at Melbourne TownHall

We have sensed that many people associated with government(state) schools are uncomfortable with the way the school has goneabout building this kind of support from the wider communityeither because it should not have to do so or because it can morereadily draw support because of the kinds of student it serves thusgiving it an lsquounfairrsquo advantage over other schools There are several


government schools in Melbourne that raise very large amounts ofmoney each year mainly from parents These schools are either inhigh socio-economic communities or are selective schools with ahistory of graduates who have highly successful careers

Funds from sources other than government are excluded from con-sideration in determining the Student Resource Package described inChapter 7 and illustrated in Appendix 5 This is a lsquodefault positionrsquoWhy not change the lsquodefault positionrsquo to one where cash and in-kindsupport is a normal part of the resource package for schools Thisis what has occurred in England with specialist schools By 20062602 of approximately 3100 secondary schools were specialistschools that is they offered one or more lsquospecialismsrsquo while stilladdressing the national curriculum In order to receive specialiststatus and secure additional support from government these schoolswere expected to raise at least pound50000 in cash or in-kind supportparticularly in the area of specialism This has been accomplished inschools in every socio-economic setting

A major factor in securing this support has been the work of theSpecialist Schools and Academies Trust partly funded by govern-ment which assists schools in this endeavour The outcome is anunprecedented level of support from the wider community forstate schools in England accompanied by increased governmentfunding There have been improvements in learning outcomes withgains apparently greater in schools in disadvantaged settings Muchremains to be done in this regard but it is clear that a new lsquodefaultpositionrsquo has been set in respect to social capital in support of schoolsthat seek to secure success for all students

A proper place for the use of data

The use of data has moved to centre stage in discussions at nationalstate district school classroom and student levels It was one ofthree major strands at the 2006 International Conference of SchoolPrincipals on the theme Innovation and Transformation in Educa-tion conducted in Beijing by the Specialist Schools and AcademiesTrust and the Academy for Educational Administration in China(see McGaw 2006 for one of the keynote presentations) It was theonly theme at the 2005 conference of Australiarsquos largest educa-tional research organisation the Australian Council for EducationalResearch (see Matters 2006 for a summary with implications forstudents teachers and school systems)


The performance of students in tests in PISA and TIMSS drawsheadlines around the world when results are released These reportthe outcomes at national and sometimes state levels Within somecountries studentsrsquo results on standardised tests are often announcedin the daily media with schools ranked on the outcomes either onoverall unadjusted scores or with some form of lsquovalue-addedrsquo correc-tion Gathering data on how well schools are doing is part of theaccountability requirements in major initiatives such as No ChildLeft Behind in the United States The stakes are high as they are inEngland because poor performances can mean the school must takelsquospecial measuresrsquo to improve The use of data in these ways seemsinextricably linked to efforts to raise standards and the net effectfor the profession is often experienced as unrelenting pressure anda feeling that best efforts are unappreciated especially in very chal-lenging circumstances as for example for teachers who work withrefugees who have never attended school

There are some paradoxes and challenges to conventional thinkingin these matters Noteworthy is the fact that standardised testingand public release of results that enable school-by-school compar-isons does not occur in Finland which is at the top of the rankingswhen national results in PISA are considered As noted earlierFinland is one of the best performing lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquonations As indicated in Chapter 3 and described in more detail byHarris (2006) there are high levels of trust in schools and teachersthroughout the community Parents are assured of a high qualityof schooling for their children no matter where they live Whilewell-funded schools in Finland are not the best funded in the OECDand teachers are by no means the best paid Critically importantin explaining their success is alignment of the four kinds of capi-tal There is extraordinary community support for schools (socialcapital) Every teacher must have a masterrsquos degree (intellectual capi-tal) Barely 10 per cent of applicants are admitted to highly sought-after places in initial teacher education programmes Graduates areexpert in pedagogy and a discipline It is evident that teachers areable to tailor their teaching to the needs interests aptitudes andaspirations of all students in the absence of relentless national testingregimes

There are some important policy choices to be made in othercountries Clearly important is initial teacher education with thecase being strong for a masters degree as the lsquodefault positionrsquoSuch preparation programmes must give a high priority to the


development of expertise in pedagogy and a discipline that willdeliver outcomes of lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo as in FinlandHow can other countries make the teaching profession as attrac-tive as it is in Finland A necessary measure but superficial andunsustainable if it is the only measure is more positive profiling forthe profession More important is what will be a long haul in somecountries for building or re-building social capital in support ofschools and their staff Specialist secondary schools in England havedemonstrated that a turn-around can be achieved in a decade

A parallel development must be to shift the focus from externalaccountability through standardised tests and ranking of schools tointernal accountability in supporting teachers who seek to personal-ise learning We refer here to building a capacity for precision alongthe lines described in several chapters based on the work of FullanHill and Creacutevola (2006) This will require a substantial commitmentof funds to develop software programmes that are teacher friendlyand student focused Several school systems are developing a capacityto monitor and report on a range of indicators for internal decision-making and in the case of parents the progress of students Whilehelpful and important such a capacity is incomplete without a cap-acity for teachers to generate and utilise assessment for learning on adaily basis This is another lsquodefault positionrsquo

Nothing in the foregoing calls for abandonment of externalaccountability or a retreat from setting high standards for all stu-dents The commitment is to lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo Weare calling for a new priority on matters of internal accountabilitythrough precision in assessment for learning This is no more than anormal expectation for the medical profession in day-to-day healthcare (witness the computer-based data bank that most general practi-tioners now use to support personalised patient care) as well as inadvanced intensive-care units in hospitals It may be that in time thedemands of external accountability will subside and what prevails inFinland will become the norm

Who are the experts

How will capacity be built and who has the expertise The currentlsquodefault positionrsquo in many settings is to rely on universities andschool and system-based in-service training supplemented by con-ferences with well-known presenters who can attract participantsWithout denying their value it is evident from the contents of


this book that we would turn first to top-flight practitioners inschools where transformation has occurred The Specialist Schoolsand Academies Trust is setting the pace in this regard Its annualconference that normally attracts about 2000 school leaders is basedaround presentations and workshops by outstanding practitionersin schools that have been transformed or are on the way We illus-trated in Chapter 9 how outstanding leaders can contribute andearlier in this chapter in our reference to a presentation at the 2006conference by Sir Dexter Hutt Executive Headteacher of NinestilesCommunity School He introduced us to the concept of a lsquodefaultpositionrsquo

Educational and organisational theory is generally sound There islittle about leadership planning resource allocation and the man-agement of change in the accounts in preceding chapters that is notexplained by good theory It is the way this theory has been appliedby the best practitioners either implicitly or explicitly that warrantsa central place for their engagement particularly through masterclasses (see Caldwell 2006 for examples of how outstanding leaderscan share their knowledge in master classes) These can be facilitatedby academics who know the theory know what questions to ask andhow to assist participants to draw implications for their work set-tings We are fortunate to have colleagues in the academic worldwhose publications and presentations seamlessly weave good theoryand good practice It is important of course that academic staffcontinue to conduct research on these developments and so informgood policy and good practice

Outstanding work by skilled practitioners at the school level doesnot happen in a vacuum or by itself In most cases it has been madepossible by visionary leaders and facilitating frameworks at the sys-tem level lsquoSystem leadersrsquo in the traditional sense can also contributethrough master classes

Another approach that is now gathering strength is the participa-tion of teachers and their leaders and increasingly students in localnational and international networks The success of the networkedlearning communities of the National College for School Leadership(NCSL) and the ongoing initiatives in networking by the SpecialistSchools and Academies Trust (SSAT) including its project in Inter-national Networking for Educational Transformation (iNet) arehigh profile exemplars Others of lower profile are flourishingincluding local networks and clusters the purpose of which is toshare knowledge solve problems and pool resources


How important are coaching and mentoring in the developingof capacity at school and system levels We believe these can makea valuable contribution but we offer a qualification It is vital thatthose who coach have a record of success in transformation alongthe lines described and illustrated in this book Without question-ing the value of their contributions in the past or how well-regarded they might be in a personal sense coaching should notbe seen as a sinecure for long service The tenets of good coachingmust be evident and these are described by Jan Robertson Directorof the London Centre for Leadership in Learning in Coaching Leader-ship We highlight in particular the importance of what shecalls lsquoboundary-breaking principlesrsquo in coaching lsquoThe incorpora-tion of boundary-breaking principles into the way coaches andleaders work together provides the challenge necessary to move lead-ers from inaction to action from reactive to proactive and fromperpetuating the status quo to challenging itrsquo (Robertson 2005p 194)

The future

The challenge to the status quo is the challenge of securing successfor all students in all settings Different imagery has been invoked todescribe that challenge lsquotransformationrsquo lsquoraising the bar and narrow-ing the gaprsquo achieving lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo and movinglsquofrom good to greatrsquo There is general acceptance that things must bedone differently in the future and another concept has been intro-duced namely lsquonext practicersquo We have used it in several places Itrefers either to the kinds of practice that will be required if schoolsand school systems are to rise to the challenge or to the kinds ofpractice that will be made possible with advances in knowledge Thesearch for lsquonext practicersquo is made difficult by the extraordinarychanges that are occurring in the wider environment whether it isthe general trend to globalisation or changes in particular areas suchas technology

Good work has been done in efforts to describe what lies in storefor schools Perhaps the best known is the formulation by OECD ofsix scenarios for the future of schools (OECD 2001a) These tookaccount of trends in the broader environment Another example isthe work in England by the Teaching and Learning in 2020 ReviewGroup (2006) The brief was to lsquoestablish a clear vision of whatpersonalised teaching and learning would look like in our schools in


2020rsquo (p 2) That vision is one in which lsquoaspirations are realised forall children and young peoplersquo (p 6) The elements of the visioninclude

bull A childrsquos chances of success are not related to his or her socio-economic background gender or ethnicity

bull Education services are designed around the needs of each childwith the expectation that all learners achieve high standards

bull All children and young people leave school with functional skillsin English and mathematics understanding how to learn thinkcreatively take risks and handle change

bull Teachers use their skills and knowledge to engage children andyoung people as partners in learning acting quickly to adjusttheir teaching in response to pupilsrsquo learning

bull Schools draw in parents as their childrsquos co-educators engag-ing them and increasing their capacity to support their childrsquoslearning (Teaching and Learning in 2020 Review Group 2006p 6)

While the report refers to a critically important resource namelythe quality of teaching and the importance of outstanding continu-ing professional development there is a need for a more comprehen-sive and coherent view of what is required We have endeavoured inthis book to show how such a vision can be realised by aligning all ofthe resources available to schools and school systems and makingthem effective through good governance

Itrsquos time to raise the stakes

It will be disappointing if it takes until 2020 to realise this visionWriting 28 years earlier in Leading the Self-Managing School (Caldwelland Spinks 1992) we identified ten lsquomegatrendsrsquo in education thatis broad trends that had already made their appearance and werelikely to characterise developments on a larger scale in the yearsahead

1 There will be a powerful but sharply focused role for centralauthorities especially in respect to formulating goals settingpriorities and building frameworks for accountability

2 National and global considerations will become increasinglyimportant especially in respect to curriculum and an education


system that is responsive to national needs within a globaleconomy

3 Within centrally determined frameworks government [public]schools will become largely self-managing and distinctionsbetween government and non-government [private] schools willnarrow

4 There will be unparalleled concern for the provision of a qualityeducation for each individual

5 There will be a dispersion of the educative function with tele-communications and computer technology ensuring that muchlearning that currently occurs in schools or in institutions ofhigher education will occur at home and in the workplace

6 The basics of education will be expanded to include problem-solving creativity and a capacity for life-long learning andre-learning

7 There will be an expanded role for the arts and spiritualitydefined broadly in each instance there will be a high level oflsquoconnectednessrsquo in the curriculum

8 Women will claim their place among the ranks of leaders ineducation including those at the most senior levels

9 The parent and community role in education will be claimed orreclaimed

10 There will be unparalleled concern for service by those who arerequired or have the opportunity to support the work of schools

Item 4 in this list lies at the heart of a vision of personalising learn-ing Yet as the OECD analysis of results in PISA reveals countrieswhere many readers of this book reside including our own are stillclassified as lsquohigh qualityrsquo but lsquolow equityrsquo

We believe it is time to raise the stakes in the transformation ofschools Governments around the world have subscribed for decadesto a view that a quality education should be provided to all studentsbut nations still fall short of its achievement except in a relativelysmall number of schools It is time for delivery to be an issue onwhich governments stand or fall There are reservoirs of resourcesthat have not been drawn on to the extent that is possible or desirablebecause of the limited view that is held about the support of publiceducation If the reservoirs of resources are considered to be forms ofcapital then it is time that we increased the capital of schools finan-cial capital intellectual capital social capital and spiritual capital Itis time that every individual organisation and institution became a


stakeholder Researchers policymakers and practitioners must workmore closely in networking knowledge about how transformationcan be achieved Programmes for school improvement are importantbut it is time to raise the stakes and move from satisfaction withimprovement to accepting the challenge to transform There is toomuch at stake to aim for less if we are concerned for the wellbeing ofall learners who are the global citizens of the future


Principles of resourceallocation forstudent-focusedself-managing schools

First principles


2 The driving force behind the transformation of schools andapproaches to the allocation of resources is that henceforththe most important unit of organisation is the student notthe classroom not the school and not the school system It is apre-requisite that schools be self-managing


4 While there is increasing recognition of their importance thereare currently few accounts of good practice in building intel-lectual and social capital in schools and it is important that newapproaches to the allocation and utilisation of resources as well asto governance take account of their value


Core principles



Appendix 1









Enduring principles

1 Governing bodies should operate to the highest standards ofcorporate governance Priority should be placed on and resourcescommitted to the assessment and development of capacity toachieve them

2 Leaders and managers in schools should operate to the higheststandards of practice in acquiring allocating and utilisingresources Such practice should be student focused data-driven

182 Resource allocation for student-focused self-managing schools

evidence-based and targeted-oriented Priority should be placedon and resources committed to the assessment and developmentof capacity to achieve these standards

3 Clarity and consensus is required in establishing complementaryroles and responsibilities for governing bodies and principal



Resource allocation for student-focused self-managing schools 183

Self-assessment ofknowledge management1

In the table opposite circle the number that best matches yourrating of the performance of your school for each indicator Enter thetotal for each domain and for all domains in the boxes provided

1 Adapted with permission from Rajan A et al (1999) Good Practices in KnowledgeCreation and Exchange Tunbridge Wells Create

Appendix 2

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Syst

ems

Benc

hmar

king

We

iden

tify

and

impl

emen

t ou

tsta

ndin

g pr

actic

eob

serv

ed in

or

repo

rted

by

othe

r sc

hool

ses

peci

ally

tho

se in

sim

ilar

circ

umst

ance

s w

ithap

prop

riat

e ad

apta

tion

to s

uit

our

sett

ing

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inte

rnet

and

intr

anet

We

use

tech

nolo

gies

acr

oss

the

scho

ol t

o as

sist

the

know

ledg

e sh

arin

g pr

oces

s2

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Sear

ch c

apac

ityW

e ha

ve b

uilt

a su

bsta

ntia

l sy

stem

atic

and

sust

aine

d ca

paci

ty fo

r ac

quir

ing

and

shar

ing

know

ledg

e

31

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Coo

rdin

atio

nW

e as

sign

res

pons

ibili

ty fo

r co

ordi

natin

g th

esh

arin

g of

pro

fess

iona

l kno

wle

dge

acro

ss t

hesc

hool

and

with

in it

s de

part

men

ts o

r un

its

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Sele

ctio

n of

sta

ffW

e en

sure

tha

t ne

w s

taff

subs

crib

e to

val

ues

cond

uciv

e to

kno

wle

dge

shar

ing

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Cap

acity

bui

ldin

gW

e en

sure

tha

t bu

ildin

g a

capa

city

for

know

ledg

esh

arin

g is

incl

uded

in p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Endo

rsem

ent

Seni

or s

taff

activ

ely

endo

rse

know

ledg

em

anag

emen

t in

the

sch

ool

71

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Net

wor

king

We

brin

g ou

r st

aff t

oget

her

with

tho

se in

oth

ersc

hool

s in

face

-to-

face

mee

tings

vid

eoco

nfer

ence

s in

tran

et o

r in

tern

et t

o sh

are

know

ledg

e ab

out

or d

emon

stra

te d

iffer

ent

appr

oach

es t

o pr

ofes

sion

al p

ract

ice

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Com

mun

ities

of

prac

tice

We

enco

urag

e se

lf-or

gani

sed

grou

ps in

whi

ch s

taff

exch

ange

idea

s on

com

mon

issu

es p

ract

ices

pr

oble

ms

and

poss

ibili

ties

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rew

ards

We

reco

gnis

e an

d re

war

d te

amw

ork

amon

g ou

rst

aff

101

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

App

rais

alPe

rfor

man

ce in

the

sha

ring

of k

now

ledg

e is

addr

esse

d in

sta

ff ap

prai

sal

111

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Met

rics

We

mea

sure

the

impa

ct o

f kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

in t

he s

choo

l12

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Budg

etW

e en

sure

that

ade

quat

e fu

nds

are

set a

side

in th

esc

hool

bud

get

to s

uppo

rt k

now

ledg

e m

anag

emen

t13

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Bala

nced

scor

ecar

dW

e en

sure

tha

t th

e im

pact

of k

now

ledg

em

anag

emen

t is

ass

esse

d in

ter

ms

of s

tude

ntle

arni

ng p

rofe

ssio

nal g

row

th v

alue

for

mon

ey a

ndot

her

outc

omes

141

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Valu

esV

isio

nW

e ha

ve a

ligne

d pr

actic

e in

kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

with

the

vis

ion

for

the

scho

ol15

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rig

hts

and

resp

onsi

bilit

ies

We

ensu

re t

hat

staf

f see

the

sch

ool a

s a

com

mun

ity in

whi

ch t

hey

have

rig

hts

and

resp

onsi

bilit

ies

161

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Cha

mpi

ons

Our

sen

ior

staf

f ser

ve a

s ch

ampi

ons

for

know

ledg

em

anag

emen

t17

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rec

ogni

tion

We

prai

se in

divi

dual

s fo

r ex

empl

ary

wor

k in

know

ledg

e m

anag

emen

t18

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Men

tori

ng a

ndco

achi

ngW

e en

gage

in a

per

sona

lised

app

roac

h in

ass

istin

gst

aff t

o pe

rfor

m a

t th

eir

best

for

them

selv

es a

ndfo

r th

e sc

hool

191

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Team

wor

kW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

wor

k to

geth

er a

nd p

ool

thei

r kn

owle

dge

on p

rofe

ssio

nal p

ract

ice

201

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inno

vatio

nW

e pr

ovid

e op

port

uniti

es fo

r st

aff t

o in

nova

te in

thei

r pr

ofes

sion

al p

ract

ice

211

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Cha

lleng

eW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

deve

lop

a lsquoc

an-d

orsquo a

ppro

ach

to t

heir

wor

k e

ven

unde

r th

e m

ost

chal

leng

ing

circ

umst

ance

s

221

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Tole

ranc

eW

e su

ppor

t a

lsquono-

blam

ersquo c

ultu

re w

hich

acc

epts

that

inno

vatio

ns o

ften

fail

231

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rec

ogni

tion

We

ensu

re t

hat

good

kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

prac

tice

is r

ecog

nise

d24

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Imm

edia

tefe

edba

ckW

e en

sure

tha

t st

aff r

ecei

ve im

med

iate

feed

back

on t

heir

wor

k25

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Con

stru

ctiv

efe

edba

ckW

e en

sure

tha

t fe

edba

ck t

o st

aff p

rovi

des

a ba

sis

for

actio

n26

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Pool

ing

idea

sW

e de

velo

p a

pool

of i

deas

tha

t ca

n be

util

ised

inth

e fu

ture

eve

n if

they

are

not

imm

edia

tely

prac

tical

271

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Valu

es in

prac

tice

We

surv

ey s

taff

for

thei

r vi

ews

on h

ow t

hese

valu

es (i

tem

s 15

ndash27)

are

ref

lect

ed in

pra

ctic

e at

the

scho

ol

281

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Beha

viou

rsLe

arni

ng t

hrou

ghac

tion

We

arra

nge

wor

k in

way

s th

at e

ncou

rage

spr

ofes

sion

al le

arni

ng t

hrou

gh a

ctio

n29

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

New

lang

uage

We

are

mov

ing

away

from

hig

h sp

ecia

lised

term

inol

ogy

tow

ard

univ

ersa

lly r

ecog

nise

dvo

cabu

lary

on

prof

essi

onal

mat

ters

301

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Abs

ence

of

jarg

onW

e av

oid

ambi

guou

s m

eani

ngle

ss t

erm

s w

hich

caus

e co

nfus

ion

and

irri

tatio

n31

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Lear

ning

from

succ

ess

We

publ

icis

e su

cces

sful

exp

erie

nces

tha

t pe

ople

can

lear

n fr

om r

athe

r th

an r

ely

on b

ooks

or

repo

rts

321

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Met

apho

rs a

ndsy

mbo

lsW

e us

e im

ager

y in

wor

ds o

r pi

ctur

es t

o st

imul

ate

actio

n33

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Shar

ing

know

ledg

eW

e m

ake

staf

f aw

are

of h

ow s

hari

ng p

rofe

ssio

nal

know

ledg

e w

ill im

prov

e pr

actic

e34

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Impa

ctW

e de

mon

stra

te h

ow t

he s

hari

ng o

f kno

wle

dge

will

hav

e an

impa

ct o

n th

e w

hole

sch

ool

351

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Prac

tical

ityW

e de

mon

stra

te t

hat

the

shar

ing

of k

now

ledg

e is

wor

kabl

e th

roug

hout

the

sch

ool

361

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinu

ed o

verl

eaf)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Rec

ipro

city

We

dem

onst

rate

tha

t sh

arin

g kn

owle

dge

will

resu

lt in

rec

eivi

ng k

now

ledg

e37

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Inte

rdep

ende

ncy

We

ensu

re t

hat

staf

f are

aw

are

that

the

re w

ill b

epo

wer

ful p

rofe

ssio

nal l

earn

ing

only

if k

now

ledg

e is

shar

ed

381

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Bene

fits

We

dem

onst

rate

tha

t th

e sh

arin

g of

pro

fess

iona

lkn

owle

dge

resu

lts in

a r

educ

tion

in th

e in

tens

ity o

fw

ork

391

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Lega

cyW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

do w

orth

whi

le t

hing

s th

atw

ill h

ave

a la

stin

g im

pact

on

the

scho

ol40

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

TO

TA

L

Self-assessment ofgovernance1

In the table overleaf circle the number that best matches your ratingof the performance of your school for each indicator Enter the totalfor each domain and for all domains in the boxes provided

1 Based on material in Department of Education Science and Training (DEST)(Australia) (2005) Best Practice Governance Education Policy and Service DeliveryCanberra DEST

Appendix 3

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Purp

ose

Out

com

esT

here

is a

cle

arly

sta

ted

conn

ectio

n be

twee

n th

em

issi

on o

f the

sch

ool a

nd in

tend

ed o

utco

mes

for

stud

ents

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Proc

ess

Enga

gem

ent

Polic

ies

and

plan

s ha

ve b

een

prep

ared

aft

erco

nsul

tatio

n w

ith k

ey s

take

hold

ers

with

in t

hesc

hool

and

the

wid

er c

omm

unity

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Polic

yLe

gitim

acy

Polic

ies

have

bee

n fo

rmal

ly a

ppro

ved

by t

hego

vern

ing

body

of t

he s

choo

l3

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rep

rese

ntat

iven

ess

Polic

ies

are

cons

iste

nt in

the

ir a

pplic

atio

n ac

ross

the

scho

ol s

o th

at s

tude

nts

with

the

sam

e ne

eds

are

supp

orte

d in

the

sam

e m

anne

r

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Acc

ount

abili

tyA

utho

ritie

s an

d re

spon

sibi

litie

s ar

e sp

ecifi

ed a

ndin

form

atio

n is

gat

here

d an

d m

ade

avai

labl

e to

prov

ide

a ba

sis

for

asse

ssin

g th

e ex

tent

to

whi

chin

tent

ions

hav

e be

en r

ealis

ed

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Effic

ienc

yM

echa

nism

s ar

e in

pla

ce t

o en

sure

tha

tou

tcom

es a

re o

ptim

ised

in t

he c

onte

xt o

fav

aila

ble

reso

urce

s

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Scop

eFi

nanc

ial c

apita

lFi

nanc

ial s

uppo

rt is

sou

ght

from

all

poss

ible

sour

ces

71

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inte

llect

ual c

apita

lPl

ans

incl

ude

a pr

iori

ty o

n en

suri

ng a

ll st

aff h

ave

high

leve

ls o

f kno

wle

dge

and

skill

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Soci

al c

apita

lPl

ans

incl

ude

a pr

iori

ty o

n se

curi

ng c

ash

and

in-

kind

sup

port

from

all

poss

ible

sou

rces

in t

hew

ider

com

mun

ity

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Stan

dard

sSp

ecifi

city

Expe

ctat

ions

and

inte

nded

out

com

es a

re c

lear

lysp

ecifi

ed10

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Dat

aIn

form

atio

n to

be

gath

ered

in t

heim

plem

enta

tion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

is o

f a k

ind

that

will

ena

ble

judg

emen

ts t

o be

mad

e on

the

effe

ctiv

enes

s of

del

iver

y

111

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

re is

a c

apac

ity t

o ga

ther

info

rmat

ion

abou

tth

e im

plem

enta

tion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

121

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Dat

a th

at a

re g

athe

red

in t

he c

ours

e of

impl

emen

tatio

n ar

e va

lid t

imel

yun

ders

tand

able

and

cap

able

of e

ffect

ive

use

inde

cisi

on-m

akin

g

131

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Dat

a ar

e ga

ther

ed a

cros

s th

e ra

nge

of in

tend

edou

tcom

es14

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

(Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

App

roac

hes

to th

e ga

ther

ing

of d

ata

are

desi

gned

to e

nsur

e ac

cura

cy15

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

The

re a

re in

cent

ives

in p

lace

to

ensu

re t

hat

data

are

gath

ered

and

util

ised

in t

he m

anne

r in

tend

ed16

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Dat

a ar

e us

ed in

mak

ing

deci

sion

s in

the

form

ulat

ion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

and

in m

akin

gju

dgem

ents

abo

ut t

heir

effe

ctiv

enes

s

171

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Tran

spar

ency

Info

rmat

ion

abou

t po

licie

s an

d pl

ans

is r

eadi

lyav

aila

ble

to a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs a

s is

info

rmat

ion

abou

t im

plem

enta

tion

hav

ing

due

rega

rd t

o th

eet

hica

l use

of s

uch

info

rmat

ion

181

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rep

licat

ion

Impl

emen

tatio

n is

like

ly t

o be

suc

cess

ful i

nsi

mila

r ci

rcum

stan

ces

in t

he fu

ture

191

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Ow

ners

hip

The

re is

a s

tron

g se

nse

of c

omm

itmen

t on

the

part

of s

take

hold

ers

to p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

as w

ell a

sap

proa

ches

to

thei

r im

plem

enta

tion

201

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

TO

TA

L

Self-assessment ofresource allocation

In the table overleaf circle the number that best matches your ratingof the performance of your school for each indicator Enter the totalfor each of the two domains in the boxes provided

Appendix 4

DO

MAI

ND

ESCR

IPTI

ON

ITEM

PERF

ORM

ANCE

[CIR

CLE]

TOTA

L

Proc

ess

Ann

ual p

lann

ing

occu

rs in

the

con

text

of a

mul

ti-ye

arde

velo

pmen

t pl

an fo

r th

e sc

hool

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Educ

atio

nal n

eeds

are

det

erm

ined

and

pla

ced

in a

n or

der

ofpr

iori

ty o

n th

e ba

sis

of d

ata

on s

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent

evid

ence

-bas

ed p

ract

ice

and

tar

gets

to

be a

chie

ved

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Res

ourc

es t

o be

acq

uire

d an

d al

loca

ted

incl

ude

inte

llect

ual

and

soci

al c

apita

l3

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

A r

ange

of s

ourc

es a

re in

clud

ed in

pla

ns fo

r th

e ac

quis

ition

and

allo

catio

n of

res

ourc

es i

nclu

ding

mon

ey a

lloca

ted

byfo

rmul

a fr

om t

he s

choo

l sys

tem

fun

ds g

ener

ated

from

oth

erso

urce

s ot

her

kind

s of

sup

port

from

pub

lic a

nd p

riva

teor

gani

satio

ns a

nd in

stitu

tions

and

res

ourc

es s

hare

d fo

r th

eco

mm

on g

ood

in n

etw

orks

or

fede

ratio

ns

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

re is

app

ropr

iate

invo

lvem

ent

of a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs in

the

plan

ning

pro

cess

incl

udin

g re

pres

enta

tives

of s

ourc

es o

fsu

ppor

t

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

fina

ncia

l pla

n ha

s a

mul

ti-ye

ar o

utlo

ok a

s w

ell a

s an

annu

al b

udge

t w

ith a

ll co

mpo

nent

s se

t ou

t in

a m

anne

r th

atca

n be

und

erst

ood

by a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

App

ropr

iate

acc

ount

ing

proc

edur

es a

re e

stab

lishe

d to

mon

itor

and

cont

rol e

xpen

ditu

re7

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Mon

ey c

an b

e tr

ansf

erre

d fr

om o

ne c

ateg

ory

of th

e bu

dget

toan

othe

r as

nee

ds c

hang

e or

em

erge

dur

ing

the

peri

odco

vere

d by

the

bud

get

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Plan

s fo

r kn

owle

dge

man

agem

ent

and

the

build

ing

of s

ocia

lca

pita

l in

clud

ing

phila

nthr

opy

and

the

cont

ribu

tions

of s

ocia

len

trep

rene

urs

are

incl

uded

in o

r co

mpl

emen

t th

e fin

anci

alpl

an

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Out

com

esEd

ucat

iona

l tar

gets

are

con

sist

ently

ach

ieve

d th

roug

h th

epl

anne

d al

loca

tion

of r

esou

rces

of a

ll ki

nds

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Act

ual e

xpen

ditu

re m

atch

es in

tend

ed e

xpen

ditu

re a

llow

ing

for

flexi

bilit

y to

mee

t em

ergi

ng a

ndo

r ch

angi

ng n

eeds

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The Student ResourcePackage in Victoria

The Student Resource Package (SRP) is the sum of money allocatedto government (state) schools in Victoria in a system of self-managingschools in which approximately 94 per cent of the statersquos educationbudget is decentralised to schools for local decision-making Thefollowing is a summary of objectives features and major elements inthe package The approach is based on the findings of a researchproject announced in the Blueprint for Government Schools (DET 2003)Details of the SRP can be found at www sofwebviceduauSRP

Objectives

bull shifting the focus to student outcomes and school improvementby moving from providing inputs to providing the resourcesneeded to improve outcomes

bull improving the targeting of resources to achieve better outcomesfor all students by aligning resourcing to individual studentlearning needs

bull ensuring the fairness of treatment of schools with schools withthe same mix of student learning needs receiving the same levelsof funding

bull improving the transparency of student resource allocations byreducing complexity

bull providing greater certainty for schools about their ongoing levelof resourcing allowing for more effective forward planning

bull providing flexibility to meet increasingly diverse student andcommunity needs and encourage local solutions through innov-ation and

bull developing a dynamic model that allows ongoing review andrefinement based on evidence

Appendix 5

Features

bull Distinction between student-based funding school-based fund-ing and targeted initiatives

bull Student-based funding is the major source of resources It isdriven by the levels of schooling of students and their family andcommunity characteristics It consists of allocations for core stu-dent learning and equity Most funding is allocated through perstudent rates

bull School-based funding provides for school infrastructure andprogrammes specific to individual schools

bull Targeted initiatives include programmes with specific targetingcriteria andor defined life-spans

The Student Resource Package in Victoria 199

Student based funding

Core student learning allocation

ComponentItem

School Type Basis for Allocation

Per StudentFunding Prepndash Year 12

PrimarySecondary

Prep ndash Year 2 $5275Years 3ndash4 $4491Years 7ndash8 $5635Years 9ndash12 $5975

EnrolmentLinked Base

Primary

Secondary

Flat base reducing above an enrolmentthreshold$37527Taper Base reduces above enrolmentthreshold of 500 at per-student rate ofminus$10039$349088Taper Base reduces above enrolmentthreshold of 400 at per-student rate ofminus$29912

Small SchoolBase Primary

lt801students

Reducing base$25623

Primaryunder 801Secondaryunder 400

Secondarylt400students

Taper Base reduces for each student atthe rate of minus$13402Credit $97878 Cash $6039 Total$103917Taper Base reduces for each student atthe rate of minus$35834

Rural SchoolSizeAdjustmentFactor

PrimarySecondary

Funding for schools in non-metropolitan non-provincial locationsPrimary schools lt201 studentsSecondary colleges lt501 students

200 The Student Resource Package in Victoria

Equity funding

ComponentItem


StudentFamilyOccupation(SFO)

PrimarySecondary

To be eligible schools must exceedstate-wide median SFO densityFormula (SFO index rating ndash state-widemedian 04731) x enrolment x per-student ratePer-student rate $129041Minimum in eligible schools $10000

Middle YearsEquity (Years5 ndash 9)

PrimarySecondary

Formula (School SFO density ndash state-wide 80th per centile SFO density) xyears 5ndash9 enrolment x per-studentratePer-student rate $2899Minimum in eligible schools $5000

SecondaryEquity (Years7 ndash 9)

Secondary Formula School SFO density x years 7ndash9enrolment x per student rateState-wide median SFO density forschools with year 7ndash9 students only =05048Per-student rate is $781Formula guarantees a minimum of$12000 for all eligible schools

Mobility PrimarySecondary

Schools eligible are those with atransient enrolment density equal to orgreater than 10 when averaged overthree yearsBase $2119Per-student rate $222



ComponentItem


Program forStudents withDisabilities

PrimarySecondary

Based on student disabilities indexndash Level 1 $5017ndash Level 2 $11604ndash Level 3 $18316ndash Level 4 $24999ndash Level 5 $31629ndash Level 6 $38295

English as aSecondLanguage(ESL)

ESL Index

PrimarySecondary

ESL funding is based on an integratedweighted index for primary andsecondary students that is applied to aschoolrsquos profile of students fromlanguage backgrounds other thanEnglish

SFO Weighting06 10 14

Level 1 $226 $378 $529Level 2 $454 $756 $1058Level 3 $908 $1512 $2117Level 4 $1154 $1924 $2692Level 5 $1733 $2886 $4042A school is required to reach athreshold before funding will apply Thecombined ESL and MEA thresholds are$17401 for primary schools and$33658 for secondary schools


References

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2006) Aspects of Social CapitalAustralia Belconnen ACT ABS

Bahra N (2001) Competitive Knowledge Management Basingstoke PalgraveBeare H (2001) Creating the Future School London Routledge FalmerBeare H (2006) How We Envisage Schooling in the 21st Century The

New lsquoImaginaryrsquo in Practice London Specialist Schools and AcademiesTrust

Bentley T and Wilsdon J (2004) lsquoIntroduction The Adaptive Statersquo inBentley T and Wilsdon J (eds) The Adaptive State Strategies forPersonalising the Public Realm London Demos

Blair T (2006a) Address to the Annual Conference of the Labour PartyManchester

Blair T (2006b) lsquoEducation is the most precious giftrsquo Prime MinisterrsquosAddress at the 14th National Conference Specialist Schools and Acad-emies Trust Birmingham December 1

Borman G D Hewes G M Overman L T and Brown S (2003)lsquoComprehensive school reform and achievement A meta-analysisrsquo Reviewof Educational Research 73(2) 125ndash230

Bornstein D (2004) How to Change the World Social Entrepreneurs and thePower of New Ideas Oxford Oxford University Press

Brown G (2006) Address to the Annual Conference of the Labour PartyManchester

Bukowitz W R and Williams R L (1999) The Knowledge ManagementFieldbook London Financial Times Prentice Hall

Bunting A (2005) lsquoSecondary school design for the knowledge agersquoUnpublished doctoral thesis Faculty of Education University ofMelbourne

Caldwell B J (2002) lsquoAutonomy and self-management concepts andevidencersquo In Bush T and Bell L (eds) The Principles and Practice ofEducational Management London Paul Chapman Publishing Chapter 3pp 24ndash40

Caldwell B J (2003) lsquoA theory of learning in the self-managing schoolrsquoIn Volansky A and Friedman I A (eds) School-Based Management AnInternational Perspective Israel Ministry of Education

Caldwell B J (2005) School-Based Management No 3 in the EducationPolicy Series of the International Academy of Education Paris Inter-national Institute of Educational Planning (IIEP) UNESCO

Caldwell B J (2006) Re-imagining Educational Leadership London ACERPress and Sage

Caldwell B J and Hayward D K (1998) The Future of Schools Lessons fromthe Reform of Public Education London Falmer

Caldwell B J and Hill P W (1999) lsquoRecent developments in decentralis-ing school budgets in Australiarsquo In Goertz M and Odden A (eds)School-Based Financing Twentieth Annual Yearbook of the AmericanEducation Finance Association Thousand Oaks CA Corwin PressChapter 5 pp 102ndash28

Caldwell B J and Spinks J M (1986) Policy-Making and Planning forSchool Effectiveness A Guide to Collaborative School Management HobartTasmania Education Department

Caldwell B J and Spinks J M (1988) The Self-Managing School LondonFalmer

Caldwell BJ and Spinks J M (1992) Leading the Self-Managing SchoolLondon Falmer

Caldwell B J and Spinks J M (1998) Beyond the Self-Managing SchoolLondon Falmer

Collins J (2001) Good to Great London Random HouseDepartment for Education and Skills (DfES) (2004a) Five Year Strategy for

Children and Learners Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of Statefor Education and Skills London DfES

Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2004b) Removing Barriers toAchievement The Governmentrsquos Strategy for Special Education Needs LondonDfES Available at wwwstandardsdfesukprimarypublications inclu-sion883963

Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2006) A Guide to the Law forSchool Governors London DfES Available at wwwgovernornetcouk

Department of Education Science and Training (DEST) (Australia) (2005)Best Practice Governance Education Policy and Service Delivery Report forthe Human Resource Development Working Group of Asia PacificEconomic Cooperation (APEC) Canberra DEST

Department of Education (Tasmania) (2002) Essential Learnings HobartDepartment of Education Available at wwweducationtasgovauocllpublications

Department of Education (Tasmania) (2006) Refining Our CurriculumHobart Department of Education

Department of Education and Training (DET) (Victoria) (2003) The

204 References

Blueprint for Government Schools Melbourne Department of Educationand Training Available at wwwsofwebviceduaublueprint

Department of Education and Training (DET) (Victoria) (nd) lsquoDevelop-ment of the Student Resource Package 2005 and 2006rsquo Unpublisheddocument available on request from DET

Department of Education and Training (DET) (Victoria) (2004) ThePrivilege and the Price Melbourne DET

Department of Education and Training (DET) (Victoria) (2005) New StudentReport Cards Melbourne DET

Department of Education and Training (DET) (Victoria) (2006) lsquoGuide tothe 2007 Indicative Student Resource Packagersquo Melbourne DETAvailable at wwwsofwebviceduauSRP

Dimmock C (2000) Designing the Learning-Centred School LondonFalmer

The Economist (2006a) lsquoThe business of giving a survey of wealth andphilanthropyrsquo Special Section 25 February

The Economist (2006b) lsquoClever red-necks Itrsquos not just the economy that isbooming schools are toorsquo 21 September

Elmore R F (2004) School Reform from the Inside Out Policy Practice andPerformance Cambridge MA Harvard University Press

Florida R (2005) The Flight of the Creative Class New YorkHarperBusiness

Fukuyama F (1995) Trust Social Virtues and the Creation of ProsperityLondon Hamish Hamilton

Fullan M Hill P and Creacutevola C (2006) Breakthrough Thousand OaksCA Corwin Press

Futures Vision Group (2006) Essential Questions for the Future SchoolLondon Specialist Schools and Academies Trust

Glen Waverley Secondary College (Victoria) (nd) lsquoLeading Schools Sub-mission Phase 3rsquo Available from the College

Goh C T (1997) lsquoShaping our future thinking schools learning nationrsquoSpeech by the Prime Minister of Singapore at the 7th InternationalConference on Thinking Singapore 2 June

Haberdashersrsquo Askersquos Federation (2005) lsquoGovernors and governorsrsquo commit-tees of the Haberdashersrsquo Askersquos Federationrsquo Unpublished document ofthe Federation Governing Body October

Hanushek E A (2004) lsquoSome simple analytics of school qualityrsquo Invitedpaper at the Making Schools Better Conference of the MelbourneInstitute of Applied Economic and Social Research University ofMelbourne 26ndash27 August (Working Paper 10229 of the NationalBureau of Economic Research supported by the Packard HumanitiesInstitute and The Teaching Commission)

Harris A (2005) Distributed Leadership London Specialist Schools andAcademies Trust

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Harris J (2006) Alignment in Finland Occasional Paper 1 MelbourneEducational Transformations

Hargreaves D (2004) Personalising Learning Next Steps in Working LaterallyLondon Specialist Schools and Academies Trust

Hargreaves D (2006) A New Shape for Schooling London SpecialistSchools and Academies Trust

Hill P and Creacutevola C (2000) lsquoThe role of standards in educational reformfor the 21st centuryrsquo In Marsh D D (ed) Preparing Schools for the 21stCentury ASCD Yearbook 1999 Alexandria VA Association for Supervi-sion and Curriculum Development (ASCD) Chapter 6 pp 117ndash42

Hopkins D (2005) lsquoSystem leadership and school transformationrsquo Key-note Address at the 13th National Conference of the Specialist Schoolsand Academies Trust Birmingham

Hopkins D (2006) Every School a Great School London Specialist Schoolsand Academies Trust

House of Commons Education and Skills Committee UK (2006) SpecialEducational Needs Report London Government Publications Available atwwwpublicationsparliamentukpacmcmeduskihtm

International Institute of Administrative Science (1996) lsquoGovernancea working definitionrsquo Report of the Governance Working GroupAvailable at wwwgdrcorgu-govwork-defhtml

Kaplan R S and Norton D P (2006) Alignment Boston MA HarvardBusiness School Press

Keating M (2004) Who Rules How Government Retains Control of a Privat-ised Economy Sydney The Federation Press

Kelly P (2006a) lsquoClever nation notionrsquo The Australian July 22ndash23Kelly P (2006b) lsquoCondition criticalrsquo The Australian September 27Kelly R (2005) lsquoReasons for raising the barrsquo Ninth Specialist Schools

Trust Lecture London Available at wwwschoolsnetworkorgukresourcespublicationsannuallectures

Kotter J P (1990) A Force for Change How Leadership Differs fromManagement New York The Free Press

Lamb S (2004) lsquoStudent and school characteristics equity funding forRAMrsquo Research report prepared for the Department of Education andTraining Melbourne DET

Leblanc R and Gillies J (2005) Inside the Boardroom Mississauga JohnWiley amp Sons Canada

Lee H L (2005) National Day Address at National University ofSingapore (NUS) August 21

Lee H L (2006) lsquoThe Singapore Wayrsquo Newsweek Special edition on lsquoTheknowledge revolution why victory will go to the smartest nations ampcompaniesrsquo January-March

Lee K Y (2000) From Third World to First The Singapore Story 1965ndash2000New York HarperCollins

206 References

Levacic R and Downes P (2004) Formula Funding of Schools Decentral-isation and Corruption A Comparative Analysis Paris International Insti-tute of Educational Planning (IIEP) (UNESCO)

Levacic R and Ross K N (eds) (1999) Needs-Based Resource Allocationin Education via Formula Funding of Schools Paris International Institutefor Educational Planning (IIEP) UNESCO

Linder J (2004) Outsourcing for Radical Change A Bold Approach to EnterpriseTransformation New York Amacon

McGaw B (2006) lsquoUse of data in innovation and transformation inschools and school systemsrsquo Keynote presentation at the InternationalConference of School Principals on the theme Innovation and Transform-ation in Education conducted by the Specialist Schools and AcademiesTrust and the Academy for Educational Administration Beijing 13ndash16October Available at wwwssatorguk

Matters G (2006) Using Data to Support Learning in Schools StudentsTeachers Systems Camberwell Australian Council for EducationalResearch (ACER)

Mizel O (2007) lsquoAccountability and school based management in ArabBedouin schools in Israelrsquo Paper presented at 20th Annual Conference ofthe International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement(ICSEI) Bernardin Slovenia 3ndash6 January

Ministry of Education (MOE) (Singapore) (2005) Nurturing Every ChildFlexibility amp Diversity in Singapore Schools Singapore Ministry of Education

National Association of Head Teachers (NAHT) Eastern Leadership Centre(ELC) University of Cambridge National College of School Leadership(NCSL) and Hay Group (2005) Leading Appointments A Study intoand Guidance on Headteacher Recruitment Interim Report Available atwwwnahtorguk

Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) (2004) Special Educational Needsand Disability Towards Inclusive Schools London Ofsted Available atwwwOfstedgovukpublicationsindex

Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) (2006) Inspection Report No102236 of Park High School London Borough of Harrow Available onthe website of Park High School at wwwparkhighstanmoreorguk

OECD (2001a) What Schools for the Future Chapter 3 lsquoScenarios for theFuture of Schoolingrsquo Paris OECD

OECD (2001b) The Wellbeing of Nations The Role of Human and SocialCapital Education and Skills Paris Centre for Educational Research andInnovation (CERI) OECD

OECD (2006) PEB Compendium of Exemplary Educational Facilities ThirdEdition Paris OECD

Peters T (2003) Re-imagine London Dorling KindersleyPricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) (2003) Building better performance An empiri-

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DfES Research Report RR407 London Department for Education andSkills

Putnam R D (2000) Bowling Alone The Collapse and Revival of AmericanCommunity New York Touchstone

Rajan A et al (1999) Good Practices in Knowledge Creation and ExchangeTunbridge Wells Create

Robertson J (2005) Coaching Leadership Wellington NZCER PressRowe K J (2004) lsquoThe importance of teaching ensuring better schooling

by building teacher capacities that maximise the quality of teachingand learning provision ndash implications of findings from emerginginternational and Australian evidence-based researchrsquo Invited paper atthe Making Schools Better Conference of the Melbourne Institute ofApplied Economic and Social Research University of Melbourne 26ndash27August

Rueff R and Stringer H (2006) Talent Force Upper Saddle River NJPearson Prentice Hall

Schleicher A (2004) lsquoI resultati dellrsquoItalia nellrsquoindagine OCSE ldquoEducationat a Glancerdquo rsquo Paris OECD PowerPoint available at wwwoecdorgdataoecd333333732967ppt

Schofield A (2006) lsquoEssential questions for the future schoolrsquo In FuturesVision Group Essential Questions for the Future School London SpecialistSchools and Academies Trust Chapter 4

Sergiovanni T J (1984) lsquoLeadership and excellence in schoolingrsquo Edu-cational Leadership February

Sims E (2006) A New Shape for Schooling Deep Learning ndash 1 LondonSpecialist Schools and Academies Trust

Smith J (2005) lsquoEducation improvement partnershipsrsquo Paper presentedby Hon Jacqui Smith Minister for Schools to Department for Educationand Science London Available at wwwdfesgovukspeeches

Smithers R (2006) lsquoHeadteacher vacancies expose schools crisisrsquo TheGuardian 12 January

State of Colorado (2005) Executive Order B 009 05 Colorado EducationAlignment Council Governor of Colorado 4 October 2005

Stewart T A (1997) Intellectual Capital The New Wealth of OrganisationsLondon Nicholas Brealey

Stringfield S Ross S and Smith L (eds) (1996) Bold Plans for SchoolImprovement The New American School Designs Mahwah NJ LawrenceElbaum

Taylor C and Ryan C (2005) Excellence in Education The Making of GreatSchools London David Fulton Publishers

Teaching and Learning in 2020 Review Group (UK) (2006) 2020 VisionReport to the Secretary of State for Education and Skills ChristineGilbert (Chair) London Department for Education and Skills

Teese R (2003) lsquoEnding failure in our schools the challenges for public

208 References

sector management and higher educationrsquo Inaugural Professorial LectureFaculty of Education University of Melbourne

Toomey R in association with ElkinSmyth C Warner C and Fraser D(2000) A Case Study of ICT and School Improvement at Glen WaverleySecondary College A report in the OECDCERI ICT Programme ParisOECD

University of Texas System (2006) The University of Texas Strategic Plan2006ndash2015 This and other documents related to alignment in Texasavailable at wwwutsystemedu

Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA) (2005) Allpapers related to the Victorian Essential Learning Standards (VELS) canbe found on the website of VCAA at wwwvelsvcaaviceduau

Wise J (2006) lsquoA successful governing bodyrsquo Article by the Chair ofGovernors of Park High School London Borough of Harrow in anewsletter for governors in Harrow published by the Achievement andInclusion Service Harrow Local Education Authority

Woessmann L (2001) lsquoWhy students in some countries do better inter-national evidence on the importance of education policyrsquo EducationMatters Summer pp 67ndash74

World Bank Group (2001) lsquoPublic sector governance indicators of gov-ernance and institutional qualityrsquo Available at www1worldbankorgpublicsectorindicatorshtm

Zuboff S and Maxmin J (2004) The Support Economy New York PenguinBooks

References 209

Index

A Guide to the Law for SchoolGovernors (DfES) see also England64 204

abandonment of old practices 45119 168 169 175

Aboriginal see indigenous studentsAcademic Excellence Award of the

Ministry of Education see alsoChile 159

academy see specialist schoolAccenture Institute 54accountability external and internal

48 175accounting procedures 22 71 73

140 160achievement student see also

student outcomes x xiv 4 6 1823 28 47 64 72 75 76 7779 80 83 94 102 110 115120 138 142

adding value see value-addingadditional needs see also special

education needs 98 100 101102

Adelaide see also Australia xxii 149150

Age Weighted Pupil Units(AWPUs) xxi 89

AIM see also AssessmentImprovement Monitor 2 95

Alberta see also Canada 42ndash43 80170

A-levels 18Alignment 29

alignment xi xiii xv xxiii 11 1228ndash46 lsquoexternalsrsquo and lsquointernalsrsquo36 48 lsquonew grand alignmentrsquo11 36ndash39 45ndash46 a model for32ndash33 and lsquoeducation imaginaryrsquo36 assessing alignment 34ndash35

amalgamation 153APEC see Asia Pacific Economic

CooperationArchdiocese of Melbourne 143architecture school see also facilities

design 148Ashoka 9Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation

14 15 60 69Assessment Improvement Monitor

see also AIM 2 95at risk see students at riskAtkin J 155Australia ix xi xviii xix xxi xxii

xxiii 1 5 11 12 15 18 19 2025 38 40 42 44 47 48 5253 56 57 58 61 63 71 7576 77 79 80 81 83 86 91105 111 117 124 138 146148 149 151 154 155 156158 166 173 Adelaide xxii149 150 Australian Bureau ofStatistics (ABS) 61 203Australian Capital Territory(ACT) 40 57 146 155Australian College of Educatorsxxii 57 Australian Council forEducational Research (ACER)

173 Australian National Awardsfor Quality Schooling 156Australian Science andMathematics School (ASMS) xxii146 149ndash152 AustralianWorkplace Agreement 52Canberra xxii 155 ChildrenrsquosLiteracy Success Story (CLaSS)144 Department of Education(Queensland) 40 Department ofEducation and Childrenrsquos Services(South Australia) 151Department of EducationScience and Training (DEST) 1460 204 Department ofEducation Tasmania xviii 117204 Effective ResourceAllocation in Schools Project(ERASP) 71 Essential Learnings(Tasmania) 116 Excellence inSchool Improvement Awards155 Flinders University (SouthAustralia) 149 150 151 GlenWaverley Secondary College146 151ndash155 163 InnovativeDesigns for EnhancingAchievement in Schools project(IDEAS) 40 155 156 158164 Investing in Our SchoolsProgramme 158 Leading SchoolsFund 153 Liberal NationalCoalition (Federal Government)44 Macquarie University(Sydney) 52 New South Wales52 57 Northern Territory 57Quality Teaching Programme 40155 Queensland 40 57 155Reece High School 118 StMonicarsquos Parish Primary School40 146 155ndash158 164 Schoolsof the Future xix 152 153 SouthAustralia xx 57 77 91 105111 117 146 149 Tasmaniaxviii 53 57 116ndash117 118Teaching Australia 155University of SouthernQueensland (USQ) 40 155Victor Harbor High School 117Victoria see also Victoria xviii

xix xx xxiii 1 2 11 15 16 1721 53 57 76 77 78 79 8081 82 86 87 90 94ndash97 9899 100 102ndash103 105 108111 117 118 126 128 130133 136 141 146 147 151152 153 155 169 171 172198ndash202 Western Australia 57

Australian Science and MathematicsSchool see also Australia xxii 146149ndash152

Australian The 38 44 52autism and Asperger syndrome

171autonomy school see school

self-management

background socio-economic seesocio-economic circumstances

Barnes T xxii 70 162 163Beare H xix 36 38 39 154

203Beijing see also China 173Bellfield Primary School see also

Victoria 17 18 19 26 47 170171

BentleyT 38Best Practice Governance Education

Policy and Service Delivery (DEST)14 60 204

Beyond the Self-Managing Schoolxixndashxxii 53 204

bidding 90 97Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation

see also Gates Bill 9Birmingham see also England xxi

57 111 137Bishop Walsh Catholic School

see also England 111Bishop J 44Blair Government see also England

37Blair T 36 37 137 166Blueprint for Government Schools see

also Victoria 1 77 87 153198

Board of Regents see Universityof Texas

Borman GD 39 203

212 Index

Bornstein D xi 10 203Boston Consulting Report 153Bracks Labor Government see also

Victoria 77 153Brazil 15 Rio Grande do Sul 15

Breakthrough 40 48 124 143 144170 205

Bristol see also England 118Brown Gordon 37Brown S 203budget school 1 12 25 29 31

39 63 64 65 67 68 70ndash7488ndash89 90 95 105 106 108118 119 120 121 123 124127 139ndash140 141ndash142 144

budget structure 139ndash142Building Learning Power see also

Park High School 162Building Schools for the Future

(BSF) programme see also England25 37 147

Bunting A 148 203Burton on Trent see also England

110business partnerships see industry

partnerships with

Caldwell B x xi xii xiii xiv xvxviii xix xxi xxii xxiii xxiv 25 6 7 8 18 38 45 48 52 5354 71 72 105 116 150 154160 169 171 176 178 203204

Cambridgeshire see also England 15Cambridgeshire County Council

see also England 16Cambridge University see also

England 9Canada xix 9 25 42 80 100 154

166 170 Alberta 42ndash43 80170 British Columbia 43Edmonton xix 42 100 170Edmonton Public School District170 Ontario 43

Canberra see also Australia xxii 155Canberra-Goulburn Diocese 155

capital 1ndash3 8ndash13 32 financialcapital xxiii 11 32 35 46 47

68 75 76 86 164 170intellectual capital xii xiii 2 811 32 34 40 46 47ndash59 6874 142 151 152 156 161164 170 171 174 social capitalxii xiii xxiii 3 8 9 13 15 2627 32 35 40 46 47 59 6061ndash63 69ndash74 149 155 156157 158 161 172 173 174175 spiritual capital xii xv xxiii32 35 40 68 76 156 161 164

capital investment 147 148case studies (lsquoBridgetrsquo lsquoJosephrsquo and

lsquoKylersquo) 125ndash137Catholic education 143 144 155

158Catholic Education Office (CEO)

155 156central authorities 178challenging circumstances xvii 3

12 17 28 32 47 53 54 7681 168 169 174

Cheshire see also England 110 111114

Chile ix xxi xxiii 12 146 158159 161 Academic ExcellenceAward 159 Fundacioacuten Chile159 161 Maria Luisa BombalSchool xxiii 158 164 Ministryof Education 159 160 161Public Educational Corporation159 Santiago xxiii 146 158Vitacura xxiii 146 158

China ix 9 80 166 173 2006International Conference ofSchool Principals 173 Beijing173 Hong Kong 42 80 148166

civil society 15 32 61 169Claxton G 154 162Clay Professor Dame Marie 156coaching and mentoring 124 177Coaching Leadership 177 208Colorado see also United States 41comprehensive schools 42 82connectedness 179corporate governance 65 74 182corruption 10 14 15ndash16 26 181Create see also England 56

Index 213

Creacutevola C 12 39ndash40 48 49 124143 144 145 166 167 170171 175

Critical Learning Instruction Paths(CLIPs) see also precision 143145

Crowther F 40 156curriculum access to xv 82 106

113 116 117 118 134common curriculum 110 117design and construction 109113 118 140 examples ofprovision 125ndash128 128ndash131132ndash137

Darlington see also England xxi57

data and data bases xxiii 12 1640 47 72ndash74 93 97 112113 121 127 173 182Contextualised Value-Added database see also Park High School162 indicative 120 precisionin management 12 40 49143ndash145 166 167 170 171175

Davies J xxii 151de Ferrers Specialist Technology

College see also England 110decentralisation 5 6 15 48 167default position see also next practice

see also twentyfirst-century-schoolxiii 137 166 167 168 169171 173 174 175 176 forstaffing 166 for data gatheringand utilisation 166 for decisionmaking 167 for personalisinglearning 137 167ndash168

deficit-based models 102Denmark 42Department for Education and

Skills (DfES) see also England 4 563 64 77 100 147 161 204208

Department for Education andTraining (DET) see also Victoria21 77 87 96 126 128 133136 152 153 170 171 198204ndash205

Department of Education andChildrenrsquos Services (DECS) see alsoSouth Australia 151

Department of EducationQueensland 40

Department of Education Scienceand Training (DEST) see alsoAustralia 14 60 204

Department of Education Tasmaniaxviii 117 204

Designing the Learning-Centred School40 205

Dimmock C 40 205disabilities see also impairments 17

25 81 88 89 96 99 171202

Dorrian M xxii 155 156 158Downes P 15 169 207

Eastern Leadership Centre (ELC)see also England 22

Economiesdis-economies of scale67 68 88 92

Economist The 9 10 42 205Edmonton Public School District

see also Canada 170Education Data Surveys (EDS)

see also England 21Education Improvement

Partnerships see also England 77Education Maintenance Allowance

(EMA) see also Victoria 17Educational Needs Questionnaire

(ENQ) see also Victoria 99educational reform

see transformationeducational transformation

see transformationEffective Resource Allocation in

Schools Project (ERASP) see alsoAustralia 71

Elmore R 48 154 167enduring principles see also

transformation see also policy andpractice 11 13 60 74 182

England ix xi xiv xix xxi 1 2 34 9 10 11 12 15 16 18 2122 25 35 45 47 48 53 5456 57 58 63 65 67 68 70

214 Index

76ndash79 80 81 83 87 89 9094 97 100 103 105 108 110111ndash113 119 120 124 138141 144 146 147 155 164168 169 173 174 175 177A Guide to the Law for SchoolGovernors (DfES) 64 204Birmingham xxi 57 111 137Bishop Walsh Catholic School111 Blair Government 37Building Schools for the Futureprogramme 25 37 147 Burtonon Trent 110 Cambridgeshire15 Cambridgeshire CountyCouncil 16 CambridgeUniversity 9 Cheshire 110 111114 Create (Tunbridge Wells)56 Darlington xxi 57 de FerrersSpecialist Technology College110 Department for Educationand Skills (DfES) 4 5 63 6477 100 147 161 204 208Eastern leadership Centre 22Education Data Surveys 21Education ImprovementPartnerships 77 Every ChildMatters xx 1 Five Year Strategyfor Children and Learners (DfES) 45 77 204 Free School Meals(FSM) 66 89 161 163 GCSE(General Certificate of SecondaryEducation) 2 3 18 47 66 7794 111 112 114 115 120161 Haberdasherrsquos AskersquosHatcham College 65Haberdashersrsquo Askersquos Federationxxii 65 67 68 205 Harrow 70146 161 207 Hay Group(NAHT) 22 207 Institute ofEducation (London) xvi 23 JohnCabot City Technology CollegeBristol 118 Key Learning Areas(KLAs) 108 Knghts Academy65 66 Labour Government xixxxi 36 37 55 78 Lewishamborough 69 Lymm High Schoolxxii 110 111 114 116Manchester xxi 36 57 NationalAssociation of Head Teachers

(NAHT) 22 National AuditOffice (NAO) 22 NationalCollege for School Leadership(NCSL) 22 176 NinestilesCommunity School xxii 137166 176 Ofsted 66 70 100161 162 163 207 OutwoodGrange College xxii 114 115Park High School xxii 70 146161ndash163 164 OxfordUniversity 10 Removing Barriersto Achievement The GovernmentrsquosStrategy for Special Education Needs(DfES) 100 204 SecondaryHeads Association (SHA) 15Special Education Needs (SEN)161 163 Special EducationNeeds Report 100 Teaching andLearning in 2020 Review Group177ndash178 Turves Green BoysrsquoTechnical School 111 VarndeanSchool Brighton 45

enterprise logic new xii xxi 2 34 7ndash8 21 23 38 56 104

entrepreneurs social see socialentrepreneurship

equity xiv 7 75 79 80 82 87ndash8993ndash95 97 98 162 166 169170 199 201

equity high 12 75 79 80 81 8687 93 94 166 169 174ndash175177

equity low 75 80 166 170 179Essential Learnings see also Australia

116 204Essential questions for the Future School

see also Specialist Schools andAcademies Trust 38 205208

Every Child Matters see also Englandxx 1

Excellence in School Improvementaward see also Australia 155

Executive heads 67 68Expenditure Review Committee

(ERC) see Victoria 95

facilities (school buildings) 3 8 1112 14 24 27 29 36 37 40

Index 215

42 45 54 146 147 148 149150 152 154 155 157 158160 164 182

facilities design 147federations (of schools) see also

networks 7 8 11 64 65ndash69 73168

financial capital see also capital xxiii11 32 35 46 47 68 75 7686 164 170

Finland xxiii 20 42 79 80 166168 169 174 175

first principles see policy andpractice

Five Year Strategy for Children andLearners (DfES) see also England 45 77 204

Fleming J 17 171France 9 42 80 166Fraser D 152Free School Meals (FSM) see also

England 66 89 161 163From Third World to First 44

206Fukuyama F 8 205Fullan M 12 39 40 48 49 124

143 144 154 166 167 170171 175 205

full service school 25 172Fundacioacuten Chile see also Chile 159

161funding allocation formulae 16 25

90 98 deployment xii 12 7679 90 92 97 104 123 139140 for high quality and highequity 75ndash79 needs-basedstudent-focused 11 14 25ndash2627 32 42 80ndash84 94ndash9899ndash103 119 155 182

future of schooling see next practicesee also OECD

Futures Vision Group see alsoSpecialist Schools and AcademiesTrust 38 39 45 205

Gates Bill see also Bill and MelindaGates Foundation 9

GCSE (General Certificate ofSecondary Education) see also

England 2 3 18 47 66 7794 111 112 114 115 120161

Germany 6 9 42Gill V 171Gillies J 65 206Glen Waverley Secondary College

see also Victoria xxiii 146151ndash155 164 205 209

global budgets 25 90Global Creativity Index 42Goh C T see also Singapore 44

205Goleman D 154governance xi xiii xv xxiii 8 10

11 12 13 14ndash16 26 30 3238 46 60ndash66 70 74 104 146155 159 160 161ndash164 169178 181 182 183 definition60ndash61 assessment of 15 69ndash74

governing bodies 35 42 6163ndash65 70 74 109 182 183status and powers 64ndash65

Government (state) schools xx 2122 41 42 53 79 81 147 152169 172 173 179 198

Haberdasherrsquos Askersquos HatchamCollege see also England 65

Haberdashersrsquo Askersquos Federationsee also England xxii 65 67 68205

Hanushek E 1 2 16 17 205Hargreaves D 36 144 147 206Harris A xxiii 31 205Harris J xxiii 20 31 42 174 206Harrow see also England 70 146

161Harvard Business School see also

United States 10Hattie J 19Hay Group (NAHT) see also

England 22Hayward DK 169 204Headteacher see also Principal xiv

16 21 22 23 64 67 68 137138 162 163

Heath J 151Hewes GM 203

216 Index

high equity see equity highhigh needs students 97 100high quality see quality highHill P xix 12 39 48 49 143

144 166 169 170 171 175204 205 206

Hong Kong see also China 42 80148 166

Hoover Institution see also UnitedStates 1

Hopkins D 23 94 97 163 206Houston Endowment see also United

States 41How to Change the World Social

Entrepeneurs and the Power of NewIdeas 10 203

Howson J 22HSBC iNet see iNetHuman Resource Development

Working Group of APEC 14 60Human Utopia 55Hutt Sir Dexter xiii xxii 137

166 176

Iceland 42 80 166ICT see information and

communications technologyInnovative Designs for Enhancing

Achievement in Schools project(IDEAS) see also Australia 40155 156ndash158 164

Ifo Institute for Economics see alsoGermany 6

impairments see also disabilities 8188 89 96 99

impediments to learning xiv 7881 89 96ndash97 141

incentives 17 51 53 166 168inclusive educationethos 100 101

111indigenous students xiii 17 42 81

88 96industry partnerships with 15 32

33 35 61 62 87 134 151iNet ix xxiv 23 116 151

176information and communications

technology see also ICT xx 5 2537 44 51ndash52 67 68 108 118

126 135 136 140 147 148149 152 153 157 179

infrastructure see facilities (schoolbuildings)

Innovation and Transformation inEducation see also SpecialistSchools and Academies Trust 173

in-service training 1 8 21 56 175Institute of Education (London)

see also England xvi 23intellectual capital see also capital

xii xiii 2 8 11 32 34 40 4647ndash59 68 74 142 151 152156 161 164 170 171 174self-assessment of 56ndash58

International Institute forEducational Planning (IIEP)see also UNESCO 15 169 204

International Institute ofAdministrative Sciences 14 1560 69

Investing in Our SchoolsProgramme see also Australia 158

Ireland ix 80 166Irlicht B xxii 172Israel 167 Ministry of Education

167Italy 9

Japan 9 42 80 157 166John Cabot City Technology

College see also England 118Johnson W 117

Kaplan R 29 30 31 206Keating M 5 206Kelly P 38 44 206Kelly R 78 94 111 206Kennett Government see also

Victorian Liberal NationalCoalition 152 153

Key Learning Areas (KLAs) see alsoEngland 108

Knghts Academy see also England65 66

Knowledge management xiii 8 1011 14 20ndash21 22 26 27 4855ndash58 70 73 74 182

Korea 79 80 166

Index 217

Labor Party (Victorian) see alsoVictoria 77 153

Labour Government (UK) see alsoEngland xix xxi 36 37 55 78

Lamb S 95 96 206leadership ix x xi xv xix xxi 7

10 14 17 20 21 23ndash2430ndash31 62 77 83 96 104 105106 114 116 118 119 121138 140 144 153 154 155161 162 163 176

leading edge schools 91 93 138Leblanc R 65 206Lee HL 43 206Lee KY 44 206legal actionlitigation 64 74

183Levacic R 15 169 207Lewisham borough see also England

69Liberal National Coalition (Federal)

see also Australia 44Liberal National Coalition

(Victorian) see also Victoria 152Linder J 54 207local decision-making see also

school self-management xix xxiixxiii 80 152 169 198

local management see also schoolself-management 53 79

locally-raised funds 152 155 158Lounds R xxii 114Lymm High School see also England

xxii 110 111 114 115

McGaw B 79 173 207Macquarie University see also

Australia 52Manchester see also England xxi 36

57Maria Luisa Bombal School see also

Chile xxiii 158 164Matters G 143 207Maxmin J 4 7 209Mizel O 167 207Munich see also Germany 6Myclasses 144Myinternet 144Myportfolio 144

National Association of HeadTeachers (NAHT) see also England22 207

National Audit Office (NAO)see also England 22

National College for SchoolLeadership (NCSL) see alsoEngland 22 176

needs educational xii xv xx xxiiixxiv 3 4ndash5 11 12 17 19 2571ndash73 76 79ndash84 87 8993ndash94 96ndash103 105 109ndash110112ndash113 116ndash118 120 122123 124ndash138 169 170 178needs based funding see fundingdegreedensity of see socio-economic circumstances

Netherlands 9 42networks see also federationss (of

schools) ix 7 8 9 21 23 27 3256 61ndash63 68 73 116 123156 168 172 176 182

New American SchoolsDevelopment Corporation 39

new challenges in policy andpractice see also next practice165ndash180

new enterprise logic see enterpriselogic new

New Zealand ix xi xiii xix xxi25 42 80 105 148 156166

next practice ix xii 10 13 14 1516ndash21 26ndash27 75 76 79 8790 143 169 170 177 181

Ninestiles Community School seealso England xxii 137 166 176

No Child Left Behind see also UnitedStates xx 1 41 174

Norway 42Norton D 29ndash31non-government schools see also

private sector 20 23 24 42 4352ndash53 81 82 154 155 159169 179

Nossal Sir Gustav 20Nurturing Every Child Flexibility

and Diversity in Singapore Schoolssee also Singapore xx 43 207

218 Index

Office of Educational SystemAlignment (Texas) see also UnitedStates 41

Ofsted see also England 66 70 100161 162 163 207

Oliver G 151On Track survey see also Victoria 77OECD Scenarios for the future of

schools 23 38 177Organisation for Economic

Cooperation and Development(OECD) 2 6 23 38 62 75 7980 86 148 149 151 152 153166 174 177 179 207 208209

old enterprise logic see enterpriselogic old

Overman LT 203Oxford University see also England

10outcomes see student outcomesoutsourcing 53 54 55 58 161

166 168Outsourcing for Radical Change A

Bold Approach to EnterpriseTransformation 54 207

Outwood Grange College see alsoEngland xxii 114 115

Park High School see also Englandxxii 70 146 161ndash163 164

Perkins D 154personalising learning see also

student-focused planning modelxiii xx xxi xxiii 4ndash5 25 2837 49 74 83 102ndash103 108110 124 137 140ndash141 144147 171 179 lsquogatewaysrsquo 144147 Strategic Intentions122ndash123

Peters T 4 207philanthropy 3 9 10 13 21 41

62 73 74 87 119 172 181PISA see Programme for

International Student AssessmentPoland 15policy and practice see also next

practice see also transformationimplications for see also new

challenges in policy and practice165ndash180

Port Phillip Special School xxii171ndash172 Centre for thePerforming Arts (PPSS) 172

Pratt Foundation 172precision see dataPricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) 147Principal see also Headteacher xix

xxi xxii 12 16 19 20 21 2223 27 34 45 53 67 74 9193 96 101 104 105 110 112115 138 147 153 182 183

professional development see alsoknowledge management 6 3457 120 151 153 154 156157 158 160 161 162 163178

Programme for InternationalStudent Assessment (PISA) 2 620 41 42 75 79 86 165 174179

private sector see also non-government schools 20 23 2442 43 52ndash53 81 82 154 155159 169 179

Public Private Partnerships (PPP)25

public sector see also Government(state) schools xx 21 22 41 4253 79 81 147 152 169 172173 179 198

pupil see student

quality high xiv xxii 11 75ndash8687 90 104 114 166 169ndash170174 175 177 179

Quality Teaching Programmesee also Australia 40 155

raising the stakes x xi xiii xvii 12178 179 180

Rajan A 208Reece High School see also Australia

118Re-imagining Educational Leadership

xxi 45 105 204Removing Barriers to Achievement The

Governmentrsquos Strategy for Special

Index 219

Education Needs (DfES) see alsoEngland 100 204

resources see capitalretention 76 77 78 82 83 93 95Ross KN 25 169 207Rowe K 18 19 208Rueff R 49 50 53 208

Schleicher A 6 208Schofield A 45 208school architecturedesign criteria

148ndash149school charter 110St Monicarsquos Parish Primary School

see also Australia 40 146155ndash158 164

self-management xi xviii xix xxxxii xxiii 40 48 53 71 79 82105 115 151 167 169 self-management a new view 1ndash13

Schools of the Future see alsoAustralia xix 152 153

Secondary Heads Association (SHA)see also England 15

Senge P 154Sergiovanni T 154 208Sidwell E xxii 66 67 68Sims E 144 208Singapore xx 42 43 151 7th

International Conference onThinking 44 Goh CT 44 205Ministry of Education 43National University 151Nurturing Every Child Flexibilityand Diversity in Singapore Schools43 NUS School of Science andMathematics 151

Skoll Centre for SocialEntrepreneurship 10

Skype 127Smith J 77 111 208Smithers R 22 208social capital see also capital xii xiii

xxiii 3 8 9 13 15 26 27 3235 40 46 47 59 60 61ndash6369ndash74 149 155 156 157 158161 172 173 174 175

social entrepreneurship 3 10 1362 181

socio-economic circumstances 1718 26 79 81 82 83 88 9092 93 95 96 124 129 132147 151 154 155 158 173

Sotelo Sorribes N xxiii 158160

special education needs see alsoadditional needs 11 17 98100ndash102

Special Education Needs andDisability Towards Inclusive Schools(Ofsted) 101 207

Special Education Needs (SEN)see also England 161 163

Special Education Needs Report see alsoEngland 100

special measures 174special schools ix 25 171specialist schools 3 9 25 37 43

118 151 173Specialist Schools and Academies

Trust (SSAT) ix xxi xxii 34 4556 116 144 151 173 17613th National Conference 9414th National Conference 78137 166 2006 InternationalConference of School Principals173 Essential questions for theFuture School 38 205 208Futures Vision Group 38 39 45205 208 Innovation andTransformation in Education173 Ninth Annual Lecture 78

Spinks J x xi xii xiii xiv xv xviiixix xx xxii xxiii 5 6 48 5371 84 85 95 105 111 114116 118 178 204

spiritual capital see also capital xiixv xxiii 32 35 40 68 76 156161 164

Stringer H 49 53 208Stringfield S 39 208student see also pupil aptitudes xv

xx xxiv 5 11 12 37 66 79 8593 105 109 110 112116ndash120 122 123 124 125128 132 144 146 167 168169 170 174 as unit oforganisation xxiii 2 7 10 12

220 Index

13 14 16 49 104 121 139150 aspirations xiv xv xvi xxxxiv 3 11 12 28 37 40 6979 83ndash85 93 102 105 109110 112 113 115 116ndash120122 123 124 125 128 132141 144 146 161 167ndash170174 178 nature and needs 7684 87 97 100 outcomes xx 112 17 34 47 61 69 72ndash7476 77 79 81 82ndash84 90 9293ndash94 104ndash123 164 175

students at risk 77 83 94 98 113119 121 140 149

student focused planning model 49104ndash123

student voice 147 162Student Resource Package Project

see also Victoria 170student-teacher ratio 2 25Sweden ix 9 42 80 166Switzerland 42system leaders xv 23 155 176

talent force xiii 32 49 50ndash55 58142 161 166 167 172

Taylor Sir Cyril 94teacher teacher quality and

selection see talent force training1 6 21 42 67

Teaching and Learning in 2020Review Group see also England177ndash178

Teese R 95 96 208Tezukayama Primary School see also

Japan 157The Knowledge Revolution Why

Victory will go to the SmartestNations amp Companies 43

The Privilege and the Price see alsoVictoria 21 205

Third way see next practiceToomey and Associates 152 153

209transformation see also capital see also

alignment ix xindashxii xiv xv xvixvii xxiv 3ndash4 7 8 16 17 2425 28 30ndash32 39 45 47ndash4952ndash56 74 76 78 120ndash122

146 152 165 170 177179ndash180 first principles 13 coreprinciples 26ndash27 enduringprinciples 74

Trends in Mathematics and ScienceStudy (TIMSS) 2 6 43 174

trust public see governancetrust school see governanceTymms P 18 19Turves Green Boysrsquo Technical

School see also England 111twenty-first-century school see also

next practice xii 137 152

UNESCO 15 169United Nations Commission for

Refugees 129United States xix 1 9 25 39 41

42 80 148 166 174 Colorado41 Colorado EducationAlignment Council 41 EveryChild Every Advantage (Texas)41 Harvard Business School 10Hoover Institution 1 HoustonEndowment 41 No Child LeftBehind 1 Office of EducationalSystem Alignment 41 Universityof Texas 40ndash41

University of Kiel see also Germany6

University of Southern Queensland(USQ) see also Australia 40 155

value-adding 90 91 92 105 111112 113 118 123 132 135138 162 174

Varndean School Brighton see alsoEngland 45

Vertigan S 118Victor Harbor High School see also

Australia 117Victoria see also Australia 1996

Triennial Review 17 BellfieldPrimary School 17 18 19 2647 170 171 Bracks LaborGovernment 77 153Blueprint for Government Schools 177 87 153 198 205Department for Education and

Index 221

Training (DET) 21 77 87 96126 128 133 136 152 153170 171 198 204ndash205Education MaintenanceAllowance (EMA) 17Educational Needs Questionnaire(ENQ) 99 Expenditure ReviewCommittee 95 Glen WaverleySecondary College xxiii 146151ndash155 164 205 209 LiberalNational Coalition (Victoria)152 Ministerial Advisory Group100 On Track Survey 77 SchoolGlobal Budget Research Projectxix 169 Student ResourcePackage Project 170 ThePrivilege and the Price 21 205University of Melbourne xii xix95 Victorian Certificate ofEducation (VCE) 95 VictorianCurriculum and AssessmentAuthority 108 209 VictorianEssential Learning Standards(VELS) 108 117 118 141Victorian Labor Party 77 153

Wesley College Melbourne 20Wesley Institute 20 WesternAutistic School 171 WesternAutistic School Autism TeachingInstitute 171

Wales ix xiv 25Wesley College see also Victoria 20Wesley Institute see also Victoria 20Western Autistic School see also

Victoria 171Western Autistic School Autism

Teaching Institute (ATI) see alsoVictoria 171

Wilkins M xxii 115Wilsdon J 38 203Wise J 163 209Woessmann L 6 209World Bank Group 15 69 209World Economic Forum 9workforce to talent force 32 49ndash53

58 142 166 167 172 sevendimensions 49ndash53

Zuboff S 4 7 209

222 Index

Book Cover

Title

Copyright

Contents

Illustrations

Series foreword Leading School Transformation

Foreword

Preface

Chapter 1 A new view of self-management

Chapter 2 Core principles for next practice

Chapter 3 Alignment

Chapter 4 Intellectual capital

Chapter 5 Governance and social capital

Chapter 6 The funding of high quality and high equity

Chapter 7 Next practice in the funding of schools

Chapter 8 A student-focused planning model

Chapter 9 Student-focused planning in action

Chapter 10 Studies of success

Chapter 11 New challenges for policy and practice

Appendix 1 Principles of resource allocation for student-focused self-managing schools

Appendix 2 Self-assessment of knowledge management

Appendix 3 Self-assessment of governance

Appendix 4 Self-assessment of resource allocation

Appendix 5 The Student Resource Package in Victoria

References

Index

Raising the Stakes

Raising the Stakes provides an understanding of the breadth of resources that areneeded to provide a quality education to all students so that every individualorganisation and institution can become a stakeholder in the enterprise

This comprehensive book draws on best practice in several countries to showhow resources can be allocated to help achieve high expectations for all schoolsThe book demonstrates how schools can move from satisfaction with improve-ment to accepting the challenge to transform identifying and exploring theneed to align four kinds of resources

bull intellectual capital that is the knowledge and skill of talented professionalsbull social capital being mutual support from networks of individuals organisa-

tions agencies and institutions in the broader communitybull financial capital which must be carefully targeted to ensure that these

resources are aligned and focused on priorities for learningbull spiritual capital which can be viewed in a religious sense or in terms of the

culture and values that bring coherence and unity to these endeavours

Practitioners and researchers reading this book will be inspired to work moreclosely in networking knowledge about how lsquohigh qualityrsquo and lsquohigh equityrsquo canbe achieved Raising the Stakes is essential reading for those with the responsibil-ity of ensuring that resources are acquired and allocated to achieve the bestpossible outcomes for students

Brian J Caldwell is managing director of Educational Transformations and aformer Dean of Education at the University of Melbourne Australia

Jim M Spinks is director of All Across the Line and a former School Principal whoconsults widely on student-focused planning and resource allocation He is based inAustralia

This is the fourth book by Caldwell and Spinks following The Self-Managing School(1988) Leading the Self-Managing School (1992) and Beyond the Self-Managing School(1998)


Series Editors





Forthcoming title


Raising the Stakes












LB2805C234 20073712 ndash dc222007007688







Contents




3 Alignment 28












vi Contents

Illustrations

Figures





Tables







managing schools 88










x Series foreword

Foreword








xii Foreword





Foreword xiii





xiv Foreword





Foreword xv




xvi Foreword

Preface








xviii Preface




Preface xix





xx Preface





Preface xxi






xxii Preface





Preface xxiii




June 2007

xxiv Preface


Introduction




Chapter 1








Transformation


























































Chapter outline













First principles










Introduction





Chapter 2






























































(Hopkins 2006)











Needs-based funding








Core principles














Alignment

Introduction




Chapter 3



Alignment





Alignment 29






30 Alignment










Alignment 31









32 Alignment


Why capital



Alignment 33








Socialcapital

Spiritualcapital

Financialcapital

Degree ofalignment

Mean 58 63 57 56 51


34 Alignment






Alignment 35






36 Alignment


(Blair 2006a)




Alignment 37


(Brown 2006)





38 Alignment






Alignment 39




Alignment in action


40 Alignment









Alignment 41








42 Alignment





(Lee HL 2005)



Alignment 43




44 Alignment





Alignment 45


The way forward


46 Alignment


Introduction



Chapter 4





































































The way forward






Introduction


What is governance


Chapter 5











































































Domain(out of)

Purpose(5)

Process(5)

Policy(20)

Scope(15)

Standards(55)

Total(100)





















Table 52 Continued
















Table 53 Continued















Enduring principles








Introduction



Chapter 6

Critical issues



















(Kelly 2005)




(Blair 2006b)











































The way forward




Introduction







Chapter 7








TOTA

L SC

HO

OL

FUN

DIN

G

Gov

ernm

ent A

lloca

ted

Fund

ing

Stud

ent F

ocus

ed F

undi

ng



statusbull language


5ndash10

Scho

ol B

ased

Fun

ding

Targetedinitiatives




2ndash10



3ndash5








0 + N

on-G

ov F

undi






0 +









Guidelines















Resourcing quality











Resourcing equity









Research project



Methodology






Critical issues






































1 $48862 $113003 $178384 $243465 $308036 $37292


























The way forward






Introduction




Chapter 8

The journey so far



Design parameters

















Figu

re8

1St

uden

t-fo

cuse

d pl

anni

ng m

odel










The student







Values and purposes



































































The way forward

















Introduction





Chapter 9


















Term 4 2005Year 6



AAA


















Term 4 2007Year 8




CBAA



BABBAA+CC



BBAA









































Term 4 2005Year 6



EED


























Term 4 2007Year 8




CDCD



ECE

CC



DCCD













(Blair 2006b)







Budget structure





































The way forward





Studies of success

Introduction





Chapter 10



























































































(Ofsted 2006)









(Wise 2006)




The way forward




Introduction



Chapter 11


























































Who are the experts









The future































First principles






Core principles



Appendix 1









Enduring principles












Appendix 2

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Syst

ems

Benc

hmar

king

We

iden

tify

and

impl

emen

t ou

tsta

ndin

g pr

actic

eob

serv

ed in

or

repo

rted

by

othe

r sc

hool

ses

peci

ally

tho

se in

sim

ilar

circ

umst

ance

s w

ithap

prop

riat

e ad

apta

tion

to s

uit

our

sett

ing

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inte

rnet

and

intr

anet

We

use

tech

nolo

gies

acr

oss

the

scho

ol t

o as

sist

the

know

ledg

e sh

arin

g pr

oces

s2

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Sear

ch c

apac

ityW

e ha

ve b

uilt

a su

bsta

ntia

l sy

stem

atic

and

sust

aine

d ca

paci

ty fo

r ac

quir

ing

and

shar

ing

know

ledg

e

31

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Coo

rdin

atio

nW

e as

sign

res

pons

ibili

ty fo

r co

ordi

natin

g th

esh

arin

g of

pro

fess

iona

l kno

wle

dge

acro

ss t

hesc

hool

and

with

in it

s de

part

men

ts o

r un

its

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Sele

ctio

n of

sta

ffW

e en

sure

tha

t ne

w s

taff

subs

crib

e to

val

ues

cond

uciv

e to

kno

wle

dge

shar

ing

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Cap

acity

bui

ldin

gW

e en

sure

tha

t bu

ildin

g a

capa

city

for

know

ledg

esh

arin

g is

incl

uded

in p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Endo

rsem

ent

Seni

or s

taff

activ

ely

endo

rse

know

ledg

em

anag

emen

t in

the

sch

ool

71

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Net

wor

king

We

brin

g ou

r st

aff t

oget

her

with

tho

se in

oth

ersc

hool

s in

face

-to-

face

mee

tings

vid

eoco

nfer

ence

s in

tran

et o

r in

tern

et t

o sh

are

know

ledg

e ab

out

or d

emon

stra

te d

iffer

ent

appr

oach

es t

o pr

ofes

sion

al p

ract

ice

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Com

mun

ities

of

prac

tice

We

enco

urag

e se

lf-or

gani

sed

grou

ps in

whi

ch s

taff

exch

ange

idea

s on

com

mon

issu

es p

ract

ices

pr

oble

ms

and

poss

ibili

ties

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rew

ards

We

reco

gnis

e an

d re

war

d te

amw

ork

amon

g ou

rst

aff

101

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

App

rais

alPe

rfor

man

ce in

the

sha

ring

of k

now

ledg

e is

addr

esse

d in

sta

ff ap

prai

sal

111

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Met

rics

We

mea

sure

the

impa

ct o

f kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

in t

he s

choo

l12

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Budg

etW

e en

sure

that

ade

quat

e fu

nds

are

set a

side

in th

esc

hool

bud

get

to s

uppo

rt k

now

ledg

e m

anag

emen

t13

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Bala

nced

scor

ecar

dW

e en

sure

tha

t th

e im

pact

of k

now

ledg

em

anag

emen

t is

ass

esse

d in

ter

ms

of s

tude

ntle

arni

ng p

rofe

ssio

nal g

row

th v

alue

for

mon

ey a

ndot

her

outc

omes

141

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Valu

esV

isio

nW

e ha

ve a

ligne

d pr

actic

e in

kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

with

the

vis

ion

for

the

scho

ol15

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rig

hts

and

resp

onsi

bilit

ies

We

ensu

re t

hat

staf

f see

the

sch

ool a

s a

com

mun

ity in

whi

ch t

hey

have

rig

hts

and

resp

onsi

bilit

ies

161

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Cha

mpi

ons

Our

sen

ior

staf

f ser

ve a

s ch

ampi

ons

for

know

ledg

em

anag

emen

t17

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rec

ogni

tion

We

prai

se in

divi

dual

s fo

r ex

empl

ary

wor

k in

know

ledg

e m

anag

emen

t18

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Men

tori

ng a

ndco

achi

ngW

e en

gage

in a

per

sona

lised

app

roac

h in

ass

istin

gst

aff t

o pe

rfor

m a

t th

eir

best

for

them

selv

es a

ndfo

r th

e sc

hool

191

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Team

wor

kW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

wor

k to

geth

er a

nd p

ool

thei

r kn

owle

dge

on p

rofe

ssio

nal p

ract

ice

201

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inno

vatio

nW

e pr

ovid

e op

port

uniti

es fo

r st

aff t

o in

nova

te in

thei

r pr

ofes

sion

al p

ract

ice

211

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Cha

lleng

eW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

deve

lop

a lsquoc

an-d

orsquo a

ppro

ach

to t

heir

wor

k e

ven

unde

r th

e m

ost

chal

leng

ing

circ

umst

ance

s

221

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Tole

ranc

eW

e su

ppor

t a

lsquono-

blam

ersquo c

ultu

re w

hich

acc

epts

that

inno

vatio

ns o

ften

fail

231

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rec

ogni

tion

We

ensu

re t

hat

good

kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

prac

tice

is r

ecog

nise

d24

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Imm

edia

tefe

edba

ckW

e en

sure

tha

t st

aff r

ecei

ve im

med

iate

feed

back

on t

heir

wor

k25

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Con

stru

ctiv

efe

edba

ckW

e en

sure

tha

t fe

edba

ck t

o st

aff p

rovi

des

a ba

sis

for

actio

n26

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Pool

ing

idea

sW

e de

velo

p a

pool

of i

deas

tha

t ca

n be

util

ised

inth

e fu

ture

eve

n if

they

are

not

imm

edia

tely

prac

tical

271

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Valu

es in

prac

tice

We

surv

ey s

taff

for

thei

r vi

ews

on h

ow t

hese

valu

es (i

tem

s 15

ndash27)

are

ref

lect

ed in

pra

ctic

e at

the

scho

ol

281

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Beha

viou

rsLe

arni

ng t

hrou

ghac

tion

We

arra

nge

wor

k in

way

s th

at e

ncou

rage

spr

ofes

sion

al le

arni

ng t

hrou

gh a

ctio

n29

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

New

lang

uage

We

are

mov

ing

away

from

hig

h sp

ecia

lised

term

inol

ogy

tow

ard

univ

ersa

lly r

ecog

nise

dvo

cabu

lary

on

prof

essi

onal

mat

ters

301

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Abs

ence

of

jarg

onW

e av

oid

ambi

guou

s m

eani

ngle

ss t

erm

s w

hich

caus

e co

nfus

ion

and

irri

tatio

n31

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Lear

ning

from

succ

ess

We

publ

icis

e su

cces

sful

exp

erie

nces

tha

t pe

ople

can

lear

n fr

om r

athe

r th

an r

ely

on b

ooks

or

repo

rts

321

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Met

apho

rs a

ndsy

mbo

lsW

e us

e im

ager

y in

wor

ds o

r pi

ctur

es t

o st

imul

ate

actio

n33

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Shar

ing

know

ledg

eW

e m

ake

staf

f aw

are

of h

ow s

hari

ng p

rofe

ssio

nal

know

ledg

e w

ill im

prov

e pr

actic

e34

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Impa

ctW

e de

mon

stra

te h

ow t

he s

hari

ng o

f kno

wle

dge

will

hav

e an

impa

ct o

n th

e w

hole

sch

ool

351

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Prac

tical

ityW

e de

mon

stra

te t

hat

the

shar

ing

of k

now

ledg

e is

wor

kabl

e th

roug

hout

the

sch

ool

361

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinu

ed o

verl

eaf)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Rec

ipro

city

We

dem

onst

rate

tha

t sh

arin

g kn

owle

dge

will

resu

lt in

rec

eivi

ng k

now

ledg

e37

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Inte

rdep

ende

ncy

We

ensu

re t

hat

staf

f are

aw

are

that

the

re w

ill b

epo

wer

ful p

rofe

ssio

nal l

earn

ing

only

if k

now

ledg

e is

shar

ed

381

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Bene

fits

We

dem

onst

rate

tha

t th

e sh

arin

g of

pro

fess

iona

lkn

owle

dge

resu

lts in

a r

educ

tion

in th

e in

tens

ity o

fw

ork

391

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Lega

cyW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

do w

orth

whi

le t

hing

s th

atw

ill h

ave

a la

stin

g im

pact

on

the

scho

ol40

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

TO

TA

L




Appendix 3

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Purp

ose

Out

com

esT

here

is a

cle

arly

sta

ted

conn

ectio

n be

twee

n th

em

issi

on o

f the

sch

ool a

nd in

tend

ed o

utco

mes

for

stud

ents

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Proc

ess

Enga

gem

ent

Polic

ies

and

plan

s ha

ve b

een

prep

ared

aft

erco

nsul

tatio

n w

ith k

ey s

take

hold

ers

with

in t

hesc

hool

and

the

wid

er c

omm

unity

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Polic

yLe

gitim

acy

Polic

ies

have

bee

n fo

rmal

ly a

ppro

ved

by t

hego

vern

ing

body

of t

he s

choo

l3

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rep

rese

ntat

iven

ess

Polic

ies

are

cons

iste

nt in

the

ir a

pplic

atio

n ac

ross

the

scho

ol s

o th

at s

tude

nts

with

the

sam

e ne

eds

are

supp

orte

d in

the

sam

e m

anne

r

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Acc

ount

abili

tyA

utho

ritie

s an

d re

spon

sibi

litie

s ar

e sp

ecifi

ed a

ndin

form

atio

n is

gat

here

d an

d m

ade

avai

labl

e to

prov

ide

a ba

sis

for

asse

ssin

g th

e ex

tent

to

whi

chin

tent

ions

hav

e be

en r

ealis

ed

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Effic

ienc

yM

echa

nism

s ar

e in

pla

ce t

o en

sure

tha

tou

tcom

es a

re o

ptim

ised

in t

he c

onte

xt o

fav

aila

ble

reso

urce

s

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Scop

eFi

nanc

ial c

apita

lFi

nanc

ial s

uppo

rt is

sou

ght

from

all

poss

ible

sour

ces

71

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inte

llect

ual c

apita

lPl

ans

incl

ude

a pr

iori

ty o

n en

suri

ng a

ll st

aff h

ave

high

leve

ls o

f kno

wle

dge

and

skill

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Soci

al c

apita

lPl

ans

incl

ude

a pr

iori

ty o

n se

curi

ng c

ash

and

in-

kind

sup

port

from

all

poss

ible

sou

rces

in t

hew

ider

com

mun

ity

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Stan

dard

sSp

ecifi

city

Expe

ctat

ions

and

inte

nded

out

com

es a

re c

lear

lysp

ecifi

ed10

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Dat

aIn

form

atio

n to

be

gath

ered

in t

heim

plem

enta

tion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

is o

f a k

ind

that

will

ena

ble

judg

emen

ts t

o be

mad

e on

the

effe

ctiv

enes

s of

del

iver

y

111

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

re is

a c

apac

ity t

o ga

ther

info

rmat

ion

abou

tth

e im

plem

enta

tion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

121

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Dat

a th

at a

re g

athe

red

in t

he c

ours

e of

impl

emen

tatio

n ar

e va

lid t

imel

yun

ders

tand

able

and

cap

able

of e

ffect

ive

use

inde

cisi

on-m

akin

g

131

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Dat

a ar

e ga

ther

ed a

cros

s th

e ra

nge

of in

tend

edou

tcom

es14

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

(Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

App

roac

hes

to th

e ga

ther

ing

of d

ata

are

desi

gned

to e

nsur

e ac

cura

cy15

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

The

re a

re in

cent

ives

in p

lace

to

ensu

re t

hat

data

are

gath

ered

and

util

ised

in t

he m

anne

r in

tend

ed16

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Dat

a ar

e us

ed in

mak

ing

deci

sion

s in

the

form

ulat

ion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

and

in m

akin

gju

dgem

ents

abo

ut t

heir

effe

ctiv

enes

s

171

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Tran

spar

ency

Info

rmat

ion

abou

t po

licie

s an

d pl

ans

is r

eadi

lyav

aila

ble

to a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs a

s is

info

rmat

ion

abou

t im

plem

enta

tion

hav

ing

due

rega

rd t

o th

eet

hica

l use

of s

uch

info

rmat

ion

181

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rep

licat

ion

Impl

emen

tatio

n is

like

ly t

o be

suc

cess

ful i

nsi

mila

r ci

rcum

stan

ces

in t

he fu

ture

191

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Ow

ners

hip

The

re is

a s

tron

g se

nse

of c

omm

itmen

t on

the

part

of s

take

hold

ers

to p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

as w

ell a

sap

proa

ches

to

thei

r im

plem

enta

tion

201

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

TO

TA

L



Appendix 4

DO

MAI

ND

ESCR

IPTI

ON

ITEM

PERF

ORM

ANCE

[CIR

CLE]

TOTA

L

Proc

ess

Ann

ual p

lann

ing

occu

rs in

the

con

text

of a

mul

ti-ye

arde

velo

pmen

t pl

an fo

r th

e sc

hool

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Educ

atio

nal n

eeds

are

det

erm

ined

and

pla

ced

in a

n or

der

ofpr

iori

ty o

n th

e ba

sis

of d

ata

on s

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent

evid

ence

-bas

ed p

ract

ice

and

tar

gets

to

be a

chie

ved

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Res

ourc

es t

o be

acq

uire

d an

d al

loca

ted

incl

ude

inte

llect

ual

and

soci

al c

apita

l3

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

A r

ange

of s

ourc

es a

re in

clud

ed in

pla

ns fo

r th

e ac

quis

ition

and

allo

catio

n of

res

ourc

es i

nclu

ding

mon

ey a

lloca

ted

byfo

rmul

a fr

om t

he s

choo

l sys

tem

fun

ds g

ener

ated

from

oth

erso

urce

s ot

her

kind

s of

sup

port

from

pub

lic a

nd p

riva

teor

gani

satio

ns a

nd in

stitu

tions

and

res

ourc

es s

hare

d fo

r th

eco

mm

on g

ood

in n

etw

orks

or

fede

ratio

ns

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

re is

app

ropr

iate

invo

lvem

ent

of a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs in

the

plan

ning

pro

cess

incl

udin

g re

pres

enta

tives

of s

ourc

es o

fsu

ppor

t

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

fina

ncia

l pla

n ha

s a

mul

ti-ye

ar o

utlo

ok a

s w

ell a

s an

annu

al b

udge

t w

ith a

ll co

mpo

nent

s se

t ou

t in

a m

anne

r th

atca

n be

und

erst

ood

by a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

App

ropr

iate

acc

ount

ing

proc

edur

es a

re e

stab

lishe

d to

mon

itor

and

cont

rol e

xpen

ditu

re7

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Mon

ey c

an b

e tr

ansf

erre

d fr

om o

ne c

ateg

ory

of th

e bu

dget

toan

othe

r as

nee

ds c

hang

e or

em

erge

dur

ing

the

peri

odco

vere

d by

the

bud

get

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Plan

s fo

r kn

owle

dge

man

agem

ent

and

the

build

ing

of s

ocia

lca

pita

l in

clud

ing

phila

nthr

opy

and

the

cont

ribu

tions

of s

ocia

len

trep

rene

urs

are

incl

uded

in o

r co

mpl

emen

t th

e fin

anci

alpl

an

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Out

com

esEd

ucat

iona

l tar

gets

are

con

sist

ently

ach

ieve

d th

roug

h th

epl

anne

d al

loca

tion

of r

esou

rces

of a

ll ki

nds

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Act

ual e

xpen

ditu

re m

atch

es in

tend

ed e

xpen

ditu

re a

llow

ing

for

flexi

bilit

y to

mee

t em

ergi

ng a

ndo

r ch

angi

ng n

eeds

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h



Objectives








Appendix 5

Features








ComponentItem



PrimarySecondary



Primary

Secondary



lt801students

Reducing base$25623





PrimarySecondary



Equity funding

ComponentItem



PrimarySecondary



PrimarySecondary








ComponentItem



PrimarySecondary



ESL Index

PrimarySecondary





References






























204 References



















References 205



















206 References
















References 207



















208 References









References 209

Index




























self-management




Victoria 17 18 19 26 47 170171











Borman GD 39 203

212 Index



Breakthrough 40 48 124 143 144170 205








partnerships with













12 17 28 32 47 53 54 7681 168 169 174





Index 213



















25 81 88 89 96 99 171202
















214 Index















Index 215

42 45 54 146 147 148 149150 152 154 155 157 158160 164 182


networks 7 8 11 64 65ndash69 73168


Finland xxiii 20 42 79 80 166168 169 174 175






143 144 154 166 167 170171 175 205








England 2 3 18 47 66 7794 111 112 114 115 120161














16 21 22 23 64 67 68 137138 162 163


216 Index


144 166 169 170 171 175204 205 206








166 176










33 35 61 62 87 134 151iNet ix xxiv 23 116 151



126 135 136 140 147 148149 152 153 157 179










167Italy 9








Korea 79 80 166

Index 217




10 14 17 20 21 23ndash2430ndash31 62 77 83 96 104 105106 114 116 118 119 121138 140 144 153 154 155161 162 163 176









xxii 110 111 114 115










schools) ix 7 8 9 21 23 27 3256 61ndash63 68 73 116 123156 168 172 176 182












218 Index






















xxi xxii 12 16 19 20 21 2223 27 34 45 53 67 74 9193 96 101 104 105 110 112115 138 147 153 182 183






pupil see student








Index 219




























220 Index


students at risk 77 83 94 98 113119 121 140 149

























value-adding 90 91 92 105 111112 113 118 123 132 135138 162 174





Index 221








Zuboff S 4 7 209

222 Index

Book Cover

Title

Copyright

Contents

Illustrations


Foreword

Preface



Chapter 3 Alignment














References

Index


Series Editors





Forthcoming title


Raising the Stakes












LB2805C234 20073712 ndash dc222007007688







Contents




3 Alignment 28












vi Contents

Illustrations

Figures





Tables







managing schools 88










x Series foreword

Foreword








xii Foreword





Foreword xiii





xiv Foreword





Foreword xv




xvi Foreword

Preface








xviii Preface




Preface xix





xx Preface





Preface xxi






xxii Preface





Preface xxiii




June 2007

xxiv Preface


Introduction




Chapter 1








Transformation


























































Chapter outline













First principles










Introduction





Chapter 2






























































(Hopkins 2006)











Needs-based funding








Core principles














Alignment

Introduction




Chapter 3



Alignment





Alignment 29






30 Alignment










Alignment 31









32 Alignment


Why capital



Alignment 33








Socialcapital

Spiritualcapital

Financialcapital

Degree ofalignment

Mean 58 63 57 56 51


34 Alignment






Alignment 35






36 Alignment


(Blair 2006a)




Alignment 37


(Brown 2006)





38 Alignment






Alignment 39




Alignment in action


40 Alignment









Alignment 41








42 Alignment





(Lee HL 2005)



Alignment 43




44 Alignment





Alignment 45


The way forward


46 Alignment


Introduction



Chapter 4





































































The way forward






Introduction


What is governance


Chapter 5











































































Domain(out of)

Purpose(5)

Process(5)

Policy(20)

Scope(15)

Standards(55)

Total(100)





















Table 52 Continued
















Table 53 Continued















Enduring principles








Introduction



Chapter 6

Critical issues



















(Kelly 2005)




(Blair 2006b)











































The way forward




Introduction







Chapter 7








TOTA

L SC

HO

OL

FUN

DIN

G

Gov

ernm

ent A

lloca

ted

Fund

ing

Stud

ent F

ocus

ed F

undi

ng



statusbull language


5ndash10

Scho

ol B

ased

Fun

ding

Targetedinitiatives




2ndash10



3ndash5








0 + N

on-G

ov F

undi






0 +









Guidelines















Resourcing quality











Resourcing equity









Research project



Methodology






Critical issues






































1 $48862 $113003 $178384 $243465 $308036 $37292


























The way forward






Introduction




Chapter 8

The journey so far



Design parameters

















Figu

re8

1St

uden

t-fo

cuse

d pl

anni

ng m

odel










The student







Values and purposes



































































The way forward

















Introduction





Chapter 9


















Term 4 2005Year 6



AAA


















Term 4 2007Year 8




CBAA



BABBAA+CC



BBAA









































Term 4 2005Year 6



EED


























Term 4 2007Year 8




CDCD



ECE

CC



DCCD













(Blair 2006b)







Budget structure





































The way forward





Studies of success

Introduction





Chapter 10



























































































(Ofsted 2006)









(Wise 2006)




The way forward




Introduction



Chapter 11


























































Who are the experts









The future































First principles






Core principles



Appendix 1









Enduring principles












Appendix 2

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Syst

ems

Benc

hmar

king

We

iden

tify

and

impl

emen

t ou

tsta

ndin

g pr

actic

eob

serv

ed in

or

repo

rted

by

othe

r sc

hool

ses

peci

ally

tho

se in

sim

ilar

circ

umst

ance

s w

ithap

prop

riat

e ad

apta

tion

to s

uit

our

sett

ing

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inte

rnet

and

intr

anet

We

use

tech

nolo

gies

acr

oss

the

scho

ol t

o as

sist

the

know

ledg

e sh

arin

g pr

oces

s2

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Sear

ch c

apac

ityW

e ha

ve b

uilt

a su

bsta

ntia

l sy

stem

atic

and

sust

aine

d ca

paci

ty fo

r ac

quir

ing

and

shar

ing

know

ledg

e

31

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Coo

rdin

atio

nW

e as

sign

res

pons

ibili

ty fo

r co

ordi

natin

g th

esh

arin

g of

pro

fess

iona

l kno

wle

dge

acro

ss t

hesc

hool

and

with

in it

s de

part

men

ts o

r un

its

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Sele

ctio

n of

sta

ffW

e en

sure

tha

t ne

w s

taff

subs

crib

e to

val

ues

cond

uciv

e to

kno

wle

dge

shar

ing

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Cap

acity

bui

ldin

gW

e en

sure

tha

t bu

ildin

g a

capa

city

for

know

ledg

esh

arin

g is

incl

uded

in p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Endo

rsem

ent

Seni

or s

taff

activ

ely

endo

rse

know

ledg

em

anag

emen

t in

the

sch

ool

71

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Net

wor

king

We

brin

g ou

r st

aff t

oget

her

with

tho

se in

oth

ersc

hool

s in

face

-to-

face

mee

tings

vid

eoco

nfer

ence

s in

tran

et o

r in

tern

et t

o sh

are

know

ledg

e ab

out

or d

emon

stra

te d

iffer

ent

appr

oach

es t

o pr

ofes

sion

al p

ract

ice

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Com

mun

ities

of

prac

tice

We

enco

urag

e se

lf-or

gani

sed

grou

ps in

whi

ch s

taff

exch

ange

idea

s on

com

mon

issu

es p

ract

ices

pr

oble

ms

and

poss

ibili

ties

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rew

ards

We

reco

gnis

e an

d re

war

d te

amw

ork

amon

g ou

rst

aff

101

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

App

rais

alPe

rfor

man

ce in

the

sha

ring

of k

now

ledg

e is

addr

esse

d in

sta

ff ap

prai

sal

111

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Met

rics

We

mea

sure

the

impa

ct o

f kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

in t

he s

choo

l12

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Budg

etW

e en

sure

that

ade

quat

e fu

nds

are

set a

side

in th

esc

hool

bud

get

to s

uppo

rt k

now

ledg

e m

anag

emen

t13

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Bala

nced

scor

ecar

dW

e en

sure

tha

t th

e im

pact

of k

now

ledg

em

anag

emen

t is

ass

esse

d in

ter

ms

of s

tude

ntle

arni

ng p

rofe

ssio

nal g

row

th v

alue

for

mon

ey a

ndot

her

outc

omes

141

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Valu

esV

isio

nW

e ha

ve a

ligne

d pr

actic

e in

kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

with

the

vis

ion

for

the

scho

ol15

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rig

hts

and

resp

onsi

bilit

ies

We

ensu

re t

hat

staf

f see

the

sch

ool a

s a

com

mun

ity in

whi

ch t

hey

have

rig

hts

and

resp

onsi

bilit

ies

161

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Cha

mpi

ons

Our

sen

ior

staf

f ser

ve a

s ch

ampi

ons

for

know

ledg

em

anag

emen

t17

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rec

ogni

tion

We

prai

se in

divi

dual

s fo

r ex

empl

ary

wor

k in

know

ledg

e m

anag

emen

t18

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Men

tori

ng a

ndco

achi

ngW

e en

gage

in a

per

sona

lised

app

roac

h in

ass

istin

gst

aff t

o pe

rfor

m a

t th

eir

best

for

them

selv

es a

ndfo

r th

e sc

hool

191

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Team

wor

kW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

wor

k to

geth

er a

nd p

ool

thei

r kn

owle

dge

on p

rofe

ssio

nal p

ract

ice

201

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inno

vatio

nW

e pr

ovid

e op

port

uniti

es fo

r st

aff t

o in

nova

te in

thei

r pr

ofes

sion

al p

ract

ice

211

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Cha

lleng

eW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

deve

lop

a lsquoc

an-d

orsquo a

ppro

ach

to t

heir

wor

k e

ven

unde

r th

e m

ost

chal

leng

ing

circ

umst

ance

s

221

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Tole

ranc

eW

e su

ppor

t a

lsquono-

blam

ersquo c

ultu

re w

hich

acc

epts

that

inno

vatio

ns o

ften

fail

231

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rec

ogni

tion

We

ensu

re t

hat

good

kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

prac

tice

is r

ecog

nise

d24

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Imm

edia

tefe

edba

ckW

e en

sure

tha

t st

aff r

ecei

ve im

med

iate

feed

back

on t

heir

wor

k25

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Con

stru

ctiv

efe

edba

ckW

e en

sure

tha

t fe

edba

ck t

o st

aff p

rovi

des

a ba

sis

for

actio

n26

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Pool

ing

idea

sW

e de

velo

p a

pool

of i

deas

tha

t ca

n be

util

ised

inth

e fu

ture

eve

n if

they

are

not

imm

edia

tely

prac

tical

271

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Valu

es in

prac

tice

We

surv

ey s

taff

for

thei

r vi

ews

on h

ow t

hese

valu

es (i

tem

s 15

ndash27)

are

ref

lect

ed in

pra

ctic

e at

the

scho

ol

281

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Beha

viou

rsLe

arni

ng t

hrou

ghac

tion

We

arra

nge

wor

k in

way

s th

at e

ncou

rage

spr

ofes

sion

al le

arni

ng t

hrou

gh a

ctio

n29

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

New

lang

uage

We

are

mov

ing

away

from

hig

h sp

ecia

lised

term

inol

ogy

tow

ard

univ

ersa

lly r

ecog

nise

dvo

cabu

lary

on

prof

essi

onal

mat

ters

301

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Abs

ence

of

jarg

onW

e av

oid

ambi

guou

s m

eani

ngle

ss t

erm

s w

hich

caus

e co

nfus

ion

and

irri

tatio

n31

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Lear

ning

from

succ

ess

We

publ

icis

e su

cces

sful

exp

erie

nces

tha

t pe

ople

can

lear

n fr

om r

athe

r th

an r

ely

on b

ooks

or

repo

rts

321

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Met

apho

rs a

ndsy

mbo

lsW

e us

e im

ager

y in

wor

ds o

r pi

ctur

es t

o st

imul

ate

actio

n33

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Shar

ing

know

ledg

eW

e m

ake

staf

f aw

are

of h

ow s

hari

ng p

rofe

ssio

nal

know

ledg

e w

ill im

prov

e pr

actic

e34

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Impa

ctW

e de

mon

stra

te h

ow t

he s

hari

ng o

f kno

wle

dge

will

hav

e an

impa

ct o

n th

e w

hole

sch

ool

351

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Prac

tical

ityW

e de

mon

stra

te t

hat

the

shar

ing

of k

now

ledg

e is

wor

kabl

e th

roug

hout

the

sch

ool

361

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinu

ed o

verl

eaf)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Rec

ipro

city

We

dem

onst

rate

tha

t sh

arin

g kn

owle

dge

will

resu

lt in

rec

eivi

ng k

now

ledg

e37

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Inte

rdep

ende

ncy

We

ensu

re t

hat

staf

f are

aw

are

that

the

re w

ill b

epo

wer

ful p

rofe

ssio

nal l

earn

ing

only

if k

now

ledg

e is

shar

ed

381

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Bene

fits

We

dem

onst

rate

tha

t th

e sh

arin

g of

pro

fess

iona

lkn

owle

dge

resu

lts in

a r

educ

tion

in th

e in

tens

ity o

fw

ork

391

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Lega

cyW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

do w

orth

whi

le t

hing

s th

atw

ill h

ave

a la

stin

g im

pact

on

the

scho

ol40

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

TO

TA

L




Appendix 3

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Purp

ose

Out

com

esT

here

is a

cle

arly

sta

ted

conn

ectio

n be

twee

n th

em

issi

on o

f the

sch

ool a

nd in

tend

ed o

utco

mes

for

stud

ents

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Proc

ess

Enga

gem

ent

Polic

ies

and

plan

s ha

ve b

een

prep

ared

aft

erco

nsul

tatio

n w

ith k

ey s

take

hold

ers

with

in t

hesc

hool

and

the

wid

er c

omm

unity

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Polic

yLe

gitim

acy

Polic

ies

have

bee

n fo

rmal

ly a

ppro

ved

by t

hego

vern

ing

body

of t

he s

choo

l3

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rep

rese

ntat

iven

ess

Polic

ies

are

cons

iste

nt in

the

ir a

pplic

atio

n ac

ross

the

scho

ol s

o th

at s

tude

nts

with

the

sam

e ne

eds

are

supp

orte

d in

the

sam

e m

anne

r

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Acc

ount

abili

tyA

utho

ritie

s an

d re

spon

sibi

litie

s ar

e sp

ecifi

ed a

ndin

form

atio

n is

gat

here

d an

d m

ade

avai

labl

e to

prov

ide

a ba

sis

for

asse

ssin

g th

e ex

tent

to

whi

chin

tent

ions

hav

e be

en r

ealis

ed

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Effic

ienc

yM

echa

nism

s ar

e in

pla

ce t

o en

sure

tha

tou

tcom

es a

re o

ptim

ised

in t

he c

onte

xt o

fav

aila

ble

reso

urce

s

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Scop

eFi

nanc

ial c

apita

lFi

nanc

ial s

uppo

rt is

sou

ght

from

all

poss

ible

sour

ces

71

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inte

llect

ual c

apita

lPl

ans

incl

ude

a pr

iori

ty o

n en

suri

ng a

ll st

aff h

ave

high

leve

ls o

f kno

wle

dge

and

skill

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Soci

al c

apita

lPl

ans

incl

ude

a pr

iori

ty o

n se

curi

ng c

ash

and

in-

kind

sup

port

from

all

poss

ible

sou

rces

in t

hew

ider

com

mun

ity

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Stan

dard

sSp

ecifi

city

Expe

ctat

ions

and

inte

nded

out

com

es a

re c

lear

lysp

ecifi

ed10

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Dat

aIn

form

atio

n to

be

gath

ered

in t

heim

plem

enta

tion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

is o

f a k

ind

that

will

ena

ble

judg

emen

ts t

o be

mad

e on

the

effe

ctiv

enes

s of

del

iver

y

111

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

re is

a c

apac

ity t

o ga

ther

info

rmat

ion

abou

tth

e im

plem

enta

tion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

121

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Dat

a th

at a

re g

athe

red

in t

he c

ours

e of

impl

emen

tatio

n ar

e va

lid t

imel

yun

ders

tand

able

and

cap

able

of e

ffect

ive

use

inde

cisi

on-m

akin

g

131

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Dat

a ar

e ga

ther

ed a

cros

s th

e ra

nge

of in

tend

edou

tcom

es14

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

(Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

App

roac

hes

to th

e ga

ther

ing

of d

ata

are

desi

gned

to e

nsur

e ac

cura

cy15

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

The

re a

re in

cent

ives

in p

lace

to

ensu

re t

hat

data

are

gath

ered

and

util

ised

in t

he m

anne

r in

tend

ed16

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Dat

a ar

e us

ed in

mak

ing

deci

sion

s in

the

form

ulat

ion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

and

in m

akin

gju

dgem

ents

abo

ut t

heir

effe

ctiv

enes

s

171

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Tran

spar

ency

Info

rmat

ion

abou

t po

licie

s an

d pl

ans

is r

eadi

lyav

aila

ble

to a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs a

s is

info

rmat

ion

abou

t im

plem

enta

tion

hav

ing

due

rega

rd t

o th

eet

hica

l use

of s

uch

info

rmat

ion

181

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rep

licat

ion

Impl

emen

tatio

n is

like

ly t

o be

suc

cess

ful i

nsi

mila

r ci

rcum

stan

ces

in t

he fu

ture

191

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Ow

ners

hip

The

re is

a s

tron

g se

nse

of c

omm

itmen

t on

the

part

of s

take

hold

ers

to p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

as w

ell a

sap

proa

ches

to

thei

r im

plem

enta

tion

201

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

TO

TA

L



Appendix 4

DO

MAI

ND

ESCR

IPTI

ON

ITEM

PERF

ORM

ANCE

[CIR

CLE]

TOTA

L

Proc

ess

Ann

ual p

lann

ing

occu

rs in

the

con

text

of a

mul

ti-ye

arde

velo

pmen

t pl

an fo

r th

e sc

hool

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Educ

atio

nal n

eeds

are

det

erm

ined

and

pla

ced

in a

n or

der

ofpr

iori

ty o

n th

e ba

sis

of d

ata

on s

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent

evid

ence

-bas

ed p

ract

ice

and

tar

gets

to

be a

chie

ved

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Res

ourc

es t

o be

acq

uire

d an

d al

loca

ted

incl

ude

inte

llect

ual

and

soci

al c

apita

l3

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

A r

ange

of s

ourc

es a

re in

clud

ed in

pla

ns fo

r th

e ac

quis

ition

and

allo

catio

n of

res

ourc

es i

nclu

ding

mon

ey a

lloca

ted

byfo

rmul

a fr

om t

he s

choo

l sys

tem

fun

ds g

ener

ated

from

oth

erso

urce

s ot

her

kind

s of

sup

port

from

pub

lic a

nd p

riva

teor

gani

satio

ns a

nd in

stitu

tions

and

res

ourc

es s

hare

d fo

r th

eco

mm

on g

ood

in n

etw

orks

or

fede

ratio

ns

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

re is

app

ropr

iate

invo

lvem

ent

of a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs in

the

plan

ning

pro

cess

incl

udin

g re

pres

enta

tives

of s

ourc

es o

fsu

ppor

t

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

fina

ncia

l pla

n ha

s a

mul

ti-ye

ar o

utlo

ok a

s w

ell a

s an

annu

al b

udge

t w

ith a

ll co

mpo

nent

s se

t ou

t in

a m

anne

r th

atca

n be

und

erst

ood

by a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

App

ropr

iate

acc

ount

ing

proc

edur

es a

re e

stab

lishe

d to

mon

itor

and

cont

rol e

xpen

ditu

re7

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Mon

ey c

an b

e tr

ansf

erre

d fr

om o

ne c

ateg

ory

of th

e bu

dget

toan

othe

r as

nee

ds c

hang

e or

em

erge

dur

ing

the

peri

odco

vere

d by

the

bud

get

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Plan

s fo

r kn

owle

dge

man

agem

ent

and

the

build

ing

of s

ocia

lca

pita

l in

clud

ing

phila

nthr

opy

and

the

cont

ribu

tions

of s

ocia

len

trep

rene

urs

are

incl

uded

in o

r co

mpl

emen

t th

e fin

anci

alpl

an

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Out

com

esEd

ucat

iona

l tar

gets

are

con

sist

ently

ach

ieve

d th

roug

h th

epl

anne

d al

loca

tion

of r

esou

rces

of a

ll ki

nds

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Act

ual e

xpen

ditu

re m

atch

es in

tend

ed e

xpen

ditu

re a

llow

ing

for

flexi

bilit

y to

mee

t em

ergi

ng a

ndo

r ch

angi

ng n

eeds

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h



Objectives








Appendix 5

Features








ComponentItem



PrimarySecondary



Primary

Secondary



lt801students

Reducing base$25623





PrimarySecondary



Equity funding

ComponentItem



PrimarySecondary



PrimarySecondary








ComponentItem



PrimarySecondary



ESL Index

PrimarySecondary





References






























204 References



















References 205



















206 References
















References 207



















208 References









References 209

Index




























self-management




Victoria 17 18 19 26 47 170171











Borman GD 39 203

212 Index



Breakthrough 40 48 124 143 144170 205








partnerships with













12 17 28 32 47 53 54 7681 168 169 174





Index 213



















25 81 88 89 96 99 171202
















214 Index















Index 215

42 45 54 146 147 148 149150 152 154 155 157 158160 164 182


networks 7 8 11 64 65ndash69 73168


Finland xxiii 20 42 79 80 166168 169 174 175






143 144 154 166 167 170171 175 205








England 2 3 18 47 66 7794 111 112 114 115 120161














16 21 22 23 64 67 68 137138 162 163


216 Index


144 166 169 170 171 175204 205 206








166 176










33 35 61 62 87 134 151iNet ix xxiv 23 116 151



126 135 136 140 147 148149 152 153 157 179










167Italy 9








Korea 79 80 166

Index 217




10 14 17 20 21 23ndash2430ndash31 62 77 83 96 104 105106 114 116 118 119 121138 140 144 153 154 155161 162 163 176









xxii 110 111 114 115










schools) ix 7 8 9 21 23 27 3256 61ndash63 68 73 116 123156 168 172 176 182












218 Index






















xxi xxii 12 16 19 20 21 2223 27 34 45 53 67 74 9193 96 101 104 105 110 112115 138 147 153 182 183






pupil see student








Index 219




























220 Index


students at risk 77 83 94 98 113119 121 140 149

























value-adding 90 91 92 105 111112 113 118 123 132 135138 162 174





Index 221








Zuboff S 4 7 209

222 Index

Book Cover

Title

Copyright

Contents

Illustrations


Foreword

Preface



Chapter 3 Alignment














References

Index

Raising the Stakes












LB2805C234 20073712 ndash dc222007007688







Contents




3 Alignment 28












vi Contents

Illustrations

Figures





Tables







managing schools 88










x Series foreword

Foreword








xii Foreword





Foreword xiii





xiv Foreword





Foreword xv




xvi Foreword

Preface








xviii Preface




Preface xix





xx Preface





Preface xxi






xxii Preface





Preface xxiii




June 2007

xxiv Preface


Introduction




Chapter 1








Transformation


























































Chapter outline













First principles










Introduction





Chapter 2






























































(Hopkins 2006)











Needs-based funding








Core principles














Alignment

Introduction




Chapter 3



Alignment





Alignment 29






30 Alignment










Alignment 31









32 Alignment


Why capital



Alignment 33








Socialcapital

Spiritualcapital

Financialcapital

Degree ofalignment

Mean 58 63 57 56 51


34 Alignment






Alignment 35






36 Alignment


(Blair 2006a)




Alignment 37


(Brown 2006)





38 Alignment






Alignment 39




Alignment in action


40 Alignment









Alignment 41








42 Alignment





(Lee HL 2005)



Alignment 43




44 Alignment





Alignment 45


The way forward


46 Alignment


Introduction



Chapter 4





































































The way forward






Introduction


What is governance


Chapter 5











































































Domain(out of)

Purpose(5)

Process(5)

Policy(20)

Scope(15)

Standards(55)

Total(100)





















Table 52 Continued
















Table 53 Continued















Enduring principles








Introduction



Chapter 6

Critical issues



















(Kelly 2005)




(Blair 2006b)











































The way forward




Introduction







Chapter 7








TOTA

L SC

HO

OL

FUN

DIN

G

Gov

ernm

ent A

lloca

ted

Fund

ing

Stud

ent F

ocus

ed F

undi

ng



statusbull language


5ndash10

Scho

ol B

ased

Fun

ding

Targetedinitiatives




2ndash10



3ndash5








0 + N

on-G

ov F

undi






0 +









Guidelines















Resourcing quality











Resourcing equity









Research project



Methodology






Critical issues






































1 $48862 $113003 $178384 $243465 $308036 $37292


























The way forward






Introduction




Chapter 8

The journey so far



Design parameters

















Figu

re8

1St

uden

t-fo

cuse

d pl

anni

ng m

odel










The student







Values and purposes



































































The way forward

















Introduction





Chapter 9


















Term 4 2005Year 6



AAA


















Term 4 2007Year 8




CBAA



BABBAA+CC



BBAA









































Term 4 2005Year 6



EED


























Term 4 2007Year 8




CDCD



ECE

CC



DCCD













(Blair 2006b)







Budget structure





































The way forward





Studies of success

Introduction





Chapter 10



























































































(Ofsted 2006)









(Wise 2006)




The way forward




Introduction



Chapter 11


























































Who are the experts









The future































First principles






Core principles



Appendix 1









Enduring principles












Appendix 2

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Syst

ems

Benc

hmar

king

We

iden

tify

and

impl

emen

t ou

tsta

ndin

g pr

actic

eob

serv

ed in

or

repo

rted

by

othe

r sc

hool

ses

peci

ally

tho

se in

sim

ilar

circ

umst

ance

s w

ithap

prop

riat

e ad

apta

tion

to s

uit

our

sett

ing

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inte

rnet

and

intr

anet

We

use

tech

nolo

gies

acr

oss

the

scho

ol t

o as

sist

the

know

ledg

e sh

arin

g pr

oces

s2

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Sear

ch c

apac

ityW

e ha

ve b

uilt

a su

bsta

ntia

l sy

stem

atic

and

sust

aine

d ca

paci

ty fo

r ac

quir

ing

and

shar

ing

know

ledg

e

31

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Coo

rdin

atio

nW

e as

sign

res

pons

ibili

ty fo

r co

ordi

natin

g th

esh

arin

g of

pro

fess

iona

l kno

wle

dge

acro

ss t

hesc

hool

and

with

in it

s de

part

men

ts o

r un

its

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Sele

ctio

n of

sta

ffW

e en

sure

tha

t ne

w s

taff

subs

crib

e to

val

ues

cond

uciv

e to

kno

wle

dge

shar

ing

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Cap

acity

bui

ldin

gW

e en

sure

tha

t bu

ildin

g a

capa

city

for

know

ledg

esh

arin

g is

incl

uded

in p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Endo

rsem

ent

Seni

or s

taff

activ

ely

endo

rse

know

ledg

em

anag

emen

t in

the

sch

ool

71

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Net

wor

king

We

brin

g ou

r st

aff t

oget

her

with

tho

se in

oth

ersc

hool

s in

face

-to-

face

mee

tings

vid

eoco

nfer

ence

s in

tran

et o

r in

tern

et t

o sh

are

know

ledg

e ab

out

or d

emon

stra

te d

iffer

ent

appr

oach

es t

o pr

ofes

sion

al p

ract

ice

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Com

mun

ities

of

prac

tice

We

enco

urag

e se

lf-or

gani

sed

grou

ps in

whi

ch s

taff

exch

ange

idea

s on

com

mon

issu

es p

ract

ices

pr

oble

ms

and

poss

ibili

ties

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rew

ards

We

reco

gnis

e an

d re

war

d te

amw

ork

amon

g ou

rst

aff

101

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

App

rais

alPe

rfor

man

ce in

the

sha

ring

of k

now

ledg

e is

addr

esse

d in

sta

ff ap

prai

sal

111

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Met

rics

We

mea

sure

the

impa

ct o

f kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

in t

he s

choo

l12

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Budg

etW

e en

sure

that

ade

quat

e fu

nds

are

set a

side

in th

esc

hool

bud

get

to s

uppo

rt k

now

ledg

e m

anag

emen

t13

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Bala

nced

scor

ecar

dW

e en

sure

tha

t th

e im

pact

of k

now

ledg

em

anag

emen

t is

ass

esse

d in

ter

ms

of s

tude

ntle

arni

ng p

rofe

ssio

nal g

row

th v

alue

for

mon

ey a

ndot

her

outc

omes

141

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Valu

esV

isio

nW

e ha

ve a

ligne

d pr

actic

e in

kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

with

the

vis

ion

for

the

scho

ol15

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rig

hts

and

resp

onsi

bilit

ies

We

ensu

re t

hat

staf

f see

the

sch

ool a

s a

com

mun

ity in

whi

ch t

hey

have

rig

hts

and

resp

onsi

bilit

ies

161

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Cha

mpi

ons

Our

sen

ior

staf

f ser

ve a

s ch

ampi

ons

for

know

ledg

em

anag

emen

t17

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rec

ogni

tion

We

prai

se in

divi

dual

s fo

r ex

empl

ary

wor

k in

know

ledg

e m

anag

emen

t18

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Men

tori

ng a

ndco

achi

ngW

e en

gage

in a

per

sona

lised

app

roac

h in

ass

istin

gst

aff t

o pe

rfor

m a

t th

eir

best

for

them

selv

es a

ndfo

r th

e sc

hool

191

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Team

wor

kW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

wor

k to

geth

er a

nd p

ool

thei

r kn

owle

dge

on p

rofe

ssio

nal p

ract

ice

201

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inno

vatio

nW

e pr

ovid

e op

port

uniti

es fo

r st

aff t

o in

nova

te in

thei

r pr

ofes

sion

al p

ract

ice

211

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Cha

lleng

eW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

deve

lop

a lsquoc

an-d

orsquo a

ppro

ach

to t

heir

wor

k e

ven

unde

r th

e m

ost

chal

leng

ing

circ

umst

ance

s

221

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Tole

ranc

eW

e su

ppor

t a

lsquono-

blam

ersquo c

ultu

re w

hich

acc

epts

that

inno

vatio

ns o

ften

fail

231

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rec

ogni

tion

We

ensu

re t

hat

good

kno

wle

dge

man

agem

ent

prac

tice

is r

ecog

nise

d24

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Imm

edia

tefe

edba

ckW

e en

sure

tha

t st

aff r

ecei

ve im

med

iate

feed

back

on t

heir

wor

k25

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Con

stru

ctiv

efe

edba

ckW

e en

sure

tha

t fe

edba

ck t

o st

aff p

rovi

des

a ba

sis

for

actio

n26

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Pool

ing

idea

sW

e de

velo

p a

pool

of i

deas

tha

t ca

n be

util

ised

inth

e fu

ture

eve

n if

they

are

not

imm

edia

tely

prac

tical

271

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Valu

es in

prac

tice

We

surv

ey s

taff

for

thei

r vi

ews

on h

ow t

hese

valu

es (i

tem

s 15

ndash27)

are

ref

lect

ed in

pra

ctic

e at

the

scho

ol

281

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Beha

viou

rsLe

arni

ng t

hrou

ghac

tion

We

arra

nge

wor

k in

way

s th

at e

ncou

rage

spr

ofes

sion

al le

arni

ng t

hrou

gh a

ctio

n29

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

New

lang

uage

We

are

mov

ing

away

from

hig

h sp

ecia

lised

term

inol

ogy

tow

ard

univ

ersa

lly r

ecog

nise

dvo

cabu

lary

on

prof

essi

onal

mat

ters

301

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Abs

ence

of

jarg

onW

e av

oid

ambi

guou

s m

eani

ngle

ss t

erm

s w

hich

caus

e co

nfus

ion

and

irri

tatio

n31

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Lear

ning

from

succ

ess

We

publ

icis

e su

cces

sful

exp

erie

nces

tha

t pe

ople

can

lear

n fr

om r

athe

r th

an r

ely

on b

ooks

or

repo

rts

321

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Met

apho

rs a

ndsy

mbo

lsW

e us

e im

ager

y in

wor

ds o

r pi

ctur

es t

o st

imul

ate

actio

n33

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Shar

ing

know

ledg

eW

e m

ake

staf

f aw

are

of h

ow s

hari

ng p

rofe

ssio

nal

know

ledg

e w

ill im

prov

e pr

actic

e34

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Impa

ctW

e de

mon

stra

te h

ow t

he s

hari

ng o

f kno

wle

dge

will

hav

e an

impa

ct o

n th

e w

hole

sch

ool

351

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Prac

tical

ityW

e de

mon

stra

te t

hat

the

shar

ing

of k

now

ledg

e is

wor

kabl

e th

roug

hout

the

sch

ool

361

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h (Con

tinu

ed o

verl

eaf)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Rec

ipro

city

We

dem

onst

rate

tha

t sh

arin

g kn

owle

dge

will

resu

lt in

rec

eivi

ng k

now

ledg

e37

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Inte

rdep

ende

ncy

We

ensu

re t

hat

staf

f are

aw

are

that

the

re w

ill b

epo

wer

ful p

rofe

ssio

nal l

earn

ing

only

if k

now

ledg

e is

shar

ed

381

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Bene

fits

We

dem

onst

rate

tha

t th

e sh

arin

g of

pro

fess

iona

lkn

owle

dge

resu

lts in

a r

educ

tion

in th

e in

tens

ity o

fw

ork

391

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Lega

cyW

e en

cour

age

staf

f to

do w

orth

whi

le t

hing

s th

atw

ill h

ave

a la

stin

g im

pact

on

the

scho

ol40

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

TO

TA

L




Appendix 3

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

Purp

ose

Out

com

esT

here

is a

cle

arly

sta

ted

conn

ectio

n be

twee

n th

em

issi

on o

f the

sch

ool a

nd in

tend

ed o

utco

mes

for

stud

ents

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Proc

ess

Enga

gem

ent

Polic

ies

and

plan

s ha

ve b

een

prep

ared

aft

erco

nsul

tatio

n w

ith k

ey s

take

hold

ers

with

in t

hesc

hool

and

the

wid

er c

omm

unity

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Polic

yLe

gitim

acy

Polic

ies

have

bee

n fo

rmal

ly a

ppro

ved

by t

hego

vern

ing

body

of t

he s

choo

l3

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Rep

rese

ntat

iven

ess

Polic

ies

are

cons

iste

nt in

the

ir a

pplic

atio

n ac

ross

the

scho

ol s

o th

at s

tude

nts

with

the

sam

e ne

eds

are

supp

orte

d in

the

sam

e m

anne

r

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Acc

ount

abili

tyA

utho

ritie

s an

d re

spon

sibi

litie

s ar

e sp

ecifi

ed a

ndin

form

atio

n is

gat

here

d an

d m

ade

avai

labl

e to

prov

ide

a ba

sis

for

asse

ssin

g th

e ex

tent

to

whi

chin

tent

ions

hav

e be

en r

ealis

ed

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Effic

ienc

yM

echa

nism

s ar

e in

pla

ce t

o en

sure

tha

tou

tcom

es a

re o

ptim

ised

in t

he c

onte

xt o

fav

aila

ble

reso

urce

s

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Scop

eFi

nanc

ial c

apita

lFi

nanc

ial s

uppo

rt is

sou

ght

from

all

poss

ible

sour

ces

71

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Inte

llect

ual c

apita

lPl

ans

incl

ude

a pr

iori

ty o

n en

suri

ng a

ll st

aff h

ave

high

leve

ls o

f kno

wle

dge

and

skill

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Soci

al c

apita

lPl

ans

incl

ude

a pr

iori

ty o

n se

curi

ng c

ash

and

in-

kind

sup

port

from

all

poss

ible

sou

rces

in t

hew

ider

com

mun

ity

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Stan

dard

sSp

ecifi

city

Expe

ctat

ions

and

inte

nded

out

com

es a

re c

lear

lysp

ecifi

ed10

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Dat

aIn

form

atio

n to

be

gath

ered

in t

heim

plem

enta

tion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

is o

f a k

ind

that

will

ena

ble

judg

emen

ts t

o be

mad

e on

the

effe

ctiv

enes

s of

del

iver

y

111

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

re is

a c

apac

ity t

o ga

ther

info

rmat

ion

abou

tth

e im

plem

enta

tion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

121

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Dat

a th

at a

re g

athe

red

in t

he c

ours

e of

impl

emen

tatio

n ar

e va

lid t

imel

yun

ders

tand

able

and

cap

able

of e

ffect

ive

use

inde

cisi

on-m

akin

g

131

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Dat

a ar

e ga

ther

ed a

cros

s th

e ra

nge

of in

tend

edou

tcom

es14

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

(Con

tinue

d ov

erle

af)

DO

MAI

NEL

EMEN

TIN

DIC

ATO

RIT

EMPE

RFO

RMAN

CE[C

IRCL

E]TO

TAL

App

roac

hes

to th

e ga

ther

ing

of d

ata

are

desi

gned

to e

nsur

e ac

cura

cy15

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

The

re a

re in

cent

ives

in p

lace

to

ensu

re t

hat

data

are

gath

ered

and

util

ised

in t

he m

anne

r in

tend

ed16

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Dat

a ar

e us

ed in

mak

ing

deci

sion

s in

the

form

ulat

ion

of p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

and

in m

akin

gju

dgem

ents

abo

ut t

heir

effe

ctiv

enes

s

171

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Tran

spar

ency

Info

rmat

ion

abou

t po

licie

s an

d pl

ans

is r

eadi

lyav

aila

ble

to a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs a

s is

info

rmat

ion

abou

t im

plem

enta

tion

hav

ing

due

rega

rd t

o th

eet

hica

l use

of s

uch

info

rmat

ion

181

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Rep

licat

ion

Impl

emen

tatio

n is

like

ly t

o be

suc

cess

ful i

nsi

mila

r ci

rcum

stan

ces

in t

he fu

ture

191

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Ow

ners

hip

The

re is

a s

tron

g se

nse

of c

omm

itmen

t on

the

part

of s

take

hold

ers

to p

olic

y an

d pl

ans

as w

ell a

sap

proa

ches

to

thei

r im

plem

enta

tion

201

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

TO

TA

L



Appendix 4

DO

MAI

ND

ESCR

IPTI

ON

ITEM

PERF

ORM

ANCE

[CIR

CLE]

TOTA

L

Proc

ess

Ann

ual p

lann

ing

occu

rs in

the

con

text

of a

mul

ti-ye

arde

velo

pmen

t pl

an fo

r th

e sc

hool

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Educ

atio

nal n

eeds

are

det

erm

ined

and

pla

ced

in a

n or

der

ofpr

iori

ty o

n th

e ba

sis

of d

ata

on s

tude

nt a

chie

vem

ent

evid

ence

-bas

ed p

ract

ice

and

tar

gets

to

be a

chie

ved

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Res

ourc

es t

o be

acq

uire

d an

d al

loca

ted

incl

ude

inte

llect

ual

and

soci

al c

apita

l3

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

A r

ange

of s

ourc

es a

re in

clud

ed in

pla

ns fo

r th

e ac

quis

ition

and

allo

catio

n of

res

ourc

es i

nclu

ding

mon

ey a

lloca

ted

byfo

rmul

a fr

om t

he s

choo

l sys

tem

fun

ds g

ener

ated

from

oth

erso

urce

s ot

her

kind

s of

sup

port

from

pub

lic a

nd p

riva

teor

gani

satio

ns a

nd in

stitu

tions

and

res

ourc

es s

hare

d fo

r th

eco

mm

on g

ood

in n

etw

orks

or

fede

ratio

ns

41

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

re is

app

ropr

iate

invo

lvem

ent

of a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs in

the

plan

ning

pro

cess

incl

udin

g re

pres

enta

tives

of s

ourc

es o

fsu

ppor

t

51

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

The

fina

ncia

l pla

n ha

s a

mul

ti-ye

ar o

utlo

ok a

s w

ell a

s an

annu

al b

udge

t w

ith a

ll co

mpo

nent

s se

t ou

t in

a m

anne

r th

atca

n be

und

erst

ood

by a

ll st

akeh

olde

rs

61

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

App

ropr

iate

acc

ount

ing

proc

edur

es a

re e

stab

lishe

d to

mon

itor

and

cont

rol e

xpen

ditu

re7

1 2

3 4

5Lo

wH

igh

Mon

ey c

an b

e tr

ansf

erre

d fr

om o

ne c

ateg

ory

of th

e bu

dget

toan

othe

r as

nee

ds c

hang

e or

em

erge

dur

ing

the

peri

odco

vere

d by

the

bud

get

81

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Plan

s fo

r kn

owle

dge

man

agem

ent

and

the

build

ing

of s

ocia

lca

pita

l in

clud

ing

phila

nthr

opy

and

the

cont

ribu

tions

of s

ocia

len

trep

rene

urs

are

incl

uded

in o

r co

mpl

emen

t th

e fin

anci

alpl

an

91

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Out

com

esEd

ucat

iona

l tar

gets

are

con

sist

ently

ach

ieve

d th

roug

h th

epl

anne

d al

loca

tion

of r

esou

rces

of a

ll ki

nds

11

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h

Act

ual e

xpen

ditu

re m

atch

es in

tend

ed e

xpen

ditu

re a

llow

ing

for

flexi

bilit

y to

mee

t em

ergi

ng a

ndo

r ch

angi

ng n

eeds

21

2 3

4 5

Low

Hig

h



Objectives








Appendix 5

Features








ComponentItem



PrimarySecondary



Primary

Secondary



lt801students

Reducing base$25623





PrimarySecondary



Equity funding

ComponentItem



PrimarySecondary



PrimarySecondary








ComponentItem



PrimarySecondary



ESL Index

PrimarySecondary





References






























204 References



















References 205



















206 References
















References 207



















208 References









References 209

Index




























self-management




Victoria 17 18 19 26 47 170171











Borman GD 39 203

212 Index



Breakthrough 40 48 124 143 144170 205








partnerships with













12 17 28 32 47 53 54 7681 168 169 174





Index 213



















25 81 88 89 96 99 171202
















214 Index















Index 215

42 45 54 146 147 148 149150 152 154 155 157 158160 164 182


networks 7 8 11 64 65ndash69 73168


Finland xxiii 20 42 79 80 166168 169 174 175






143 144 154 166 167 170171 175 205








England 2 3 18 47 66 7794 111 112 114 115 120161














16 21 22 23 64 67 68 137138 162 163


216 Index


144 166 169 170 171 175204 205 206








166 176










33 35 61 62 87 134 151iNet ix xxiv 23 116 151



126 135 136 140 147 148149 152 153 157 179










167Italy 9








Korea 79 80 166

Index 217




10 14 17 20 21 23ndash2430ndash31 62 77 83 96 104 105106 114 116 118 119 121138 140 144 153 154 155161 162 163 176









xxii 110 111 114 115










schools) ix 7 8 9 21 23 27 3256 61ndash63 68 73 116 123156 168 172 176 182












218 Index






















xxi xxii 12 16 19 20 21 2223 27 34 45 53 67 74 9193 96 101 104 105 110 112115 138 147 153 182 183






pupil see student








Index 219




























220 Index


students at risk 77 83 94 98 113119 121 140 149

























value-adding 90 91 92 105 111112 113 118 123 132 135138 162 174





Index 221








Zuboff S 4 7 209

222 Index

Book Cover

Title

Copyright

Contents

Illustrations


Foreword

Preface



Chapter 3 Alignment














References

Index

Raising the Stakes: From Improvement to Transformation in the Reform of Schools (Leading School...

Documents

Transcript of Raising the Stakes: From Improvement to Transformation in the Reform of Schools (Leading School...