Raising Chukar

7/27/2019 Raising Chukar

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Introduction

Raising Red-legged partridge, commonlyreferred to as the "chukar,"can be an enjoyablehobby, or if properly managed, a profitablebusiness.

Many bird fanciers consider the chukar one ofthe easiest game birds to raise in captivity, espe-cially when it is raised on wire to minimizedisease problems.

Initially introduced into California in theearly 1930s to help supply birds for huntingrecreation, the chukar partridge in recent yearshas gained popularity as a gourmet food. Thetexture and taste of cooked partridge comparesfavorably with that of the Bobwhite quail.

With modern techniques it is possible to raisechicks during any season, thus producing a mar-ketable product all year. This has definitemonetary advantages fo r the producer who canmore efficiently utilize his growing facilities. Itis still recommended, however, that managersestablish dependable markets before venturinginto business on a large scale.

Distr ibution

The Red-legged partridge familiar to mostgame bird fanciers in the United States is thoughtto be a composite (hybrid) of several subspecies

of the genusAlectoris originating from centralAsia. There are at least 13 subspecies of Red-legged or rock partridge that look alike yet haveunique traits that identify them with their re-spective habitats.

The chukar partridge recently reclassified bysome taxonomists as belonging to the specieschukar, is presently identified as Alectorischukar chukar. This subspecies was first liber-

ated in California in about 1932; 20 years latersome 53,000 birds had been released in all butfour counties. As a result of these releases,chukars are established in the desert and semi-arid regions of northern and southern Californiawhere yearly precipitation rarely exceeds 10inches. The bird has been successfully estab-lished in other western states including Nevada,Washington, Oregon, Utah, Montana, Wyom-ing, Idaho and Arizona.

Use of the term chukar in this leaflet is synon-ymous with the Red-legged partridge,Alectorischukar chukar.

Description

The chukar can best be identified by the blackband running across the forehead through theeyes, down the neck, and meeting as a gorget,between the white throat feathers and upperbreast. The lower breast and back are generallyash-gray. Feathers on the flanks are gray at thebase and have two black bands at the tip, givingthe appearance of numerous bands of black barsflanking the side. The bill, legs and feet of bothsexes are orange-red.

Sex Determi nati on

There is no obvious feather color dimorphismin chukars. Consequently, sexing adult birds forthe untrained eye is most difficult. However, itispossible to distinguish adult males from femaleby body size, shape of the head (blocky appear -ance in males) (figure 1 ) and presence of themetatarsal spur (which can be present on somefemales).

A more reliable technique fo r determining

sexes in partridges was developed by Universityof California workers who found that examin-ing the genital protuberance for evidence of arudimentary sex organ is about 95 percent ac-curate for determining differences in sex. Inadult males the cone-shaped protuberance isusually centrally located on the cloacal fold

Cooperative Extension

Division ofAgricultural Sciences

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

LEAFLET 21321e

(Scan of Leaflet 21321.)

(No content was updated from the 1982 printing.)


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Figure 1. Side profile ofthe male (top) and female(bottom). Compare the shape and sizeofthe head.(figure 2a). In females it is absent or two smallnodules appear off-center of the mid-region ofthe fold (figure 2b). The rudimentary protuber-ance, averaging about 2.78 mm in diameter, iseasier to see on older birds.

Characteristics of the Chukar Egg

Partridge eggs are uniformly yellowish-whitein color, with numerous speckles of brown, of

varying sizes and shapes, appearing over most

of the shell. Eggsweigh from 16 to 25 g (averageabout 21 g), are oblong in shape, and are anaverage 42 mm long and 31 mmwide. Egg shellthickness is about 0.228 mm and shell mem-branes about 0.047 mm. The wet proportion ofshell, yolk and albumen to total egg weight are15.2 percent, 35.0 percent and 49.8 percent,respectively.

E g g Care

The critical period for most hatching eggs isthe time from lay to actual setting in the incuba-tor. Eggs should be gathered at least four times aday and more frequently during extreme heat o rcold. Eggs must not be exposed for long periodsof time to ambient temperatures below 40 F(4.4 C)and in excess of80 F (26.7 C).Ideallya uniform temperature of55F to 60 F shouldbe provided.

Proper use of nest boxes for floor-managed

breeders will greatly reduce the number ofheavily soiled eggs harvested. Slightly soiledeggs can be cleaned with a fine-grained abrasive

pad. However, fo r managers who prefer towash all hatching eggs, a correct proceduremust be followed. Eggs must never be washed inwater colder than the temperature of the egg.Awash water temperature of 1 1 0 to 120 F(43.3to 48.9C)is recommended for mosteggs and a detergent-sanitizer (any of the chlor -ine-based disinfectants)1 added to reduce eggshell contamination. Not more than 200 eggsshould be washed in one gallon of wash water.

Immersion time should not exceed 3 minutes,

Figure 2. Eversion ofthe cloaca to showrudimentary genital protuberance of the male (2a) and its absencein thefemale (2b).

1. Refer to U.C. Extension Leaflet 2629, Hatchery andHatching Egg Sanitation, for further information on eggwashing procedure.

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and eggs should be thoroughly d ry before beingstored.

Egg Storage

Clean eggsshould be stored, large end up, ontrays or flats in a cool, well ventilated roomkept at about 55 F (12 .8 C) at a relativehumidity of70percent. Aunique feature of par-tridge eggs is their ability to withstand storageup to 28 days without appreciably affectinghatchability (table 1) . However, most breeders

pre fer to set eggs every 7 days. Further studiesat the University of California show that eggsneed not be turned daily if the storage perioddoes not exceed 14 days (table 2).

TABLE 1 . Influence of Length of Storage Timeon Hatchability of Game Bird Eggs.

Hatchability(%)Holding period

(days) Chukar Pheasant Coturnix

1-7 78.4 58.1 57.4

8-14 77.1 41.7 60.0

15-21 79.4 17.6 25.7

22-28 66.0 7.1 14.4

29-35 37.7 0.0 4.2

36-42 22.3 0.0 0.0

TABLE 2. Effect ofTurning EggsDuring Storageon Hatchability in Game Bird Eggs.

Hatchability (%)Holding Chukar Coturnixperiod(days) Turned* Control Turned* Control

1-7 63.0 75.5 61.4 53.4

8-14 60.8 62.0 60.0 60.0

15- 21 61.9 48.0 29.2 22.6

22-28 62.2 52.2 11 .5 17.2

Average 61.9 59.4 40.5 38.3

*Eggs wer e turned through 90 twice a day during the holdperio d.

Hatching

For the beginner, it is advisable to purchaseeggsfrom a well-established reputable gamebird producer who can provide aproduct (rea-sonably) free of disease. A number of large

breeders in the United States provide good sale-able stock or eggs. Contact your local farm ad-

visor or Department o f Fish and Game for moreinformation on sources of stock.

The hatchery room should be well ventilatedand temperature maintained at about 75 F

(23.9 C). For sanitary reasons, the hatchershould be kept in a separate room from the incu-bators. Walls should be constructed o f, or treatedwith, a water-impervious material. Concretefloors should slope to central drains for ease ofcleaning.

Incubat ion

One of the most important investments youmust make is the purchase of an incubator largeenough to maintain accurate control of temper-ature ( .25 F or 0 .15 C) and humidity (

1.0 F or 0.56 C). Other essential features in-clude automatic turning of eggs and forced airmovement.

Commercial incubators for poultry can bemodified to accommodate game bird eggs. Con-tact a representative from any commercialincubator manufacturer for information aboutdifferent models and select the one most suitablefor your needs.

The incubator should be thoroughly cleanedand fumigated before eggs are placed in themachine. One popular fumigant used is formal-dehyde gas, the product generated by mixing 60

grams (2 ounces) of potassium permanganatewith 120 cubic centimeters ( cup) ofa com-mercial 37 percent formaldehyde solution foreach 100 cubic feet (2 .83 cubic meters) of spaceto be fumigated. Pour the formaldehyde overthe potassium permanganate in an earthenwareor enamelware container. Circulate the gas for20 minutes with a fan, and then expel the gasfrom the fumigation room or cabinet.2

When eggs are to be fumigated, be sure toplace them on trays large end up in the incuba-tor that will allow adequate gas circulation forall of them (figure 3).

The incubation period for chukar eggs is about24 days (the range is 23 to 25 days), dependingupon age and line of stock used. The dry-bulband wet-bulb temperature used successfully atDavis for both incubation and hatching is a dry-bulb of 99. 5 F (37.5 C), and a wet-bulb of86to 87 F (30.0 to 30 .5 C), respectively. Eggsare transferred to the hatcher on the 19th or20th day of incubation.2. Formaldehyde solution (formalin) is highly irritating.Follow precautions on the container label. Wear goggles,respirator, long-sleeved shirt and liquid-proo f gloves whenhandling the fumigant. If the fumigant chamber is withinanother room. he sure the outside room iswel l ventilated. If

the chemical solution spills on you, wash it off immediately.

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Figure 3. Chukar eggs set large end up on a trayadapted for Jamesway incubators.

Embryo Mortality

A sampling of hatching eggs from each settingshould be candled on the seventh or eighth day

to check flock fertility and for other problemsthat can be detected when clear-appearingeggs are opened and examined for failure todevelop.

There are two peaks of embryo mortality forchukar eggs (figure 4). The first peak occursbetween 3 to 5 days of incubation and mostmortality is due to a failure to form embryonicstructures or to a defect in embryonic and extra-embryonic organs and tissues.

The second and largest peak in mortality isgenerally associated with several critical func-

tions occurring from the 20th to 24th day. Thesefunctions include: change in position of the em-bryo before pipping; utilization of the remain-ing albumen; absorption of the yolk sac, andchange from allantoic to pulmonary respiration.

Figure 4.Embryo mortality curve fo r the chukar.

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Brooding

The average brooding chukar chick weighsabout 13 to 14 grams at hatch. Although amplycovered with down feathers at hatch, it is basi-cally an incomplete homoiotherm. It requiressupplemental heat for several weeks until itsow n temperature regulatory mechanism is fully

established.Chicks can be brooded successfully in multi-

deck batteries (figure 5) or on the floor (figure6). Most commercial chicken batteries, withsome modification to the floors, feeders and

waterers, can accommodate the smaller partridgechicks. To reduce hock injury the floor areaimmediately beneath the heating elementshould be covered with a commercial poly-ethylene matting (poly-mesh) having -inchspacing.3 The matting is durable and can bewashed and reused fo r several years. The birdsshould be moved into more permanent growingcages or pens at 6weeks.

Floor brooding is generally considered themost economical way tostart chicks. The sizeand style of brooding facility will vary amongregions of the United States. The procedure,however, is much the same, involving a separateenclosed room, preferably with insulated walls

Figure 5. Commercial five-deck game bird battery.Waterers and feeders are located inside unit for thefirst week, then aremoved to outside.

3. The polyethylene matting is normally used in Iabora-tor ies hut can he cut and adapted fo r use as matting forbrooders. For fur ther information contact Cole-Parmer In-strument Company , 7425 North Oak Park Avenue, Chicago,Illinois 60648.


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and ceiling, and heat isprovided by gas or elec-tric hovers. Some managers use a raised wire-floor system, allowing fecal material to fallthrough the wire floor where it accumulatesbelow and is later removed mechanically. OnePennsylvania grower uses a vinyl-coated wire

( x inch) that covers the entire floor areaof the brooding compartment. This floor typegreatly minimizes the incidence of foot trouble.The vinyl mesh is also easy to clean (figure 7).

Floor brooding requires the use of a suitablesurface, preferably cement; with adequate floordrains for cleanup. Use a litter that can absorbmoisture, serve as an insulation barrier betweenbird and floor, and be economical in price. Theuse of a draft shield, a cardboard circle placedaround the hover, is optional, especially whenattraction lights are used on the hover.

The capacity of the hover wi ll determine ho wmany birds can be kept in each unit. A rule ofthumb is to allow 1 square foot per 5 chicks forthe first 2 weeks, then reduce it to 3 birds persquare foot to 6weeks ofage.

Figure 6. Floor brooding chukars, using a pancakehover and draft shield.

Figure 7.Wire-floor brooding, using a x inchvinyl-coated wire floor. Approximately 600 chicksare started in each 12 x 12 foot room. Four 1-gallonwater jars and 4 feederlids are used to start the chicks.The pit below the floor is enclosed to conserve heat.-Photocourtesy ofMahantongo Game Farm, Pillow, Penn.

For the first week o f brooding use a one-gallonfount (jar) for each 200 chicks. Thereafter, thechicks can be given access to automatic water-ers. However, make the transition from fount toautomatic waterer a gradual one.

Chicks should be allowed from to 1 inch of

feeder space per bird.To stimulate eating, placepaper plates containing chick starter near hover;this do in addition to supplying feed in regularchick feeders.

Some recommended procedures for complet-ing a successful brooding season include:1 . Brooder area or chick battery to be thorough-ly cleaned and disinfected before arrival ofchicks.2. Start up hovers or battery heating units atleast 4 hours before arrival of chicks. Checkhover or battery thermometers for accuracy anduse a starting temperature of95 F (3 5 C) anddecrease the temperature 5 F (2.8C) each

week until the fourth week at which time fur -ther supplemental heat is not needed.3. Be certain that the brooding area is ventil-ated enough to avoid ammonia buildup. If odorofammonia can be detected, then additional airmovement in the room is needed.4. Drinking founts should be cleaned and re-filled daily until birds are switched to an auto-matic watering system. Keep litter dry arounddrinking founts.5. Start the birds on a chick diet containing

about 28 percent protein. Commercially pre-pared turkey starter diets can be fed to mostgame birds with satisfactory results. Conservefeed by not over-filling feed hoppers.6. Check chicks daily for cannibalism or sick-ness. Remove dead birds immediately and dis-

pose ofthem in a sanitary manner (preferably anincinerator or deep pit).

Growing Chukars

Past experience has shown that birds do best

when kept off the ground in wire-floor flightpens. Chukars are very susceptible to blackhead(a condition caused by aprotozoan parasite thatattacks the liver and ceca) coccidiosis, andworms, including crop, cecal and intestinal vari-eties, that can cause severe mortality in groundmanaged birds.

The growing pens can be separate from thebrooder house or attached to it in such a manneras to allow the upper end of the flight pen to be

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Figures 8a and 8b. Wire-floor flight pens for growing birds. Each section measures 12 feet x 100 feet. Feeders andwaterers are located at each end of the pen under cover.-Photo courtesy of Mabantongo Game Farm, Pillow,Penn.

a sunporch and used by the chicks from the sec-ond week of age on.

Flight pens can vary in size, but should belong enough to make flight possible. A pen size

frequently used is one that is about 12 feet wideby 100 feet long (figures 8a and 8b). The wire-floor and partitions are covered with 1-inchmesh. The top-wire should be a 2-inch meshespecially in areas where snow is a commonwinter product . A product frequently used astop-netting, in place of poultry netting, is a syn-thetic product called Toprite made of o lefinfibers. The product is manufactured in 2 sizes,1- and 2-inch netting, and pieces are laced to-gether with dacron twine or hog rings.4

Overcrowding is one major managementproblem to avoid. As a rule of thumb allow each

bird approximately 2 square feet of space in theflight pens.

A system used satisfactorily at the Universityof California for growing birds is double-deckcolony cages that are kept in temperature- andlight-controlled rooms. Each colony cage mea-sures 5 feet wide x 2. 5 feet deep x 2 feet high(figure 9). Approximately 25 birds are kept ineach unit to 16weeks of age. The sloping floorof each unit is constructed ofinch x 1 inchwelded wire , the side partitions and to p madeof 1 inch x 2 inch welded wire. One automaticwater fount, mounted outside the cage, suppliesthe fresh water for the growing birds. Remov-able trays permit ease of cleaning.

Growth an d Marketing

In partridge, growth is rapid during the first12 weeks, then slows during the next 4, and at

4.Toprite II is a commercial product manufactured by J .A .Cissel Company, Inc. Squankum-Yell owbrook Road, Farm-ingdale, New Jersey 07727.

16 weeks the bird has attained approximately92 percent of its adult weight (figure 10). Usingthe cumulative feed conversion scale on theright ordinate in Figure 8, a male chukar should

reach 1pound weight at about 9weeks and willconsume approximately 3.75 pounds of feed.The females will attain 1 pound weight at 12weeks, consuming about 4.5 pounds of feed.Birds raised for shooting club activity should bemarketed at 16 to 2 0 weeks. For monetary rea-sons birds should not be kept beyond 2 0 weeks,unless held for special shooting club activity, in

which case anadditional holding charge mustbe included to cover feed and labor costs.

Special gourmet markets desire a processedbird weighing about 1pound ( 45 4 grams). Thus,the average flock live weight should be about

1.32 pounds (600 grams), a weight reached atabout 2 0 weeks.

Figure9.Double-deck colony growing pens. Waterers

and feedersarepositioned at front of cage.


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Figure 10. Growth curve and approximate feed con-version (F /C)for chukars from hatch to 20weeks.

Lighting for Growing Birds

After the first week of brooding, light is usedsparingly at low intensities (less than .05-footcandle) to minimize cannibalism and reduce ac-tivity in birds raised for shooting club activity.When raised in outside flight pens the birdsshould receive natural daylight only.

Birds raised for meat should be grown to thedesired marketable weight as quickly aspossible.For this purpose, cycles of intermittent lighting(1L:2D) repeated eight times per 2 4 hours or aconstant period of light in excess of 2 0 hoursper day are used to produce the best growth inpartridges. For most light regimens use a low in-tensity light of about 0.5 foot candles (5 lux).

Nutrition

The source of all tissue proteins, includingthe major muscle mass of the body, is dietary

proteins and amino acids. The closer the supplyof dietary amino acids comes to actual levelsrequired for optimum growth, the greater the

proportion o f lean tissue in the body. The bodyof the bird, like humans, has a remarkable capa-city for storing surplus dietary energy in the formoffat.A certain amount of fat on the carcass ofthe chukar may be desirable for its meat has atendency to be dry. Diets formulated at theUniversity of California, Davis, for chukars are

TABLE 3. Suggested Diets for Chukars.

Diet Composition (%)

Ingredient Starter Grower Breeder

Corn, yellow (grd.) 46.22 54.04 61.25Soybean Meal (dehul.) 47.47 26.84 18.59Wheatbran

-

14.19 10.46

Methionine 0.10 0.17 0.23Limestone 1.65 1.76 7.38Fat 1.56 - -

Salt 0.50 0.50 0.50CA Phosphate 2.00 2.00 1.09Premix 0.50 0.50 0.50EstimatedCrude Protein (%) 25.00 20.00 16.00ME(KCAI/gm) 2.80 2.70 2.70Fat (%) 3.70 2.70 2.80Fiber (%) 4.50 3.80 3.20CA(%) 1.20 1.20 3.00

P (%) 0.80 0.70 0.50

*Supplied the following per Kg diet: Vitamin A, 5000 IU;Vitamin D3, 1500 IU;Vitamin E, 2 0 IU; (in mg) menadionebisulfide, 2.0; Riboflavin, 6.0; niacin, 40.0; calcium pan-tothenate, 20.0; folacin, 0.5; Vitamin B12, 5.0; MnSO4 H2O,140.0; ZnO, 120.0; gallomycin, 10.0; BHT, 40.0 ; Cholinechloride to balance.

given in table 3. The suggested protein level ofthe starter diet is 25 percent; this level wasfound t o be more than adequate for satisfactorygrowth in the chukar. For those who desire a

higher protein starter diet, we recommendedthe following feeding regimen: 2 8 percent pro-tein diet for 2 weeks followed by a 24 percentdiet for 4weeks, thereafter switch to a 20 per-cent diet in which, by weight, half is supple-mented with milo.

A breeder diet containing 16percent proteinis adequate for most laying flocks of chukars.Acommercial chicken breeder diet can be easilyobtained in bulk and generally costs less thanmost game bird breeder diets.

Management of Breeders

For optimum performance partridge breedersshould be kept in a laying house in either cages,

wire-floor colony pens, or on the floor wheretemperature and light can be controlled. When

pedigree matings are desired, the individualcage system is used where individual bird per-formances can easily be monitored.

The most economical method for keepingchukar breeders is on the floor in mass-mated

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flocks, maintaining a mating ratio of one male tofour females. This ratio may be revised upwardor downward depending upon the strain andenvironmental conditions under which thebirds are kept.

Keeping breeders in outside range pens ispracticed with limited success in some areas o fthe United States. Some disadvantages associatedwith this system of management is exposure ofthe birds to adverse weather conditions andhigh disease risk with blackhead and coccidi-osis, two diseases that can cause high mortality.

Individual cage management.Breeder cageslarge enough to keep a mating pair or two fe -males and one male per cage are used exclusive-ly at the University of California research farm.The all-wire cages with sloping floors measure12 inches wide x 24inches deep x 15 incheshigh (figure 11). The inch x 1 inch meshwelded wire floor slopes about 2 inches from

back to front. The galvanized2

inch deep V trough waterers are attached to the back of thecage, providing water to back-to-back cage sec-tions if such a system is desired.

Colony cage management. Another systemused at Davis consists of an all-wire colony penthat measures 60 inches wide x 28 inches deepx 20 inches high. The sloping floor is con-

structed of inch x 1 inch welded wire meshthat allows the egg to roll to the front o f the cagefor ease in harvesting. Each cage is equippedwith a 6-inch diameter water fount that is adjust-able for proper water level. The pen will accom-

modate 12 breeder birds, 3 males and 9 females(figure 9).

Figure 1 1 . Single row individual laying cages. Cagesmeasure 1 2 inches wide x 24inches deep x 15 incheshigh. Anopen V trough is located at the backofthecage.

Floor management. Perhaps the most eco-nomical method of managing breeders is to keepthem in floor pens. The floor should be con-crete and equipped with a drain for washing.The walls should be painted with an imperme-able material for ease of washing. Either bulkfeeders or automated feeding troughs are usedto reduce labor involved with feeding. Locateautomatic watering founts on a stand or roostand equip them with rollers to discourage birdsfrom roosting on them. The location of nestboxes along the walls of the floor pen will great-ly reduce the number of dirty eggs and eggbreakage. The colony type nest is most com-monly used in floor managements, allowing 1square foot of nest box for every 6 hens.

Mating Ratio

Chukars normally pair-mate in the wild. In

captivity, howev er, 1 male can be mated to 3 or4 females under colony cage or floor manage-ment systems. It is important to candle a sam-

pling of the first setting of eggs to determinelevel of fertility.

Fertility

Low fertility can result from many manage-ment problems:1 . Age of the bird when given stimulatory light.It has been demonstrated that breeders shouldbe at least 30 weeks of age before stimulated to

lay (table 4).2. Breeder diets low in protein, vitamins oressential amino acids. These can cause fertility

problems.3. Management. Poor or inadequate lighting,overexposure to climatic stress, outbreaks ofcannibalism are but a few of the management

problems causing a decline in fer til ity.4. Disease. Most acute outbreaks of disease willcause a drop in fert ility and subsequent termina-tion of lay. A few diseases known to acutelyaffect fertility are bronchitis, newcastle andsalmonellosis.

Fertility is generally higher in chukar flocksmass mated on the floor as compared to those

pair-mated and kept in cages. Females massmated on the f loor are usually serviced by morethan one male, thus assuring successful fertili-zation ofthe egg.

A typical fertility curve for pair-mated chukarbreeders kept in individual cages can be seen in

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TABLE 4. Effect of Age When Given Stimulatory Light on Sexual Maturityand Egg Production in the Chukar Partridge.

% ofAge when total Av. days Av. eggs % of laying

stimulatory reaching after given hen in 4eggs or less

given birds to 1st egg laid per hens producing

light No.of sexual stimulatory 10-week during 1 3 weeks(16L:8D) birds maturing light period of lay

16 8 12.5 49.0 4.0 100.0

48.5 4.5 50.0

18 21

20 13 30.8

22 22 45.5 51.9 7.0 70.0

24 18 55.6 48.2 15.0 30.0

26 13 84.6 41.5 18.0 9.1

28 20 90.0 38.8 17.4 16.7

30 10 100.0 40.6 21.5 20.0

33.3 57.4 6.3 71.4

figure 12. The lower level of fertility that occursduring the first 2weeks of lay can be attributedto the lag in male potency, especially if artificiallight programs are used to induce out-of-seasonlay.

Duration of fertility in the chukar is compar-able to that for the duck and slightly longer thanfor coturnix (figure 13). These results indicatethat fertility remains reasonably high for ap-

proximately 6 days following the removal ofthe male, thus for stud-breeding the male shouldbe mated with the females at least once perweek.

Figure 13. Comparison of duration of fertility follow-ing removal ofmale in 3different gallinaceous birds.

Figure 12 .Average fertil ity for 8 generations ofchuk-ars kept in individual mating cages.

E g g Production

Reproduction in the chukar is much the sameas in other seasonal layers in that eggs are pro -duced in the spring, when favorable light condi-tions prevail. It is possible, however, to inducelay in chukars at any time of the year with proper

preconditioning with light. In preparation fo rlay, chukars must receive aperiod of nonstimu-latory light, and by alternating 2 flocks througheither stimulatory or nonstimulatory light, it is

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possible to have one or the other flock in eggproduction at all times, irrespective of theseason. A lighting scheme used to demonstratethis is shown in figure 14. Experience gained atDavis has shown that egg production from

young chukars ( 35 t o 40weeks old) for the firstlay period is always less than for their secondcycle of lay (figure 15). The use of artificial light

to induce lay has one disadvantage in that ittakes the males approximately two weeks longerthan females to reach sexual maturity.To avoidthis problem, males should be separated fromthe hens and given stimulatory light t wo weeksin advance of them.

For egg production, a light intensity of about5- to 10-foot candle (50 to 100 lux) is adequate.During the rest period, under nonstimulatorylight (8L:16D), the level of intensity should beabout 0.5 foot candle (5 lux). For maximumconditioning during the rest period, the longdark period o f the day should never be disruptedby light, even for a brief second.

It was found at the University of Californiathat for birds given light from 4a.m. to 10p.m.,the peak of production occurs about 8 hoursafter the onset of light (figure 16). Approximate-ly 50 percent of all eggs are laid between thehours of9 a.m. and noon, the remainder from1 to 7p.m. A late-hour harvest of eggs each day

will catch most of the late layers.There is sufficient evidence to indicate that

breeders can be held over for a second year ofsatisfactory egg production even though cycled

through 2 previous lay periods. After 2 years ofage, however, other reproductive traits (fertil-ity and hatchability) show a decline. Some pro-ducers prefer t o hold half of the first-year malesas breeders for the next year.

Figure 16.Time of lay f or chukars kept in individualcages and maintained under hours light per day. (Lightperiod was from 4a.m. to 8p.m.)

Sanitation

A good disease preventative program is worth

the effort to keep equipment and buildingsclean and birds isolated from unauthorized traf-fic. A few sanitation practices to help minimizethe occurrence and spread of disease include:a. Select healthy vigorous chicks for founda-

tion stock.

Figure 14. Light schedule for producing eggs continuously, using2 separate flocksofchukars.

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Figure 15. Daily egg production for chukars cycled to

lay in 2 periods separated by an 8-week rest period. Data

represent the performance of 6 generations of chukars.


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b. Keep young growing chicks separate fromadult birds.

c. Keep the equipment, buildings and pen en-vironment clean.

d. Place chicks or adult birds from outsidesources in quarantine for at least 30 days

before combining them with your ownbirds.

e. Never crowd growing chicks or breederstock. Crowding increases cannibalism, eggbreakage, vent picking, and other stress-related problems.

f . Dispose of dead birds in an incinerator or adeep pit designed for that purpose.

g. Provide an adequate all-purpose diet fo r allage groups.

h. When disease occurs, isolate the pen fromothers by servicing it last, and take a sam-

pling of sick birds to the nearest diagnosticlaboratory.

Diseases

Some important diseases and pathologicalagents that have been found in chukars are listedin table 5. In event of an outbreak, early diag-nosis and quick treatment of the disease willgreatly reduce the spread of the agent and sub-

sequent loss due t o mortality.Information that will greatly benefit the vet-

erinarian in making a correct diagnosis include:age of the birds; number of birds seemingly af-fected in each pen; description of symptomsseen by the owner; diet of birds; any change inmanagement, and when the symptoms werefirst noted.

Treatment used should be determined by anti-biotic sensitivity testing in a diagnostic labora-tory whenever possible. This information canbe most rapidly obtained by submitting several

birds characteristic of the problem.Preventive treatment is sometimes advisable:however, unneeded drugs do add substantiallyto growing expenses and may cause injurythemselves.

TABLE 5. Diseases and Parasites in Chukars

DISEASES

Viral

Newcastle(Avian pneumoencephalitis)

Encephalitis

Mycoplasma sp. (PPLO)

BacterialSalmonellosis

(Salmonella derby)

Ulcerative Enteritis

Chlamydiosis (ornithosis)

SYMPTOMS

Paralysis, tremors, neck contortions,coughing, near cessation of lay,

profuse diarrhea.

Nervous disorders, depression,paralysis and abnormal postures.

Respiratory disorders, coughingSinusitis (swelling o f sinuses),moderate drop in egg production.

Acute outbreaks common in youngbirds. Listlessness, diarrhea, andhigh mortality during first weekof age is characteristic.

Chronically infected birds are listless;eyes may be partly closed andmotionless. Feed consumption isdecreased and emaciation rapidlyoccurs. Generally high mortality inyoung birds.

Acute infections cause inactivity,respiratory distress, and sometimesa purulent exudate of eye or nose.Mortality high in young stock.

TREATMENT

No effective treatment.Vaccines available.

No treatment. Controlvectors (wild birds).

No effective cure.Tylosin sometimesreduces mortality.

Good sanitation;nitrofurazone, and someantibiotics are helpful.

Some drugs used include

Streptomycin, neomycinand bacitracin.

Some antibiotics, includ-ing chlorotetracycline,oxytetracycline andtetracycline have beenused successfully.

( con t i nued )

11


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TABLE 5. Diseases andParasites in ChukarsDISEASES

Bacter ia l (cont inued)Listeriosis (Circling disease)

EndoparasitesCrop worm

Gape worm

(Capillariasp.)

(Syngamustrachea)

Cecal worm

ProtozoansCoccidiosis

(H eterakisgallinae)

(E imeriasp.)

Blackhead(H istomoniasessp.)

SYMPTOMS

Fewvisual symptoms, may displaytorticollis, spasms, and othernervous symptoms. Mortality variable.

Emaciation, diarrhea, listlessness,anorexia, reduced water consumption.

Young birds highly susceptible.Gapeworms obstruct the lumen oftrachea and cause birds to suffocate.

Gastric disturbances includinganorexia, diarrhea, emaciation.

Acute outbreaks normally occurduring the second to third weekof

age and can result in high mortalityin young stock. Chicks becomedroopy, have ruffled feathers. Loss ofappetite resulting in slowgrowth.

Decreased appetite, watery sulfur-colored droppings and generalweakness.

TREATMENT

Antibiotics

5percent Meldane-2administered in feed.

Barium antimonyl tar-trate used as an inhalent.Thiabendozole is effec-tive when administeredin feed.

Phenothiazine given insingle or repeated doses.

Many coccidiostats areavailable. Sulfaquinoxa-

line is the drug mostwidely used for control,and amprol to a lesserextent.

Any of the histomona-stats administered in thedrinking water or feed.

Ectoparasites-On occasion, some game birds host fleas, lice, and mites. Many commercialpesticides are available fo r control of ectoparasites.

Consult a veterinarian for correct dosage, route (feed and/or water), and duration.

ALLEN E. WOODARD

DepartmentofAvian SciencesUniversi tyofCali fornia

Davis, CA 95616

Acknowledgments

Appreciationisextendedtothefollowingwho offered helpfulsuggestions:Dr.PranV ohra, Dr. RalphErnst, andDr. UrsulaK.Abbott, DepartmentofA vian

Sciences, UniversityofCalifornia, Davis. SomephotographswerecontributedbyLynnA.Landenslager, MahantongoGameFarms, Pillow, Pennsylvania.

This information is provided by Cooperative Extension, an educational agency of the UniversityofCalifornia and the United States

Department of Agriculture. Support for Cooperative Extension is supplied by federal, state, and county governments. Cooperative

Extension provides the people of California with the latest scientific information in agriculture and family and consumer sciences. Italso sponsors the 4-H Youth Program. Cooperative Extension representatives, serving all counties in Cali fornia, are known as farm,

home, or youth advisors. Their offices usually are located in the county seat. They will be happy to provide you with information in theirfields ofwork.

The University of California Cooperative Extension incompliance with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title IX of the Education Amendmentsol 1972, and the Rehabilitation Act of 1973does not discriminate on the basis of race, creed, religion, color, national origin. sex, or mental or physical handicap in any of its programs or activ ities. Inquiries regarding this policy

may he directed to Affirmative Action Officer, Cooperative Extension. 317 University Hall, University of California, Berkeley. California 94720, (415) 642-9300.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and lune 30, 1914, in Cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture, Jerome B. Siebert, Director,Cooperative Extension, University of California

3m-10/82-HS/VG PRINTED OCTOBER 1982


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Raising Chukar

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