R EPENTHETIC+VOWELS+IN+ J L 16 21irwin/site/Home_files/Replication...JAPANESE+LOANWORDS+FROMTHE+16TH...

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REPLICATION OF EPENTHETIC VOWELS IN JAPANESE LOANWORDS FROM THE 16TH TO 21ST CENTURY Mark Irwin 山形大学准教授

Transcript of R EPENTHETIC+VOWELS+IN+ J L 16 21irwin/site/Home_files/Replication...JAPANESE+LOANWORDS+FROMTHE+16TH...

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REPLICATION  OF  EPENTHETIC  VOWELS  IN  JAPANESE  LOANWORDS  FROM  THE  16TH  

TO  21ST  CENTURY

Mark  Irwin山形大学准教授

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Epenthetic Vowels: Overview

When  analysed  from  a  synchronic  viewpoint,  epenthe8c  vowels  in  Japanese  loanwords  are  largely  uncontroversial

So  uncontroversial  that,  in  the  brief  overview  to  follow,  I  will  not  bother  to  cite  any  references

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All  syllables  in  Japanese  must  be  either  open,  or  have  a  coda  in  a  mora  obstruent  /Q/  or  /N/  (ッ  or  ン)

The  closed  syllables  and  consonant  clusters  found  frequently  in  donor  words  are  adapted  to  Japanese  phontac8cs  by  means  of  vowel  epenthesis:  e.g.  Eng.  phrase  >  fureezu  

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Synchronically,  the  most  commonly  found  epenthe8c  vowels  are  /u/  and,  to  a  lesser  extent,  /i/,  both  of  which  are  conspicuous  in  Japanese  for  undergoing  regular  devoicing  in  certain  environments.  The  vowel  /u/  is  also  the  most  subject  to  weakening  and  dele8on  in  Japanese  in  general

It  is  important  to  remember  that  the  value  of  the  epenthe8c  vowel  is  determined  not  by  the  adapted  Japanese  consonant,  but  by  the  donor  consonant:  e.g.  peeji  <  Eng.  page  (g  =  [dʒ]),  but  beeju  from  Fr.  beige  (g  =  [ʒ])

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I  will  not  list  here  those  donor  consonants  which  aRract  an  epenthe8c  /u/,  as  they  are  too  numerous

Those  donor  consonants  which  aRract  an  epenthe8c  /i/  include  borrowings  with  a  [ks]  cluster  (tekisuto,  tekisasu);  the  affricates  [tʃ]  and  [dʒ]  (iNči,  peeji);  and  all  retroflex  (burejinefu)  and  palatal  (čuuriQhi)  donor  consonants

Those  donor  consonants  which  aRract  an  epenthe8c  /o/  include  donor  [t  d]  (sutoreeto,  aNdoroido);  and  [Cwa]  clusters  from  French  (kurowaQsaN,  fowagura)

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However,  three  rela8vely  infrequent  donor  phones,  the  velar  frica8ves  [x  ɣ]  and  the  pharyngeal  frica8ve  [ħ],  appear  in  Japanese  borrowings  with  four  possible  epenthe8c  vowels  /a  i  u  o/

Before  looking  at  this  unusual  synchronic  case  more  closely,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  epenthe8c  vowels  diachronically      

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Japanese  loanword  borrowing  can  be  divided  diachronically  into  three  phases:

Phase Dates Donor  Languages Engine

IBERIAN mid-­‐16th  >  mid-­‐17th

chiefly  Portuguese,  some  La8n  and  Spanish

Catholic  prosely8sing

DUTCHmid-­‐17th  >  mid-­‐19th overwhelmingly  Dutch

European  science  and  technology  (蘭学)

WESTERNmid-­‐19th  >  present

German,  French,  Russian,  Italian,  but  now  overwhelmingly  English

moderniza8on  and  the  opening  of  Japan,  coupled  with  the  collapse  of  

the  Qing  Empire  >  American  economic  and  poli8cal  power

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In  the  IBERIAN  borrowing  phase,  we  find  a  paRern  of  vowel  epenthesis  crucial  to  my  presenta8on  today.  It  was  first  noted  as  long  ago  as  Ichikawa  (1930)  and  Doi  (1933),  and  termed  by  Ichikawa  vowel  harmony

Since,  in  modern  linguis8cs,  vowel  harmony  has  a  different  meaning,  Ichikawa’s  term  is  no  longer  appropriate.  I  will  term  it  vowel  replica8on  (母音複製)

The  vowel  replica8on  found  in  IBERIAN  borrowings  is  overwhelmingly  an8cipatory  (先行複製),  as  shown  in  the  

following  slide

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green = epenthetic vowel orange: replicated vowel

keredo                                                Por.  credo                                                        (1600)

kirišitaN                                              Por.  cristão                                                    (1587)

poroheeta                                    Por.  profeta                                                  (1600)

batereN                                              Por.  padre                                                        (1569)

sakarameNto                            Por.  sacramento                                  (1592)

ekerešia                                              Lat.  ecclesia                                                (1600)

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There  are,  however,  also  examples  of  IBERIAN  borrowings  where  vowel  replica8on  does  not  occur  and  the  epenthe8c  vowel  is  the  expected  /u/:

irumaN                                              Por.  irmão                                            (1568)

arutaru                                              Por.  altar                                                (1591)

bapučizumo                            Por.  baptismo                                (1591)

maručiru                                        Por.  mártir                                          (1600)

bisupo                                                Por.  bispo                                              (1636)

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Sawada  (1985)  claimed  that  vowel  replica8on  in  borrowings  from  the  IBERIAN  phase  is  most  likely  to  occur  when  the  final  consonant  in  a  donor  cluster  is  a  liquid,  i.e.  before  Japanese  /r/  (<  Por  [l]  and  [r])

Her  claim  appears  to  be  broadly  correct,  especially  when  one  reviews  the  examples  just  cited:

REPLICATION:  keredo    kirišitaN    poroheeta    batereN    sakarameNto    ekerešia

NO  REPLICATION:  irumaN    arutaru    bapučizumo    maručiru    bisupo    

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An8cipatory  replica8on  can  also  be  found  in  some  DUTCH  borrowings:

garasu                                                  Du.  glas                                            (1763)

taraQpu                                              Du.  trap                                            (1848)

sutorikiniine                              Du.  strychnine                      (1837)

Ves8ges  of  rarer  persevera8ve  replica8on  (後続複製)  

remain  in  some  very  early  WESTERN  borrowings:

sarada                                                    Eng.  salad                                      (1874)

toroQko                                                Eng.  truck                                      (1907)

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So  much  for  the  diachronic  analysis.  I  return  now  to  a  synchronic  analysis  of  the  epenthe8c  vowels  found  arer  the  donor  back  frica8ves  [x  ɣ  ħ]  

These  three  frica8ves  all  >  Jp.  /h/,  but  paRerning  of  epenthe8c  vowels  is  as  follows:

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PRECEDING DONOR VOWEL

EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2

open front Ger. Bach baQha Ar. fataħ fataha

non-open front Du. Maastricht maasutorihito Ger. Büchner byuuhina

close back Ger. Buchner bufunaa Ger. Bruch buruQfu

non-close back Du. van Gogh baNgoQho Gae. loch roQho

no preceding

vowelDu. Groningen furooniNgeN

Du. van Doesburg faNdoosuburufu

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This  epenethic  vowel  paRerning  differs  from  the  an8cipatory  replica8on  found  in  the  IBERIAN  and  DUTCH  borrowing  phases  in  one  crucial  respect:

With  the  synchronic  back  frica8ves  [x  ɣ  ħ],  it  is  the  previous  donor  vowel  which  determines  the  epenthe8c  vowel

With  IBERIAN  an8cipatory  replica8on,  it  is  the  previous  adapted  vowel  which  determines  the  epenthe8c  vowel

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Why  does  anCcipatory  replicaCon  conCnue  to  be  found  with  the  donor  back  fricaCves  [x  ɣ  ħ]?  Why  has  it  not  been  replaced  by  the  more  dominant  epentheCc  vowel  /u/?

One  clue  towards  finding  an  answer  to  this  quesCon  lies  in  some  borrowings  from  Russian  and  Polish:

               Ru.  Казахстан                    kazafusutan                              *kazahasutaN    

               Ru.  Ахматова                      afumaatova                              *ahamaatova

               Pol.  Lech                                        refu                                                          *rehi  

Here,  epentheCc  /u/  has  indeed  replaced  anCcipatory  replicaCon

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The  answer  to  both  why  an8cipatory  replica8on  con8nues  to  be  found  with  most  borrowings  containing  donor  back  frica8ves  [x  ɣ  ħ],  and  also  to  why  it  has  been  replaced  by  dominant  epenthe8c  /u/  only  in  borrowings  from  Russian  and  Polish,  lies  in  a  socio-­‐historical  linguis8c  phenomenon  known  as  the  dic;onary  tradi;on

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Borrowing  in  Japanese  has  overwhelmingly  stemmed  from  orthographic,  not  auditory  sources

This  applies  not  only  to  the  three  borrowing  phases  I  have  already  men8oned  (IBERIAN,  DUTCH,  WESTERN),  but  equally  to  the  preceding  centuries-­‐long  borrowing  phase  from  various  Chinese  topolects  which  resulted  in  the  kango  layer  of  Japanese  vocabulary  

There  have  been  some  auditory  borrowings,  however,  and  together  borrowing  routes  in  Japanese  have  resulted  in  three  types  of  loan:  auditory,  dic8onary  and  spelling

These  are  illustrated  in  the  following  slide

Japanese borrowing routes

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donor word

dictionary pronunciation

assigned

dictionary traditions

orthographicauditory

auditory input

auditory loan

dictionaryloan

spellingloan

❶SOURCE

➌ADAPTATION

BASEDON...

➍RESULT

from Irwin (2011: 77)

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donor word

dictionary pronunciation

assigned

dictionary traditions

orthographicauditory

auditory input

auditory loan

dictionaryloan

spellingloan

❶SOURCE

➌ADAPTATION

BASEDON...

➍RESULT

The  source  of  a  donor  word  may  be  auditory  or,  far  more  likely,  orthographic

If  orthographic,  it  is  frequently  assigned  a  dic8onary  pronuncia8on

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donor word

dictionary pronunciation

assigned

dictionary traditions

orthographicauditory

auditory input

auditory loan

dictionaryloan

spellingloan

❶SOURCE

➌ADAPTATION

BASEDON...

➍RESULT

All  loanwords  undergo  adapta8on  to  Japanese  phonology

This  adapta8on  is  based  on  an  auditory  input  in  the  case  of  an  auditory  source

a  dic8onary  tradi8on  in  the  case  of  an  orthographic  source

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Dic;onary  tradi;ons  vary  according  to  donor  language,  but  all  have  in  common  the  fact  that  their  adapta8on  rules  were  established  and  standardized  by  Japanese  scholars  of  foreign  languages,  then  perpetuated  through  their  pedagogical  prac8ces  and  foreign  language  textbooks

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donor word

dictionary pronunciation

assigned

dictionary traditions

orthographicauditory

auditory input

auditory loan

dictionaryloan

spellingloan

❶SOURCE

➌ADAPTATION

BASEDON...

➍RESULT

Since  its  spelling  is  notoriously  opaque,  orthographic  loans  from  English  are  typically  assigned  a  dic8onary  pronuncia8on  at  a  point  prior  to  adapta8on

The  same  is  the  case  for  most  French  orthographic  loans,  for  the  same  reason

For  donor  languages  whose  spelling  is  more  transparent  (German,  Russian,  Italian,  etc.)  a  dic8onary  pronuncia8on  frequently  remains  unassigned    

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donor word

dictionary pronunciation

assigned

dictionary traditions

orthographicauditory

auditory input

auditory loan

dictionaryloan

spellingloan

❶SOURCE

➌ADAPTATION

BASEDON...

➍RESULT

Some  English  and  French  loans  have  not  had  a  dicConary  pronunciaCon  assigned  and  their  adaptaCon,  according  to  dicConary  tradiCon,  has  been  based  on  a  spelling  which  is  an  innacurate  representaCon  of  pronunciaCon

These  are  spelling  loans  or,  in  the  Japanese  tradiCon,  綴り字発音

Well-­‐known  examples  include  buzaa,  moNkii  or  rajio

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2 examples to illustrate

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fasutofuudo  is  a  rela8vely  recent  borrowing  from  English,  first  aRested  in  wri8ng  post-­‐1980

We  know  it  is  not  an  auditory  borrowing:  if  it  were,  we  would  expect  *fasufoodo  (from  a  UK  source  [fa:sfu:d])  or  *fesufoodo  (from  a  US  source  [fæ:sfu:d])

Instead,  this  orthographic  borrowing  has  had  the  dic8onary  pronuncia8on  [fa:swu:d]  assigned  according  to  English  dic$onary  tradi$ons  formulated  in  the  late  19th  century  by  Japanese  scholars  of  English

This  dic8onary  pronuncia8on  has  been  adapted  to  Japanese  phonotac8cs  to  give  fasutofuudo

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wikipedia  is  an  even  more  recent  borrowing  from  English.  It  is  not  alested  in  any  dicConary  but  can  be  presumed  to  have  been  borrowed  around  10  years  ago

We  know  it  is  not  an  auditory  borrowing:  if  it  were,  we  would  expect  *wikipiidia  or  *wikipiija  

However,  this  orthographic  borrowing  has  not  had  any  dicConary  pronunciaCon  assigned;  if  it  had  we  would  expect  an  assigned  [wikipidia],  which  English  dic;onary  tradi;ons  would  then  adapt  to  *wikipiidia

Instead  English  dicConary  tradiCons  have  adapted  the  orthography  <wikipedia>  directly  to  give  wikipedia

In  the  Japanese  tradiCon,  wikipedia  is  a  綴り字発音

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Given  their  nature,  dic8onary  tradi8ons  are  grounded  in  Japanese  foreign  language  scholars’  deep  knowledge  of  donor  language  phonemics

When  many  dic8onary  tradi8ons  were  formula8ng  in  the  late  19th  century,  influence  from  お雇い外国人  was  

strong

Over  two-­‐thirds  of  English  na8ve  speaker  お雇い外国人      

were  Bri8sh  (UNESCO  1975)  and  this  has  influenced  tradi8ons  accordingly  (e.g.  the  adapta8on  of  rho8c  vowels,  which  do  not  follow  the  now  dominant  US  English  pronuncia8ons)

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 Dic;onary  tradi;ons  are  prescribed  adapta8on  strategies  and  an  excellent  example  of  codifica8on  which,  socio-­‐historically  and  pan-­‐culturally,  has  been  controlled  by  elite  groups  of  scholars  

 Since  each  donor  language  has  its  own  codified  adapta8on  strategy,  the  same  source  sound  may  follow  more  than  one  adapta8on  pathway

 Examples  are  illustrated  on  the  following  slides  

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[ŋ]  from  East  Asian  languages  is  adapted  as  Jp.  /N/,  while  [ŋ]  from  European  languages  is  adapted  as  /Ng/:  

Bei.  zhájiàngmiàn      炸酱面                                  jaajanmeN

Kor.  p’yŏngyang      평양                                          pyoNyaN

Viet.  việt  cộng                                                                              betokoN

but

Eng.  ranking                                                                                      raNkiNgu

Ger.  Doppelgänger                                                              doQperugeNgaa

Sw.  Helsingborg                                                                          herušiNgubori

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Schwa  [ə]  is  consistently  adapted  to  /e/  in  loans  from  German,  consistently  to  /u/  in  loans  from  French,  and  frequently  as  a  spelling  loan  in  borrowings  from  English:  

Ger.  These                                                      teeze

Ger  Gelände                                          gereNde

Fr.  Bretagne                                                burutaanyu

Fr.  reportage                                              ruporutaaju

Eng.  police                                                      porisu

Eng.  garden                                                  gaadeN

Eng.  op8on                                                    opušoN

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[v]  from  Russian  and  German  is  consistently  adapted  as  Jp.  /w  u/  before  /a  e  i  o/  and  /b/  or  ø  before  /u/;  while  from  English,  French  and  Italian  [v]  is  consistently  adapted  as  /b/  or,  in  some  very  innova8ve  borrowings,  as  /v/:  

Rus.  Москва                                                          mosukuwa

Ru.  Владивосток                                          urajiosutoku

Ger.  Wien                    wiiN  

       Ger.  Wuppertal           buQpaataaru

but

       Eng.  veteran             beteraN

Eng.  violin                      baioriN  /  vaioriN

Fr.  vinyle                      biniiru  

       It.  da  Vinci             dabiNči

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To  these  we  must  add  the  epenthe8c  vowel  found  arer  donor  [x]  

When  borrowed  from  Slavic  languages,  this  epenthe8c  vowel  is  the  standard  /u/:

Ru.  Казахстан                                    kazafusutan                                  

Ru.  Рахманиновъ                      rafumaninofu                              

But  when  borrowed  from  German,  the  epenthe8c  vowel  varies  according  to  the  preceding  donor  vowel:

Ger.  Bach                                      baQha

Ger.  Koch                                      koQho

Ger.  Buchner                          bufunaa

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Conclusions

The  history  of  borrowing  into  Japanese  cannot  be  adaquately  explained  by  simply  having  recourse  to  one  of  the  two  standard  hypotheses  of  a  phonological  (e.g.  LaCharité  &  Paradis  2005)  or  a  phone8c  (e.g.  Silverman  1992)  input

It  has  to  be  remembered  that  the  vast  majority  of  borrowing  into  Japanese  is  and  always  has  been  (cf.  kango)  orthographic

The  crea8on  of  dic8onary  tradi8ons  in  order  to  facilitate  such  borrowing  is  in  line  with  the  strong  Japanese  pedagogical  culture  of  focusing  on  wri8ng  and  reading  over  speaking  and  listening,  and  in  line  with  according  huge  esteem  to  those  who  teach

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REFERENCESIchikawa,  Sanki.  1930.  The  Pronuncia:on  of  English  Loan-­‐words  in  Japanese.  In   A   Gramma:cal   Miscellany   Offered   to   OEo   Jespersen   on   His   Seven:eth  Birthday,   ed.   N.   Bøgholm,   Aage   Brusendorff   &   C.A.   Bodelsen,   179-­‐190.  Copenhagen:  Levin  &  Munksgaard.  Irwin,  Mark.  2011.  Loanwords  in  Japanese.  Amsterdam  &  Philadelphia:  John  Benjamins.LaCharité,   Darlene   &   Paradis,   Carole.   2005.   Category   Preserva:on   and  Proximity  Versus  Phone:c  Approxima:on  in  Loanword  Adapta:on.  Linguis8c  Inquiry  36.Silverman,   Daniel.   1992.   Mul:ple   Scansions   in   Loanword   Phonology:  Evidence  From  Cantonese.  Phonology  9.UNESCO東アジア文化研究センター.   1975.   「資料御雇い外国人」、  東京:  小学館.

澤田田津子.  1985.  「外来語における母音添加について」、国語学  143.

土井忠生.  1933.  「日本耶蘇曾の用語に就いて」、外来語の研究  3.