Question of the Day: Would pictures or words be easier to encode into memory?
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Transcript of Question of the Day: Would pictures or words be easier to encode into memory?
Question of the Day:Question of the Day:Would pictures or Would pictures or words be easier to words be easier to
encode into encode into memory?memory?
Visual CommunicationsVisual Communications
Visual Communications Visual Communications and Persuasionand Persuasion
General Assumptions: Language is General Assumptions: Language is processed in a linear, analytic wayprocessed in a linear, analytic way
Visuals are processed in a spatial, Visuals are processed in a spatial, syncretic waysyncretic way
Central PeripheralRoute Route
Thinking Systematic HeuristicInfluence Arguments Cues Magnitude Equal Equal
PersistenceLonger ShorterResistance Stronger Weaker
The short term persuasive impact of visual The short term persuasive impact of visual information might be increased through information might be increased through
repetition (ex: advertising).repetition (ex: advertising).
Visual Persuasion
Repetition over Repetition over time would time would move the move the
information of information of product product
attributes from attributes from short-term short-term
memory to long-memory to long-term memory.term memory.
Ad from http://www.adbusters.org/spoofads/
Emotional arousal and mood are Emotional arousal and mood are found to affect long term memory.found to affect long term memory.
(ex: flashbulb memories)(ex: flashbulb memories)
Cueing:
Shortcuts to conveying meaning,
calling to mind past experiences
or teaching associations(Example:
Leading Lines)
"the communication pattern that preceded a
particular desired behavior should,
upon its repetition, elicit the behavior
again: the same arguments should
touch the same responsive chord."
(Burgoon, 1981)
Agenda-Setting assumes:
-mass media teaches people
to about the world
-controls access to information-structures the public’s agenda
by making information
covered seem important
Applying agenda setting to advertising: products that are advertised constantly seem popular (social proof, bandwagon)
This is known as “status conferral”
Advertising focuses the attention of
consumers on what values/attributes or products/brands to
consider when formulating
attitudes and arriving at purchase
decisions (Sutherland and Galloway, 1981)
(Example: HMO’s)
Krugman (1965) suggests that ". . . persuasion. . . i.e. overcoming a resistant attitude. . . " is a
nonfactor when evaluating the impact of advertising on the purchase behaviors of
consumers. Instead, advertising leads to an “overlearning”
effect, where recall of product attributes are practically conditioned into consumers.
j;lkn;lnnkj
Gruber (1969),
found “top-of-mind”
brand awareness
parallels the amount of
consumption of a
specific brand in the marketplace.
Axelrod (1968) found top-of-
brand awareness
testing provides a "... sensitive
and stable predictor of purchase..."
behavior
‘
Image Vividness
-Increases attention and retention
Use of vivid, saturated colors, shocking
photos.
Image Salience
-Positions main object near less interesting
objects, so it stands out by contrast.
Single-Channelvs.
Multi-ChannelEffect
Increased distraction leads
to increased heuristic/peripheral
processing.
CLARCCS CuesCLARCCS Cues
(Robert Cialdini, 1980)(Robert Cialdini, 1980)
Identifies 7 heuristics Identifies 7 heuristics (peripheral route) that (peripheral route) that impact the persuasion impact the persuasion process.process.
ComparisonComparison
Comparing your behavior to that of others, and Comparing your behavior to that of others, and adopting the group norms.adopting the group norms.
Learning behaviors and internalizing reasonsLearning behaviors and internalizing reasons
why you participate in such behaviorswhy you participate in such behaviors
Examples: “Seeding the tip jar”Examples: “Seeding the tip jar”
““Candid Camera Elevator”Candid Camera Elevator”
LikingLikingDoing what someone asks because Doing what someone asks because
you like them, even if they take you like them, even if they take advantage of you.advantage of you.
Works best if you think the person Works best if you think the person likes youlikes you..
Works better with attractive people, Works better with attractive people, but not if they have abrasive but not if they have abrasive
(dislikable) personalities (dislikable) personalities
(Example: Sherman Cloutier)(Example: Sherman Cloutier)
AuthorityAuthority
Complying with people because Complying with people because they holdthey hold
positions of authority.positions of authority.
Examples: Milgram Examples: Milgram ExperimentsExperiments
Zimbardo ExperimentsZimbardo Experiments
ReciprocitReciprocity
Based on the societies’ norm that Based on the societies’ norm that you are obliged to give something you are obliged to give something back to someone when they give back to someone when they give
you something. you something.
Examples: Mailed dollar billsExamples: Mailed dollar bills
Commitment/ConsistencyCommitment/Consistency
Once you make a public stand to Once you make a public stand to advocate a position or support a advocate a position or support a cause, you are likely to maintain cause, you are likely to maintain yoursupport in the future. Works yoursupport in the future. Works
because of our need to be because of our need to be consistent, and maintain consistent, and maintain
consonance lives.consonance lives.
Examples: “Foot-in-the-Door”Examples: “Foot-in-the-Door”
““Bait and Switch”Bait and Switch”
Scarcity Works on our belief that rare is good, Works on our belief that rare is good, we covered this when discussing the we covered this when discussing the
“false uniqueness bias” from “false uniqueness bias” from Attribution Theories.Attribution Theories.
Examples:Examples:
““Limited Editions” and “Limited Time Limited Editions” and “Limited Time Only” specials.Only” specials.
Counters or on-screen clock.Counters or on-screen clock.
Research shows a great Research shows a great deal of consistency in deal of consistency in
how people make how people make evaluations.evaluations.
Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum (1957) asked people to map a (1957) asked people to map a
multitude of objects in semantic multitude of objects in semantic space. They claim that, any space. They claim that, any
referent can be located in this referent can be located in this semantic space, and they semantic space, and they
reported three fundamental reported three fundamental dimensions people use for dimensions people use for
evaluations.evaluations.
Relationship among the Three Dimensions
EvaluativeDimension
PotencyDimension
MostImportantfor Attitudes
ActivityDimension
Good-badBeneficial-Harmful
Strong-WeakAssertive-Meek
Fast-SlowActive-Passive
How We LearnHow We Learn
Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning
Social Learning/ModelingSocial Learning/Modeling
Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningAlso called “instrumental Also called “instrumental
learning” and applies to voluntary learning” and applies to voluntary behavior, where classical behavior, where classical
conditioning applies to reflex.conditioning applies to reflex.
Known as “goal-directed” Known as “goal-directed” learning, in that the organism learning, in that the organism learns the behaviors leading to learns the behaviors leading to rewards and those leading to rewards and those leading to
punishment.punishment.
Reinforcements can be positive or negative Reinforcements can be positive or negative and increase behavior. Punishments and increase behavior. Punishments decrease behavior. Reinforcement decrease behavior. Reinforcement
schedules maintain behavior.schedules maintain behavior.
Positive incentives and negative incentives Positive incentives and negative incentives are learned in the process.are learned in the process.
Classical ConditioningKey Terms
the unconditioned stimulus, or UCSthe unconditioned response, or UCRthe conditioned stimulus, or CSthe conditioned response, or CR
Step 1
UnconditionedStimulus 1
UnconditionedResponse
ConditionedStimulus 2
UnconditionedResponse
ConditionedStimulus 2
ConditionedResponse
UnconditionedStimulus 2
UnconditionedResponse
ConditionedStimulus 3
UnconditionedResponse
ConditionedStimulus 3
ConditionedResponse
UnconditionedStimulus 3
UnconditionedResponse
ConditionedStimulus 4
UnconditionedResponse
ConditionedStimulus 4
ConditionedResponse
Step 2
Step 3
Figure 2.2 The Conditioning Process for Pavlov’s Dog
Salivation
Salivation
Salivation
Salivation
Salivation
Salivation
Salivation
Salivation
Salivation
Meat
Meat+Bell
Whistle
Bell+Whistle
Bell
Bell
Whistle
Whistle+Beep
Beep
The CS must be paired with the The CS must be paired with the UCS often enough so that the UCS often enough so that the organism comes to associate the organism comes to associate the CS with the UCR. CS with the UCR.
Once the CS to CR link has been Once the CS to CR link has been established, the CS can serve as established, the CS can serve as the UCS for another CS.the UCS for another CS.
Phases of the Conditioning Process
Basic Principles
RecencyRecencyFrequencyFrequencyStimulus-generalizationStimulus-generalizationStimulus-discriminationStimulus-discriminationExtinctionExtinctionSpontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery
Probability that stimulus evokes desired response in organism
The more recently and The more recently and frequently the conditioning, frequently the conditioning, the greater the probability the greater the probability
that the stimulus will elicit the that the stimulus will elicit the desired response.desired response.
Stimulus-generalization - once a Stimulus-generalization - once a stimulus is conditioned to elicit stimulus is conditioned to elicit a response, similar stimuli may a response, similar stimuli may produce the same response. produce the same response.
There is generalization There is generalization from a particular from a particular
stimulus to stimulus to similar stimuli.similar stimuli.
Stimulus-discrimination - Stimulus-discrimination - when the organism when the organism
responds to particular responds to particular stimuli from a class of stimuli from a class of
objects, and not the other objects, and not the other similar stimuli from that similar stimuli from that
class of objects.class of objects.
Discrimination can be trained.Discrimination can be trained.
Extinction - when a conditioned Extinction - when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented stimulus is repeatedly presented without reinforcement from the without reinforcement from the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will weaken conditioned response will weaken and eventually disappear.and eventually disappear.
After a response After a response appears to be appears to be
extinguished, however, extinguished, however, it may occasionally it may occasionally
reappear in the reappear in the presence of the presence of the
conditioned stimulus. conditioned stimulus. This reappearance of This reappearance of
the conditioned the conditioned response is known as response is known as
spontaneous recovery.spontaneous recovery.
Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory
Comes from observing others and Comes from observing others and noticing the consequences of their noticing the consequences of their actions (also called “observational actions (also called “observational
learning”)learning”)
Involves “modeling,” such as learning Involves “modeling,” such as learning to drive a car by watching others --- so to drive a car by watching others --- so
that people can learn without that people can learn without personally going through a “trial and personally going through a “trial and
error” period.error” period.
Frame of ReferenceAttitudes “filter” incoming information.Attitudes “filter” incoming information.Brain organizes stimuli into meaningful patterns called Brain organizes stimuli into meaningful patterns called
Gestalts, which are influenced by our past experiences, Gestalts, which are influenced by our past experiences, motivation and needs. This influences perceptions of motivation and needs. This influences perceptions of attribution, meaning, evaluations, etc.attribution, meaning, evaluations, etc.
““We do not see things the way they are, we see things the We do not see things the way they are, we see things the way we are.” way we are.”
-Talmudic Saying-Talmudic Saying
Triune Brain Theory Triune Brain Theory Brain evolved in 3 stages:Brain evolved in 3 stages:
R-Complex or Reptilian BrainR-Complex or Reptilian Brain
Paleocortex or “Old Paleocortex or “Old Mammalian” BrainMammalian” Brain
Neocortex or “New Neocortex or “New Mammalian” BrainMammalian” Brain
Reptilian Brain -- earliest brain Reptilian Brain -- earliest brain structures (pons, medulla,etc.). structures (pons, medulla,etc.).
Handles autonomic tasks Handles autonomic tasks (breathing, etc.), sex (for species (breathing, etc.), sex (for species
survival) and aggression (for survival) and aggression (for individual’s safety). individual’s safety).
Knowledge stored Knowledge stored here is instinctual.here is instinctual.
Neocortex -- new mammalian brain Neocortex -- new mammalian brain structures (cortex) handle logic. structures (cortex) handle logic.
Split into right and left hemispheres. Split into right and left hemispheres. The right side is associated with The right side is associated with
spatial, syncretic processing and the spatial, syncretic processing and the left handles linear, analytic left handles linear, analytic
processing.processing.
Cognitive ResourcesCognitive Resources
Our definition -- everything Our definition -- everything happening in your brain at any happening in your brain at any
given moment, (Memory, given moment, (Memory, Attention, Mood, Analytic Attention, Mood, Analytic
skills, etc.)skills, etc.)
2 Types of Knowledge:2 Types of Knowledge:
-Knowledge by Acquaintance-Knowledge by Acquaintance-Knowledge by Description-Knowledge by Description
Associated with Symbolic vs. Associated with Symbolic vs. Spontaneous CommunicationSpontaneous Communication
SSSyyymmmbbbooollliiiccc SSSpppooonnntttaaannneeeooouuusss
BBBaaasssiiisss LLLeeeaaarrrnnneeeddd BBBiiiooolllooogggiiicccaaalll
III nnnttteeennntttiiiooonnn IIInnnttteeennndddeeeddd UUUnnniiinnnttteeennndddeeeddd
EEEllleeemmmeeennntttsss SSSyyymmmbbbooolllsss---bbbeeeaaarrr aaarrrbbbiiitttrrraaarrryyymmmeeeaaannniiinnnggg
SSSiiigggnnnsss---MMMeeeaaannniiinnnggg iiisssiiinnntttrrriiinnnsssiiiccc
CCCooonnnttteeennnttt PPPrrrooopppooosssiiitttiiiooonnnsss
BBBrrraaaiiinnn
SSStttaaattteeemmmeeennntttsssttthhhaaattt cccaaannn bbbeeelllooogggiiicccaaallllllyyyaaannnaaalllyyyzzzeeeddd ------ cccaaannnppprrrooovvveeeddd fffaaalllssseee
LLLeeeffftttHHHeeemmmiiisssppphhheeerrreee
CCCooonnnsssiiissstttsss ooofffmmmoootttiiivvvaaatttiiiooonnnaaalll aaannndddeeemmmoootttiiiooonnnaaalll ssstttaaattteeesss(((dddeeesssiiirrreeesss aaannndddfffeeeeeellliiinnngggsss)))
RRRiiiggghhhtttHHHeeemmmiiisssppphhheeerrreee
HEURISTIC-SYSTEMATIC MODEL (HSM)HEURISTIC-SYSTEMATIC MODEL (HSM)(Chaiken, 1995; Chaiken et al., 1989).(Chaiken, 1995; Chaiken et al., 1989).
Heuristics are mental shortcuts, or stereotypes, and Heuristics are mental shortcuts, or stereotypes, and are often used in place of systematic reasoning. are often used in place of systematic reasoning.
The HSM has two principles at its foundation, the The HSM has two principles at its foundation, the least effort principle and the sufficiency principle. least effort principle and the sufficiency principle.
These principles indicate how people are likely to These principles indicate how people are likely to process new information, and how resulting process new information, and how resulting
attitudes may affect perceptions attitudes may affect perceptions regarding the information.regarding the information.
Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo)Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo)
Considers the central (analytic) route and peripheral Considers the central (analytic) route and peripheral (syncretic/everything else) route(syncretic/everything else) route
Deals with encoding information into memory and the Deals with encoding information into memory and the resulting attitudes toward the information.resulting attitudes toward the information.
Asserts that people’s processing of information depends Asserts that people’s processing of information depends largely on their motivation to pay attention to the message.largely on their motivation to pay attention to the message.
Fluctuations in levels of attention makes noticeable Fluctuations in levels of attention makes noticeable differences, in both people’s understanding of the information, differences, in both people’s understanding of the information,
and also in their attitudes toward the information. and also in their attitudes toward the information.
BalanceBalance
TheoriesTheories
Premises of Balance TheoriesPremises of Balance Theories
People seek consistency in their People seek consistency in their viewsviews
The common premisesThe common premises Inconsistency causes stressInconsistency causes stress Inconsistencies are fixed through Inconsistencies are fixed through
attitude change.attitude change.
Balance Theory
You Jerry Springer
Your Friend
++
+
Everything is Everything is balanced, so balanced, so
there’s no stress.there’s no stress.
Balance Theory
You Jerry Springer
Your Friend
+
-+Now there’s a Now there’s a problem, since problem, since
you want to you want to know how your know how your
friend can’t friend can’t like Springer.like Springer.
Sources of ImbalanceSources of ImbalanceSource-propositionSource-propositionAttitude componentAttitude componentBehavior-attitudeBehavior-attitude
Source - PropositionSource - PropositionSource: a person or groupSource: a person or groupProposition: message from the Proposition: message from the
person or groupperson or groupDiscrepancy: message differs from Discrepancy: message differs from
what we believe the source would what we believe the source would say.say.
Ex: George W. says “this country Ex: George W. says “this country sucks”sucks”
Attitude - componentAttitude - componentInconsistencies Inconsistencies between any two between any two attitudesattitudes
Ex: Love your pet Ex: Love your pet cow, but love cow, but love hamburgershamburgers
Behavior - AttitudeYour actions are inconsistent Your actions are inconsistent
with your attitudeswith your attitudesYou think cigarettes are bad, but You think cigarettes are bad, but
you occasionally smoke.you occasionally smoke.
Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance TheoryCognition: perception of an object or Cognition: perception of an object or
ideaideaTwo sets of cognitions can be Two sets of cognitions can be
mutuallymutually dissonantdissonant consonantconsonant irrelevantirrelevant
Example: Working out and smokingExample: Working out and smoking
Dealing with Cognitive Dealing with Cognitive DissonanceDissonance
Derogate the sourceDerogate the source RationalizeRationalize
Seek social supportSeek social support ““Misperceive” the source’s positionMisperceive” the source’s position Compartmentalize: ignore or forget Compartmentalize: ignore or forget
discrepanciesdiscrepancies Convince the source of his/her errorConvince the source of his/her error
Modify attitudesModify attitudes
Balance Theories/Cognitive Balance Theories/Cognitive Dissonance Link to Dissonance Link to
Frames of ReferenceFrames of ReferenceFrames of Reference can change Frames of Reference can change drasticallydrastically
Ex: Attitude/Behavior Component and Ex: Attitude/Behavior Component and Korean War POW’sKorean War POW’s
Attribution Theory
Deals with how people perceive the causes of behavior.
Based on causal inferences.Personal Causes vs. External
Causes.
Kelly’s Attribution Model
Suggests three factors when determining causality: distinctiveness, consistency and consensus.
Kelly’s Attribution Model
Distinctiveness - comparing behavior in different (unrelated) situations
Consistency - comparing trend in related situations over time.
Consensus - comparing person to others.
Kelly’s Attribution ModelAbility to infer correctly based on
these three factors is limited by certain recurring biases: self-serving bias, false consensus bias and false uniqueness bias.
Biases Self-serving bias (accept responsibility for
the good, assign blame for the bad)False consensus bias (everyone does it) false uniqueness bias (snob appeal).
Discounting and Augmenting Principles
Considers perceived motivations of message source.
Perceived source intention is one of most important variables in persuasion.
Discounting Principle
Discounting Principle: the more possible causes there are for a behavior, the weaker the perceived viability of any single cause.
For example: former President Bush saying we should vote for his son.
Augmenting PrinciplesAugmentation Principle: an unexpected
position from a source perceived as biased will strengthen the persuasive power of the message
Bush saying, “after serious consideration, I think you should have voted for Gore.”
Self-Perception Theory
People observe their own behavior and then make inferences about their attitudes.
If one doesn’t posses a strong attitude, or given an issue much thought, they may infer that they approve of the behavior after engaging in it.
People make internal attributions and external attributions to explain their behavior.
Weiner’s Attribution Model
Also interested in the perceived causes of actions and behaviors.
Considers the following factors: intention, controllability, stability, and locus of control (internal vs. external).
Behavior - Belief Models
Considers beliefs people have, and how this information is used to form their
attitudes.
Theory of Reasoned Action One of the most important reasons to study attitudes
is to gain insights into how attitudes may be changed. The Reasoned Action Model is useful for developing
attitude change strategies because it focuses directly upon attributes that may be impacted by the message source.
Theory of Reasoned Action
Predicts likelihood of behavior by gauging behavioral intention.
Deals with behaviors that are voluntary.
Looks at intention as a step between attitude and behavior, with behavioral
intention as the determinant of behavior.
Components of Reasoned Action
Mainly focuses on two components: Attitude, and the Subjective Norm.
Also considers perceived behavioral control, and demographics.
Attitude Component
The individual's attitude toward the behavior, which represents the degree to which a person favorably or unfavorably evaluates the behavior.
Attitude Toward Behavior
Represents the degree to which a person favorably or unfavorably evaluates the
behavior Determined by calculating
Expectancy*ValueAB=biei
Where i is each consequence, and N is total number of beliefs.
n
i=1
Constitutes the individual's beliefs that people, who are important to him/her, think he/she should or should not perform the action in reference.
SN=(NB)i(MC)I
NB= normative beliefs MC=motivation to comply M is number of referents (people)
Subjective Norm
M
i=1
Example in Advertising
General Conclusions1. It is crucial to influence several beliefs,
since this will change the attitude toward behaviors and subjective norms. Changes in these two components are likely to impact intentions and the behaviors themselves.
General Conclusions2. With respect to beliefs that
are singled out for change, it is necessary to influence salient beliefs in a population and introduce new, non-salient ones.
General Conclusions3. It is vital to change the value placed on
particular evaluative statements.
General Conclusions4. Changing the perception of the # of
people who comply can impact the subjective norm, as will downplaying the importance or questioning motives of non-compliant people.
The Spiral of Silence Theory provides
additional insight into group conformity.
Source Credibility
Source credibility is defined as a set of perceptions about the source held by
the receiver. Perceived Source (PS) competence, PSintention, PStrustworthiness, and
other factors are perceptions the receiver has of the source.
Source Credibility
According to Hovland, Janis and Kelley, there are two main
perceptions that determine source credibility.
These involve beliefs about the speakers trustworthiness and
expertise.
Expertise
Expert sources are described as trained, experienced, skillful, informed, authoritative, able, intelligent, etc.
Research indicates that expertise should be emphasized by the persuader when greater changes in beliefs are desired.
How does argument strength (strong vs. weak arguments) impact expertise?
Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness deals with the perceived intentions and disposition of the source.
Consider the effect of the “reformed” speaker. Are they effective? Why or why not?
How do people judge messages that they overhear?
Expertise and SimilaritySometimes receivers comply with sources who
are similar to themselves, and expertise can make the source appear very dissimilar.
People sometimes look for “social proof” from the behaviors of people “just like them.”
Under what conditions should “similar” sources be used vs. “expert” sources.
Other Credibility FactorsComposure - very important for first impression;
people appearing tense or nervous are usually not persuasive.
Dynamism - like extroversion, perceptions of the speaker as being powerful, strong, potent, active, energetic, healthy and outgoing
Sociableness - whether the source seems friendly, nice, helpful, likable, and deferent.
Message Learning ApproachMessage Learning Approach
World War IIWorld War IIPropagandaPropagandaPublic OpinionPublic Opinion4 Underlying Processes4 Underlying Processes
1. Attention1. Attention
People must first notice the People must first notice the messagemessage
Commercial techniques for Commercial techniques for breaking through the clutter breaking through the clutter (orienting response, violating (orienting response, violating reality, etc.)reality, etc.)
2. Comprehension2. ComprehensionPeople have to understand the People have to understand the
message in order to be message in order to be persuaded (message learning persuaded (message learning
does not account for peripheral does not account for peripheral cues).cues).
Language and organization of Language and organization of messages is important.messages is important.
3. Yielding
Message must raise questions or in Message must raise questions or in the receiver’s mindthe receiver’s mind
Message should provide incentives to Message should provide incentives to change mind, or imply punishments change mind, or imply punishments
for a failure to change.for a failure to change. Use of evidence (beliefs) with Use of evidence (beliefs) with statistics, testimonials, etc., will statistics, testimonials, etc., will
change attitudes.change attitudes.
4. Retention4. RetentionReceiver must remember the Receiver must remember the
message.message.Receivers should elaborate on Receivers should elaborate on
argumentsargumentsEasy to remember information Easy to remember information
(such as slogans) are most (such as slogans) are most effective.effective.
Independent Variables Independent Variables Affecting PersuasionAffecting Persuasion
MessageMessageSourceSourceRecipientRecipientChannelChannel
MessageMessageUse of logic versus emotionSidedness (1 versus 2-sided
messages)Primacy versus recency (p. 70)Repetition (Ex: Geiko)
SourceSource
Impacts incentivesImpacts incentives ExpertiseExpertise TrustworthinessTrustworthiness
Impacts yieldingImpacts yielding similaritysimilarity powerpower attractivenessattractiveness
ReceiverReceiver
Making the persuasive appeal Making the persuasive appeal appropriate for the audience.appropriate for the audience.
Psychographics: Personality: self-Psychographics: Personality: self-esteem, IQ, anxiety, dogmatismesteem, IQ, anxiety, dogmatism
Demographics: age, gender, social Demographics: age, gender, social classclass
ChannelChannelInterpersonal versus mass mediaInterpersonal versus mass mediaHot vs Cold Media (MacLuhan)Hot vs Cold Media (MacLuhan)
All together now….All together now….
Message Learning Process has 4 stages:Message Learning Process has 4 stages: AttentionAttention ComprehensionComprehension YieldingYielding RetentionRetention
Persuasive messages impacted by other Persuasive messages impacted by other variables:variables: source, message, receiver, channelsource, message, receiver, channel
Message Message CharacteristicsCharacteristics
Denotation and Connotation
Denotation - Literal definition of the word; “dictionary meaning.”
Connotation - Emotions or attitudes attached to and evoked by word.
Connotations are positive or negative.
Denotative Meaning Considerations
Misunderstanding of words due to:Level of Abstractness
Jargon (technological, legalese, etc.)Euphemistic pleasantries
Book recommends ways to reduce misunderstanding (page 212).
Connotative Meaning Considerations
The three major dimensions of connotative meaning are evaluative, activity and
potency (Osgood, 1958).
Also important to consider are the different types of emotions words evoke.
Message OrganizationMessage OrganizationSpatial Order- arranging information “in space”
Example: starting at the front of the bus we have the headlights, moving to the middle we have the some rugrats, and at the rear are the brake lights.
Temporal Order - arranging Temporal Order - arranging information “in time”information “in time”
Example: using timelinesExample: using timelines
Problem-Solution Order -Problem-Solution Order -Presenting a problem, Presenting a problem, then giving a solution.then giving a solution.
The worst approach is The worst approach is presenting a problem and presenting a problem and not proposing a solution.not proposing a solution.
Psychological Order -Psychological Order -
predicting the psychological reactions of the audience.
Example: Monroe’s Motivated Sequenceattentionneed satisfactionvisualizationaction
Toulmin ModelToulmin ModelProvides a pattern for structuring Provides a pattern for structuring arguments, outlining 3 elements:arguments, outlining 3 elements:
EvidenceEvidence - information (data, - information (data, testimony ,etc.) that’s relevant testimony ,etc.) that’s relevant
to the argument. to the argument. ClaimClaim - statement the persuader - statement the persuader wants the audience to believe.wants the audience to believe.
WarrantWarrant - explains why the data is - explains why the data is linked to the claim. Warrants can be linked to the claim. Warrants can be explicit or implicit. Strong warrants explicit or implicit. Strong warrants
are logically sound.are logically sound.
)
Aristotle identified three primary Aristotle identified three primary characteristics of persuasive appeals:characteristics of persuasive appeals:
Logos -- the logical appeal of the messageLogos -- the logical appeal of the message
Pathos -- the emotional appeal Pathos -- the emotional appeal of the messageof the message
Ethos -- the perceived “ethics” Ethos -- the perceived “ethics” of the sourceof the source
Although persuasive strategies will usually Although persuasive strategies will usually focus primarily on one of these three focus primarily on one of these three
factors, all three should be considered when factors, all three should be considered when developing persuasive messages.developing persuasive messages.
Forewarning and After-Warning (Allyn & Festinger, 1961; Benoit, 1998).
Forewarning has been shown to have an Forewarning has been shown to have an important effect on message evaluation important effect on message evaluation
When receivers are forewarned about a When receivers are forewarned about a source’s position or intention, they are source’s position or intention, they are
more likely to begin internal more likely to begin internal counterarguing, especially if they believe counterarguing, especially if they believe the source position is incongruent with the source position is incongruent with
their own.their own.
Mere Thought StudiesMere Thought Studies
Research indicates that prior Research indicates that prior knowledge or experience relating to knowledge or experience relating to the message content affects the message content affects counter-arguing and argument-counter-arguing and argument-bolstering, since people will use bolstering, since people will use their own internally generated their own internally generated messages based on past experiences messages based on past experiences when evaluating a message when evaluating a message (Hamilton & Stewart, 1993).(Hamilton & Stewart, 1993).
Kiesler and Kiesler (1964) Kiesler and Kiesler (1964) found that although found that although forewarning can diminish the forewarning can diminish the persuasiveness of a persuasiveness of a message, there would be no message, there would be no impact on persuasion if the impact on persuasion if the information regarding the information regarding the source position were source position were disclosed after presenting disclosed after presenting the message.the message.
Powerful and Powerless Speech*Powerful speech bolsters credibility *Powerful speech bolsters credibility
*People do not like to see members of *People do not like to see members of their own gender appear powerless. their own gender appear powerless.
*The importance of powerful speech *The importance of powerful speech style increases when the channel of style increases when the channel of the presentation is print.the presentation is print.
Powerless speech typically has more Powerless speech typically has more intensifiers, hedges, questioning forms, intensifiers, hedges, questioning forms,
hesitation forms and “hyperpolite” behavior.hesitation forms and “hyperpolite” behavior.
Language Intensity Language Intensity
Intense language can be obscene or Intense language can be obscene or non-obscenenon-obscene
Bradac, Bowers, and Courtright (1980)Bradac, Bowers, and Courtright (1980)
outlined general considerations of outlined general considerations of intense language (page 214)intense language (page 214)
Three main types of Three main types of obscenities people obscenities people
usually use:usually use:
Sexual, Excretory, Sexual, Excretory, Religious.Religious.
1-Sided versus 2-Sided Messages2-sided messages are usually 2-sided messages are usually preferable, especially when:preferable, especially when:
*the audience is more educated*the audience is more educated
*the audience disagrees with the *the audience disagrees with the source positionsource position
*the audience may be exposed to *the audience may be exposed to messages opposing the sourcemessages opposing the source
*a celebrity is endorsing a product*a celebrity is endorsing a product
1-sided messages are preferable 1-sided messages are preferable when the audience already agrees when the audience already agrees
with the sourcewith the source
Fallacies in Reasoning
Messages are sometimes Messages are sometimes designed to exploitdesigned to exploit
fallacies in reasoning fallacies in reasoning that are so common they that are so common they
seem systematic.seem systematic.
TransferTransferLinking otherwise unrelated objects or Linking otherwise unrelated objects or
symbols together to transfer symbols together to transfer characteristics, such as positioning a characteristics, such as positioning a
product with an American flag.product with an American flag.
Ad HominemAd Hominem attacks (name-calling) are a attacks (name-calling) are a form of transfer, linking a person, or idea, form of transfer, linking a person, or idea, to a negative symbol to raise suspicion. to a negative symbol to raise suspicion.
A more subtle form of transfer involves A more subtle form of transfer involves using connotations. People opposing budget using connotations. People opposing budget
cuts may call a politician "stingy," while cuts may call a politician "stingy," while supporters might call them "thrifty."supporters might call them "thrifty."
TestimonialsTestimonials are another common are another common form of transfer, such as:form of transfer, such as:
Celebrity Endorsements - can even be Celebrity Endorsements - can even be somewhat effective with individuals somewhat effective with individuals
who are not qualified to make who are not qualified to make judgements about a particular issue. judgements about a particular issue.
Such as Mariah Carey supporting Such as Mariah Carey supporting Bush, though there is no reason to Bush, though there is no reason to
think that she knows what is best for think that she knows what is best for this country.this country.
Transfer ContinuedTransfer Continued
Another type of testimonial is Another type of testimonial is the the Plain-Folks AppealPlain-Folks Appeal
Here non-celebrities are used Here non-celebrities are used to show the idea is "of the to show the idea is "of the people," such as the “cab people," such as the “cab driver” recommending a driver” recommending a
headache medicine. headache medicine.
The implicit argument is “if The implicit argument is “if it’s good enough for him, it’s it’s good enough for him, it’s
good enough for me.”good enough for me.”
EquivocationEquivocationEquivocal language is vague or
imprecise, and such messages can be effective because people read in their own meaning (ie, “a thousand points
of light”). "Glittering Generalities" are equivocal words that can mean different things to different people, but are usually
accepted as positive so the propagandist knows the message will
be accepted (ie, family values).
Euphemistic LanguageEuphemistic LanguageA euphemism is a pleasant word that pacifies the audience in order to make an unpleasant reality
more palatable.
Euphemisms can be bland in emotional intensity, confusing, and might even map the idea to
something opposite of it’s true nature (such as naming the MX missile the “peacekeeper”).
Being fired has connotations of being at fault, while being downsized is euphemistic, as the connotation
is vague, (maybe the company is becoming smaller), though the end result is the same.
Social ProofSocial ProofA Band Wagon appeal uses social A Band Wagon appeal uses social proof, and the implicit argument is proof, and the implicit argument is "everyone else is doing it, and so "everyone else is doing it, and so
should you." should you."
Since few of us want to be left behind, Since few of us want to be left behind, this technique can be quite successful, this technique can be quite successful, and people get swept into the inertia and people get swept into the inertia
of the mob.of the mob.
ExtrapolationExtrapolationThe tendency to make huge predictions The tendency to make huge predictions
about the future on the basis of a few small about the future on the basis of a few small observations, also called “Slippery Slope” observations, also called “Slippery Slope”
reasoning when you imply that small things reasoning when you imply that small things always lead to bigger things.always lead to bigger things.
The tendency (and fallacy) is to plot two or The tendency (and fallacy) is to plot two or three points, draw a curve through them, three points, draw a curve through them,
and extend it indefinitelyand extend it indefinitely."."
FEAR
All other things being equal, the more All other things being equal, the more frightened people are by a frightened people are by a
communication, the more likely they communication, the more likely they are to take preventive action. are to take preventive action.
We already know a We already know a coping mechanismcoping mechanism must be present for a fear appeal to must be present for a fear appeal to work, and people have to believe the work, and people have to believe the coping mechanism will be effective in coping mechanism will be effective in addressing the threat, and that they addressing the threat, and that they
are capable of performing the are capable of performing the recommended behavior.recommended behavior.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Fundamental Needs - Safety needs, physiological needs (food, shelter).
Psychological Needs - Esteem needs (feeling competent, getting
recognition) and Love needs (being accepted).
Self-Actualization Needs - Working to fulfill one’s potential, becoming
altruistic, etc.
ConventionalismConventionalismConsidered the third major Considered the third major aspect of authoritarianism, aspect of authoritarianism, (after submission and (after submission and
aggression/hostility).aggression/hostility).
Conventionalism is a strong Conventionalism is a strong attachment to group attachment to group
conventions, usually the more conventions, usually the more ““middle range/class” valuesmiddle range/class” values..
Social Judgement TheorySocial Judgement Theory
Useful for Useful for understanding understanding
attitude change in attitude change in
““ego-involved” ego-involved” group members.group members.
Considers a Considers a person’s latitude of person’s latitude of acceptance,acceptance,latitude of rejection,latitude of rejection,and latitude of and latitude of non-commitmentnon-commitment
Social JudgementSocial Judgement
Theory also considers Theory also considers
both Assimilation both Assimilation
and and
Contrast EffectsContrast Effects
Psychological Psychological Reactance TheoryReactance Theory
Considers how people Considers how people “react” to rules or “react” to rules or
laws imposed on them. laws imposed on them. Sometimes known as Sometimes known as reverse psychology.reverse psychology.
DESIGNING A PERSUASION DESIGNING A PERSUASION EXPERIMENTEXPERIMENT
Sampling the populationSampling the populationManipulating Persuasion VariablesManipulating Persuasion Variables
Population SamplingPopulation Sampling
Goal is a random sample, Goal is a random sample, where any person has the where any person has the same chance of being same chance of being included in the experiment.included in the experiment.
Non-random samples are Non-random samples are biased, and cause sampling biased, and cause sampling error.error.
Examples of biased Examples of biased samplingsampling
Telephone SurveysTelephone Surveys““Call-in to our show” pollsCall-in to our show” pollsCollege campus recruitingCollege campus recruitingMall interceptsMall intercepts
The experimenter manipulates the The experimenter manipulates the independent variables (IV), then independent variables (IV), then
measures the impact of the measures the impact of the manipulation on the dependent manipulation on the dependent
variable (DV)variable (DV)
For example: You might to gauge the For example: You might to gauge the effect of source age (IV) and source effect of source age (IV) and source gender (IV) on perceived source gender (IV) on perceived source trustworthiness (DV).trustworthiness (DV).
Conducting StudiesConducting Studies
Manipulating Manipulating Persuasion VariablesPersuasion Variables
Source characteristicsSource characteristicsMessage characteristicsMessage characteristicsSocial SettingsSocial SettingsChannel of communicationChannel of communication
Variables TypicallyVariables TypicallyManipulatedManipulated
ManipulatingManipulatingSource TraitsSource Traits
For example: competence, trustworthiness, For example: competence, trustworthiness, dynamismdynamismFor instance, we might want to know whether a source For instance, we might want to know whether a source who is perceived as more competent is more who is perceived as more competent is more persuasive.persuasive.
AttitudeAttitudeChangeChange
SourceSourceCompetenceCompetence
++
Manipulating Message Manipulating Message CharacteristicsCharacteristics
For example: Message characteristics: For example: Message characteristics: intensity, diversity, coherenceintensity, diversity, coherenceWe might like to know the extent to which We might like to know the extent to which fear appeals change attitudes.fear appeals change attitudes.
AttitudeAttitudeChangeChange
FearFearAppealAppeal
++
Receiver StatesReceiver StatesFor example: anxiety, attentionFor example: anxiety, attentionWe could manipulate receivers' We could manipulate receivers' state of anxiety, and then examine state of anxiety, and then examine whether people are more easily whether people are more easily persuaded when they are stressed persuaded when they are stressed than when they are calm.than when they are calm.
AttitudeAttitudeChangeChange
StateStateAnxietyAnxiety
--
Channel VariablesChannel VariablesFor example: mass media or For example: mass media or interpersonal vs. internetinterpersonal vs. internetAre campaign advertisements on Are campaign advertisements on television more persuasive than television more persuasive than printed advertisements?printed advertisements?
AttitudeAttitudeChangeChange
ImmediacyImmediacyof Feedbackof Feedback
++
Types of Types of Attitude MeasuresAttitude Measures
1. Physiological measures taken 1. Physiological measures taken from body (blood pressure, from body (blood pressure, skin conductance, heart rate, etc.)skin conductance, heart rate, etc.)2. Surveys2. Surveys
Physiological MeasuresPhysiological Measures
Mostly show a level of arousal, but Mostly show a level of arousal, but currently can’t differentiate between currently can’t differentiate between
different emotions. For this reason , they different emotions. For this reason , they lack validity, (since the same level of lack validity, (since the same level of
arousal can accompany extreme positive or arousal can accompany extreme positive or extreme negative affect), and lack extreme negative affect), and lack
reliability (since they will not consistently reliability (since they will not consistently report the same result when what they are report the same result when what they are
measuring is held constant).measuring is held constant).These measures are also time consuming These measures are also time consuming
and require expensive equipment.and require expensive equipment.
Respondents are asked to indicate their attitudes by responding Respondents are asked to indicate their attitudes by responding to a series of items on a questionnaire (using paper and pencil). to a series of items on a questionnaire (using paper and pencil).
Analyzed using statistical procedures, (counting frequencies Analyzed using statistical procedures, (counting frequencies and measuring magnitudes.and measuring magnitudes.
Many researchers still use one question (single-item) scales to Many researchers still use one question (single-item) scales to measure with, but these are unreliable measurements for measure with, but these are unreliable measurements for statistical analyses.statistical analyses.
Surveys
People circle a number that indicates the People circle a number that indicates the magnitude of their position, and this magnitude of their position, and this
number is used for statistical analyses.number is used for statistical analyses.
For example:For example:
Everything I learn at UConn interests me.Everything I learn at UConn interests me.
Definitely Not 1 2 3 4 5 DefinitelyDefinitely Not 1 2 3 4 5 Definitely
Nothing beats a brew before taking examsNothing beats a brew before taking exams
Definitely Not 1 2 3 4 5 DefinitelyDefinitely Not 1 2 3 4 5 Definitely
Likert ScalesLikert Scales
A set of opposite (bipolar) words are presented to the respondent separated by seven blanks. People put a mark in the blanks, and each blank has a numerical value for coding.
For example:
How do you feel today
Tired Alert
These measures can have problems, since they are sometimes measuring different things with the same question --- people might say “well, I’m tired today,
but I’m alert”.
Bipolar Adjectives
Semantic Differential ScaleSemantic Differential Scale
SingleSingle statement followed by a statement followed by a seriesseries of of bipolar adjectivesbipolar adjectives
““I think the Campus newspaper is”I think the Campus newspaper is” Fair __ __ __ __ __ UnfairFair __ __ __ __ __ Unfair Biased __ __ __ __ __ UnbiasedBiased __ __ __ __ __ Unbiased Accurate __ __ __ __ __ InaccurateAccurate __ __ __ __ __ Inaccurate Factual __ __ __ __ __ Opinionated”Factual __ __ __ __ __ Opinionated”
Decent ScalesDecent Scales
Are high in reliabilityAre high in reliability Produce results in consistent ways.Produce results in consistent ways.
Are high in validityAre high in validity Measure the concept they’re meant to measure.Measure the concept they’re meant to measure.
Childrenand
Persuasion
Piaget’s Stages of Child Development1. Sensorimotor (birth-2 years old)2. Preoperational (age 2-7)3. Concrete Operational (age 7-11)4. Formal Operation (age 11-15)
Sensorimotor Stage
Assimilation/Accommodation cycle starts as reflexive actions
turn into action schemes.
Operant conditioning is very effective with in sensorimotor
stage.
Object concept and object permanence develops in first
two years.
Pre-Operational Stage
Representational thought expands rapidly with the development of language and symbolic play.
Thought sequences are not logical yet; mostly there is complexive thinking
(jumping between ideas without coordinating them),
and egocentrism (the belief that others literally see things the same
way they do) .
Concrete-Operational
Start of logical thought, but only regarding concrete
objects.
Concept of conservation (mass, length, number)
develops early in this stage.
Formal Operational
Abstract thought and hypothetical reasoning develops.
Children start to differentiate fantasy from reality, and can now
assume artificial premises that are known to be false.
A central component of Piaget's developmental theory of learning and thinking is that both involve the participation of the learner.
Piaget believes knowledge is not merely transmitted verbally but
must be constructed and reconstructed by the learner.
Piaget asserted that for a child to know and construct knowledge of the world, the child must act on
objects and it is this action which provides knowledge of those
objects (Sigel, 1977).
Optimal Learning Conditions
According to advertising research, children quickly go into a “flow state,” described as a “highly
pleasurable experience of total absorption in a challenging activity.” (Montgomery, 1996)
Inoculation TheoryInoculation Theory (McGuire, 1964) (McGuire, 1964)
Originally intended to help strengthen belief systemsOriginally intended to help strengthen belief systems
to prevent persuasion.to prevent persuasion.
Followed study of POW’s in Korean War.Followed study of POW’s in Korean War.
Here are the steps of effective inoculation: Here are the steps of effective inoculation:
Warn the receiver of the impending attack. Warn the receiver of the impending attack.
Make a weak attack. Make a weak attack.
Get the receiver to actively defend the Get the receiver to actively defend the attitude.attitude.