POLICY BRIEF

Towards a Representative & Decentralized Governance System 

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Access to reliable and affordable public services is a basic citizen right. Currently, public services in Lebanon are of low quality, highly expensive, and inaccessible to all. There are many reasons hindering the Lebanese government from improving public services, namely a highly centralized administration, lack of a clear socio-economic development plan, weak accountability mechanisms, and rampant clientelism aggravated by a sectarian political system. Recent government efforts to enhance public services have been ineffective, leading to an increase in citizen dissatisfaction, popular protests, poverty and emigration rates. The different initiatives undertaken to improve public services since the Ta’if Accord have not achieved their goals, including establishment of the Office of the Minister of State for Administrative Reform (OMSAR), reform of the municipal code, and development of a strategy for information and communication technology (ICT) and e-government mechanisms.

This policy brief aims at providing civil society with an alternative roadmap for improving the quality, accessibility, and efficiency of public services through an administrative decentralization law, an independent municipal fund, and a free and fair local electoral law.

The proposed policy aspires to bolster public services through local participation aimed at:

Improving administrative performance;

Enhancing municipal financial autonomy;

Ensuring free and fair local representation.

Implementation of this policy requires a long-term process that entails introducing new laws and practices, engaging with Parliament, and supporting government in implementing reforms. Since administrative decentralization is a critical issue for all political parties and other stakeholders, it is important to formulate a clear strategy for influencing the policy-making process and forging broad-based alliances in support of the proposed reforms.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

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The Problem

Public service delivery is the core function of the state. It enables government to respond to citizens’ needs, protect their rights, and meet their expectations. Yet public services in Lebanon are of low quality, expensive, and inaccessible to all. Public institutions—the vehicle for public service delivery—suffer from excessive bureaucracy, corruption, and inefficiency.

Service delivery problems are even more dire for citizens in localities. Citizens are increasingly demanding access to better quality services such as electricity, water, health, education, housing, and security. The limited administrative and financial prerogatives of local governments and the controls imposed by central government are a main reason for this situation. Local empowerment and participation mechanisms can make a major contribution to improving the quality of public services.

Situation Brief The multiple challenges facing public service delivery in Lebanon include:

1. Centralized government and exclusivity of service within public institutions.

2. Lack of management capacity, information technologies, and financial resources of public administrations and local governments.

3. Weak accountability mechanisms and lack of transparency and access to information to participate in improving public services.

4. Gaps and deficiencies in the legislative framework for public-private partnerships and participation mechanisms.

5. Inappropriate representation of localities due to parliamentary and municipal electoral systems that foster clientelism.

The Urgency Lebanon’s development indicators show a continued deterioration of social, economic, and political conditions, manifested by popular demonstrations, security incidents, sectarian tensions, and high rates of emigration. There is an immediate need to improve public services through local participation aimed at reducing poverty, improving living conditions, and eradicating the clientelistic webs that prevent government from serving the public interest.

One key solution is to launch an administrative decentralization process driven by local development priorities and aimed at improving the quality of public services as well as instituting local participation and accountability mechanisms.

FRAMING THE ISSUE

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Empl

oym

ent

proc

ess

&

cond

itio

ns w

ithi

n

publ

ic in

stit

utio

ns

> Grades 1 to 3 public servants (i.e., middle and senior management) are appointed by the Cabinet based on political and sectarian affiliations.

> Remuneration in public institutions is too low to entice competent human resources, making private sector employment or emigration more attractive to many Lebanese.

> Recruitment and hiring of all public servants is controlled by the Civil Service Board, which lacks human and financial resources.

Loca

l dev

elop

men

t pr

ogra

ms

fund

ed b

y in

tern

atio

nal o

rgan

izat

ions > Local development programs funded by donors are not

coordinated and are hindered by the bureaucracy of the ministry with which they collaborate.

> These programs are limited in time and resources, and often fail to translate their work at the policy level.

> Donor-funded programs sometimes become an alternative to government services rather than a means to enhance public service delivery.

ICT

stra

tegy

, in

fras

truc

ture

, and

re

gula

tory

fra

mew

ork

> Public institutions are resistant to integrating ICT into their operations due to lack of capacity and resources.

> The technological infrastructure is weak given poor internet speed and local telecom access.

> Many laws related to e-government have yet to be adopted and the ones that were approved are not adequately enforced.

The following policies, laws and practices are choices made by the Lebanese government to improve the quality of public services. In assessing these policies, we used four key indicators that are essential for any policy option aimed at improving the quality of public services:

1. enhance access to public services in localities

2. attain financial efficiency

3. allow local participation

4. permit accountability

LOOKING AT EXISTING POLICIES, LAWS AND PRACTICES

Access to Public Services

Financial Efficiency

Local Participation3

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1

Assessment

Assessment

Cab

inet

pol

icie

s &

min

istr

y pr

erog

ativ

es r

elat

ed

to p

ublic

ser

vice

s > Public service policies are top-down and are not enforced.> The centralized authority allocated to ministries increases

administrative bureaucracy, lack of responsiveness to citizen needs, and difficult access to public services.

> The political affiliations of ministers and public servants lead to discrimination in the provision of public services.

Adm

inis

trat

ive

refo

rm s

trat

egy

&

prog

ram

s by

OM

SAR > Administrative reform programs face high resistance from some

ministries when it comes to improving their performance.> OMSAR’s mandate does not allow it to enforce reform programs on

other ministries.> There is a lack of human and financial resources for efficient

administrative reform.

Mun

icip

al C

ode

& t

he

prer

ogat

ives

of t

he M

inis

try

of I

nter

ior

& M

unic

ipal

itie

s > The prerogatives of municipalities defined in the Municipal Code are not feasible due to the administrative boundaries imposed by central government in making local decisions.

> The Independent Municipal Fund is controlled by the Ministry of Interior and Municipalities, and funds are distributed without clear, transparent criteria.

> The Ministry of Interior and Municipalities exercises more than an oversight role over municipalities due to the prerogatives it enjoys through the Municipal Affairs Unit and the Mohafazat (governorates).

Policy Law

Practice

Policy Law

Practice

Accountability4

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1

2

3

1

2

3

Policy options

Assumptions Objectives Strategies Advantages Disadvantages Experts’ Take Policy options

Adm

inis

trat

ive

D

ecen

tral

izat

ion

> Devolving administrative & financial authorities from central government enhances local responsiveness and accountability.

> Liberating local governments from the central bureaucracy improves the quality of and access to local services.

> Decentralize the administrative system to empower municipalities, enhance service delivery at the community level, and increase local participation and accountability.

> Ensure financial autonomy of local governments.

> Transfer more administrative prerogatives to local governments.

> Improve local representation and enhance accountability mechanisms to prevent corruption and increase efficiency.

> Enhances local responsiveness, participation, and accountability, and increases access to public services at the local level.

> Long-term process that requires a clear development plan, significant financial and human resources, as well as political will and consensus.

“Leveraging local governments’ authority and autonomy wouldencourage citizens to participate in decision-making and would definitely help developpublic services.” Dr. Randa Antoun, Associate Professor at the American University of Beirut

Adm

inistrative D

ecentralizationIC

T In

tegr

atio

n &

E-

Gov

ernm

ent

> ICT integration into government services improves efficiency and accessibility.

> Developing e-government infrastructure and services decreases bureaucracy and corruption.

> Develop an e-government infrastructure and services to increase access to public services and decrease bureaucracy and corruption.

> Create a legislative framework for e-government services.

> Enhance ICT infrastructure and government capacity.

> Raise citizen awareness and capacity to make use of online services.

> Increases efficiency, decreases corruption and bureaucracy, and enhances citizen access to government services.

> Enhancing ICT infrastructure and public servants’ capacity are expensive endeavors.

> Not all citizens have the technological skills to access e-government services.

> The prerequisite is public servants’ readiness to adapt to new technologies.

“E-government and a proper ICT infrastructure will provide citizens with the means to claim their rights, and institutions with the needed efficiency to provide services.”Salam Yamout, Head of the ICT Coordination Unit, Office of the Prime Minister

ICT Integration &

E-G

overnment

Publ

ic-P

riva

te P

artn

ersh

ips > Increasing public-

private partnerships reduces the government’s administrative and financial burdens.

> Engaging the private sector in service provision enhances efficiency and access to services at the local level.

> Create a public-private partnership legislative framework and incentives to increase efficiency and access to quality services.

> Pass laws related to public-private partnerships.

> Create incentives for private sector involvement in public service provision.

> Enforce procurement and accountability mechanisms to limit corruption and abuse.

> Increases the quality of public services, improves efficiency, and engages the private sector in sharing government responsibilities.

> Underprivileged citizens might not have access to certain public services.

Government income from public service provision will be reduced.

> The prerequisite is the availability of a strong justice system and accountability mechanisms to limit abuse.

“Privatization is not the best reform path for sectors other than telecommunications. Public-private partnerships could be.” Ziad Hayek, Director of the Council for Privatization

Public-Private Partnerships

CONSIDERING POLICY OPTIONS

The following table describes policy options for enhancing freedom of expression thorough research and participatory consultations with stakeholders around the country. Each policy is based on different assumptions, has a specific objective and strategies, and presents both advantages and disadvantages.

“ Public services directly affect citizens’ livelihoods; they allow them to live respectfully and independently from any form of oppressive authority. They contribute to strengthening of the state-citizen relationship.

Dr. Khaled Kabbani,

Director of the Civil Service Board & Former Minister of Education.

”

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Propose an administrative decentralization law. Devolving authorities from central government to elected localities will improve local responsiveness, accountability, and the quality of public services by decreasing the bureaucratic load on central government.

Ensure an independent municipal fund. Ensuring the financial autonomy of municipalities will reduce clientelism and give them the capacity to finance local development plans without political interference and manipulation.

Reform the municipal elections law. Electing localities through free, fair, and democratic representation will provide citizens with a direct accountability mechanism and encourage voting based on local development platforms rather than sectarian agendas.

This policy brief focuses on the first policy option highlighted above—administrative decentralization—as the most urgent and actionable by civil society organizations (CSOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and community-based organizations (CBOs). The Lebanese Constitution, as amended by the Ta’if Accord of 1989, calls for administrative decentralization in tandem with efforts to protect national unity and formulate a comprehensive development plan. Administrative decentralization aims at empowering local governments and providing them with financial autonomy while ensuring local responsiveness and direct accountability to local citizens. It is a process that is expected to be gradual, strategic, and driven by local development needs and priorities.

While all of the suggested policy options are important to improving quality of public service, this policy brief focuses on three critical pillars that are most urgent and actionable by civil society organizations (CSOs):

This multi-pronged policy should fall within a long-term local development strategy, benefit from reliable audit and accountability mechanisms, rely on a central government ICT infrastructure, and capitalize on partnerships with the local private sector, CSOs, NGOs, and CBOs.

In the long run, it is important to complement these efforts to achieve administrative decentralization with:

Integration of ICT and development of e-government infrastructure within government services,

Promotion and legislation of Public-Private Partnerships.

RECOMMENDING POLICY

A Decentralized Governance System

Pi l lar Pi l lar

Pi l lar

“ Decentralizing the administrative system would empower municipalities, enhance service delivery at the community level, and increase local participation and accountability.

”

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Although several administrative decentralization law proposals have been presented by MPs, the issue is not a high priority on the government’s agenda. An administrative decentralization law aimed at transferring central authorities to local government is a key strategy to improve administrative performance and enhance the quality of public services. Civil society faces critical challenges in advancing this goal:

CSOs and NGOs must formulate a governance model for administrative decentralization, build consensus

around it, and pressure government to make it a national priority.

Administrative districting must be based on social and economic clustering rather than sectarian parameters.

Local communities and municipal governments must be equipped with the necessary capacities to provide high-quality services.

Strong accountability mechanisms must parallel the transfer of authorities to the local level to prevent the transfer of corrupt practices and guarantee public service quality.

At least four law proposals related to administrative decentralization are available and were presented to Parliament by Michel Murr, Robert Ghanem, Auguste Bakhos, and Ziyad Baroud. In 2011, Beyond Reform & Development developed a comprehensive model and a reform plan for administrative decentralization driven by local development. The Lebanese Center for Policy Studies (LCPS) published a book and a series of articles around the issue of decentralization and municipal work in Lebanon.

Past Proposals & Reform Efforts for Administrative Decentralization

THE WAY FORWARD

Pillar Propose an Administrative Decentralization Law

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>

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For administrative decentralization to be effective, municipalities must enjoy financial autonomy that supports local development plans adapted to local needs. Today, the Independent Municipal Fund (IMF) suffers from lack of autonomy, whereby the allocation of funds is politically motivated and based on clientelism. Very few initiatives have been undertaken to reform the IMF; the most recent is a proposal presented by the Prime Minister’s office.

Advocating for more equitable IMF practices that ensure municipalities receive funding based on clear, transparent criteria.

Researching and developing an innovative model for municipal funding that furthers municipal autonomy, social cohesion and local prosperity. This would be followed by direct lobbying to have it as an alternative to the existing IMF mechanism.

Prime Minister Najib Mikati’s office presented, in 2012, a proposal for reforming the Independent Municipal Fund. In 2011, LCPS published a policy brief titled “The Independent Municipal Fund: Reforming the Distributional Criteria.” The Ministry of Interior and Municipalities issued a study in 2011 titled “Municipal Finance Studies Program: Final Strategic Framework”, which presents steps to improve the Independent Municipal Fund.

Past Proposals and Reform Efforts for the Independent Municipal Fund

Pillar Ensure an Independent Municipal Fund

>

>

>

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Pillar

Reform the Municipal Elections Law

The existing municipal elections law dates back to 1998. As it is based on the electoral system for parliamentary elections, this law does not include critical measures for transforming the local elections into a free, fair, and democratic process, including the use of pre-printed ballots and voting based on place of residence rather than place of origin. The most critical reform is the need to establish an independent elections commission since municipalities are under the purview of the Ministry of Interior and Municipalities, and the latter has direct influence and control over the electoral process.

In addition, the small size of many municipalities turns local elections into contests that are driven by family and confessional ties rather than local development agendas. Over the last decade, the Ministry of Interior has been allowing the creation of new municipalities, often for confessional reasons. Many activities initiated by municipal councils are frozen due to partisan interests and politically driven conflicts within the council.

To address these issues, CSOs, NGOs, and community-based organizations (CBOs) can adopt an approach that falls within the following headlines:

Call for a complete reform of the municipal, or local government, electoral system that falls within the criteria and requirements of an administrative decentralization process, and highlight possible actions that can be adopted to start reforming the different components of the proposed reform.

Advocate for reforming key components of the current legislative framework for parliamentary elections, such as the integration of pre-printed ballots, electoral media regulations, which, according to Article 16 of the Municipal Code, apply to the municipal elections.

The Lebanese Association for Democratic Elections (LADE) drafted guidelines for improving the municipal elections law, which can be used to build the case for legal reform. The next municipal elections will take place in 2016; it is important to start campaigning at an early stage to build support for the reform process.

THE WAY FORWARD

LADE developed a law proposal for municipal elections reform in 2009. This proposal was put forward by the Ministry of Interior and Municipalities but was never passed.

Past Proposals and Reform Efforts for Municipal Elections

>

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FUTURE ACTION

National Level Local Level National Level Local Level

Pro

pose

an

Adm

inis

trat

ive

Dec

entr

aliz

atio

n La

w

Exp

ecte

dO

utco

me An administrative decentralization model is developed and agreed upon by key

stakeholders, with districting in favor of social cohesion and socio-economicdevelopment

An administrative decentralization law is developed and adopted by Parliament, with districting in favor of social cohesion and socio-economicdevelopment

ExpectedO

utcome

Propose an Adm

inistrativeD

ecentralization Law

Stra

tegy

Research existing laws and benchmark them with other countries to develop an administrative decentralization model through a participatory,inclusive process

Initiate local development projects where unions of municipalities partner with local NGOs to enhance collaboration between local stakeholders, and document themas validation of the national model

Develop a law proposal for administrative decentralization and launch an advocacy campaign led by CSOs, NGOs, and socialmedia activists

Mobilize community-level stakeholders to lobby local MPs to adopt the law proposal

Strategy

Ens

ure

an I

ndep

ende

ntM

unic

ipal

Fun

d

Exp

ecte

dO

utco

me

A new model for the Independent Municipal Fund is developed and agreed uponby key stakeholders that allows local efficiency, autonomy, and accountability

The Cabinet adopts a new model for the Independent Municipal Fund thatallows local efficiency, autonomy, and accountability

ExpectedO

utcome

Ensure an IndependentM

unicipal Fund

Stra

tegy

Research and benchmark with other countries’ funding mechanisms to develop a model for independent municipal funding usingparticipatory mechanisms

Enable local stakeholders to build the capacity of municipalities toimprove their financial capabilities

Engage unions of municipalities, CSOs, and NGOs to lobby the Cabinet to adopt an independentfunding mechanism

Establish local funds governed by a partnership between municipal unions and local stakeholders as models for independent funding mechanisms

Strategy

Ref

orm

the

Mun

icip

al El

ecti

ons

Law E

xpec

ted

Out

com

e

The municipal elections law includes major reforms, including the use of pre-printed ballots, voting based on place of residence, and creation of anindependent elections commission

A free, fair, and democratic electoral system is adopted for local governments, with districting based on socio-economic factors in line withthe administrative decentralization model

ExpectedO

utcome

Reform

the Municipal

Elections Law

Stra

tegy

Launch a campaign led by CSOs, NGOs, and social media activists using direct actions to reform themunicipal elections law

Mobilize community-level stakeholders to lobby local MPs to introduce reforms to the municipalelections law

Launch a campaign led by CSOs, NGOs, and social media activists using direct actions to reform themunicipal elections law

Mobilize community-level stakeholders to lobby local MPs to introduce reforms to the municipal elections law

StrategyLONG TERMSHORT TO MEDIUM TERM

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During the last decade, several initiatives have pushed for administrative decentralization in Lebanon, but these efforts have been limited and failed to achieve major impact. The following are suggestions for illustrative activities based on expert roundtables, interviews, and focus groups, which can be adopted by CSOs, NGOs, and CBOs to press forward on administrative decentralization.

ILLUSTRATIVE ACTIVITIES

Illustrative Activities at the National Level:

Conduct research on local economic development needs and priorities.

Link decentralization proposals to districting based on socio-economic factors rather than sectarian boundaries.

Highlight financial gaps that are hindering municipalities’ role in development.

Design an administrative decentralization model that protects national unity and promotes local development.

Document case studies and best practices of local development and municipal cooperation as models for administrative decentralization.

Facilitate access to funding for municipalities to start development projects.

Develop and advocate for a capacity-building program for municipalities to better plan and manage local affairs.

Monitor municipal practices and publicize the results to the public.

Illustrative Activities at the Local Level:

Involve local businesses, CSOs, NGOs, CBOs, cooperatives, universities, youth and women groups in proposing an administrative decentralization model that responds to local needs.

Monitor the performance of Mohafazat (governorates), Qa’em Maqam (districts), and municipalities, and document cases that prove the need for decentralization.

Encourage public-private partnerships at the local level.

Invite the Lebanese diaspora to invest in and support decentralization and local economic development.

Foster networking among local CSOs, NGOs, and CBOs to advocate collectively vis-à-vis central government for decentralization and independent municipal funding.

Collaborate with municipalities to develop local development plans and engage with citizens across confessions and with neighboring municipalities.

Design awareness programs on local development needs and the respective roles of central government and municipalities.

Educate citizens on the importance of decentralization and its contribution to reducing sectarian divisions.

The suggested policy option must be endorsed by key stakeholders and policy-makers to be implemented. The influence that the various stakeholders yield on the decision-making process will determine how they should be engaged and the messages they should receive. Below is a list of stakeholders to be considered.

> President of the Republic > Cabinet of Ministers > Ministry of Finance > OMSAR > Court of Audit > Civil Service Board > Department of Municipal Affairs in the Ministry of Interior and Municipalities > Mohafazat & Qae’m Maqam (governorates & districts)

> Parliamentary blocks > Parliamentary Committee on Public Management & Justice > Ministry of Interior & Municipalities > Political parties > Unions of municipalities > Municipalities

> Business associations > Syndicates > Academia & research institutes > CSOs, NGOs, CBOs > Media > Local private sector

Each of these entities requires a different strategy and approach to ally it with the suggested policy. The following table highlights the incentives for the key stakeholders to adopt or support the proposed policy. These incentives can form the basis for developing communication messages to persuade the stakeholders to take action.

Stakeholders Incentives

Cabinet and Ministry of Interiorand Municipalities

Improve public institutions’ performance and enhance responsiveness to citizen needs, thereby increasing trustin government

Parliament and ParliamentaryCommittees

Increase local outreach and involvement at the community level through institutional mechanismsrather than clientelism

Municipalities and Unions ofMunicipalities

Guarantee more autonomy to achieve local developmentgoals and enhance responsiveness to community needs

Business Associations and Local PrivateSector

Decrease bureaucracy and create opportunities forprivate sector collaboration for market expansion

NGOs, CSOs, &CBOs

Gain local leverage and improve the quality of public services at the community level, allowing civil society toshift the focus to other policy issues

ENGAGING WITH DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDERS

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Arab Rule of Law Initiative. State of Media in Lebanon. Retrieved from http://www.arabruleoflaw.org/Files/PDF/Media/Arabic/P2/MediaLebanonReportP2S2_AR.pdf

“Artist Facing Jail Time: ‘Freedom of Expression Is a Myth in Lebanon.’” (April 6, 2012). Ya Libnan. Retrieved from http://www.yalibnan.com/2012/04/06/artist-facing-jail-time-over-graffiti-freedom-of-expressionis-a-myth-in-lebanon/

Chahine, J. (May 5, 2004). “Lebanese Media Fractured, Politicized.” The Daily Star. Retrieved from http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Politics/May/05/Lebanese-media-fractured-politicized.ashx

A Guidebook on Public-Private Partnership in Infrastructure, (2011), United Nations ESCAP, Bangkok, Retrieved from http://www.unescap.org/ttdw/common/TPT/PPP/text/ppp_guidebook.pdf

Abou Dayeh, M. H. (2008). Effectiveness of Lebanese Non-Governmental Organizations on Shaping Government Policies, American University of Beirut (Master's thesis).

Antar, C. G., (2011). Public-Private Partnerships: A Policy Option for the Improvement of Public Service Delivery in Lebanon, American University of Beirut (Master's thesis).

Antoun, R., Associate Professor at the American University of Beirut (September 13, 2012). Personal interview by N. Menhall, BRD/I.

Atallah, S. Lebanese Center for Policy Studies (2011). The Independent Municipal Fund: Reforming the Distributional Criteria. Retrieved from http://www.lcps-lebanon.org/publications/1331312295-imf-policybrief-eng.pdf

Bakhos, A. (n.d.). Administrative Decentralization Draft Law (presented to parliamentary committee).

Baroud, Z. (n.d.). Administrative Decentralization Draft Law (presented to parliamentary committee).

Doumit, G., & Geha, C. (2011). The Path of Decentralization in a Sectarian State: Options and Alternatives for Lebanon. Presented at the British Society for Middle East Studies, Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies, University of Exeter, United Kingdom.

Engage Lebanon (2010). Local Governance and Active Citizenship. Beirut.

Gebara, K., President of the Lebanese Center for Good Governance (September 24, 2012). Personal interview by C. Geha, BRD/I.

Ghanem, R. (n.d.). Administrative Decentralization Draft Law (presented to parliamentary committee).

Hadwan, B. M. (2010). Blending Description and Prescription: A Model of Strategic Planning for the Lebanese Public Sector. American University of Beirut (Master's thesis).

Hayek, Z., Director of the Council for Privatization (September 10, 2012). Personal interview by N. Menhall, BRD/I.

Iskandar, A. (n.d.). Public Service Accountability in Lebanon. Doctoral dissertation, American University of Beirut (AUB), available from the Digital Documentation Center, AUB. Retrieved from http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/pspa/PSAccount/PSAccount-0.html

Juma, S. (2003), Governance and Public Sector Management in MENA, Sector Brief, The World Bank Group, Retrieved from http://www.iodlebanon.org/Files /37_1.pdf

`

PARTIAL LIST OF REFERENCES

Kabbani, K. Director of the Civil Service Board and Former Minister of Education. (September 13, 2012). Personal interview by N. Menhall, BRD/I.

Karageozian N. (2006). Simplified Development Plans in Twelve Clusters of Municipalities in Lebanon. AUB: URPL660, unpublished term paper.

Messarra, A., Salem, P. (1996). Administrative Decentralization in Lebanon. Lebanese Center for Policy Studies, Beirut.

Ministry of Interior and Municipalities, First Municipal Infrastructure Project (2011). Municipal Finance Studies Program: Final Strategic Framework. Retrieved from http://www.moim.gov.lb/UI/moim/PDF/StrategicFramework.pdf

Murr, M. (2001). Administrative Decentralization Draft Law (presented to parliamentary committee).

Nahas, C. Economic Research Forum (2009). Financing and Political Economy of Higher Education in Lebanon. Retrieved from Economic Research Forum website http://charbelnahas.org/textes/Economie_et_politiques_economiques/HigherEducationFinancing-Lebanon.pdf

OECD Studies on Public Engagement (2009). Focus on Citizens: Public Engagement for Better Policy and Services. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/gov/42658029.pdf

Relief International (2011). Empowering Municipalities Through Local Economic Development: The Path from Local Economic Development to National Policy. Beirut.

Sader, D. (n.d.). Municipal Work Experience in Lebanon: Achievements, Constraints and Challenges. Lebanese Center for Policy Studies, Beirut.

Takydine, S., Lawyer and Legal Expert (September 25, 2012). Personal interview by N. Menhall, BRD/I.

The Status of Women in the Middle East and North Africa. International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES), Institute for Women’s Policy Research and Canadian International Development Agency (2010). Focus on Lebanon: Healthcare Access Topic Brief. Retrieved from http://www.ifes.org/Content/Publications/Papers/2010/~/media/Files/Publications/Papers/2010/swmena/2010_Lebanon_Healthcare_Access.pdf

The World Bank Group, Social and Economic Development Group, Middle East and North Africa Region (2009). Lebanon: Social Impact Analysis - Electricity and Water Sectors. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPSIA/Resources/490023-1120841262639/Lebanon_electricity_water.pdf

UN-Habitat (2009). Promoting Local Economic Development Through Strategic Planning. Local Economic Development Series.

This policy brief was developed by Beyond Reform & Development , part of BRD/I Group S.A.L., in close collaboration with experts, activists and civil society organizations.

Lebanon, 2012