Qualitative Research

By Dr Vishal Agrawal&Dr Menaal Kaushal

JR-1, Department of SPMSN Medical College, Agra

Qualitative Research Introduction

Difference Between Qualitative and Quantitative Study

The Concept Of Qualitative Research

Scope Of Qualitative Research Where To Use Where Not To Use As Complementary To Quantitative Study

Steps in Qualitative Research

Types Of Sampling In Qualitative Research

Types Of Data& Forms Of Data

Qualitative Research Methods

Data Analysis

Scientific ResearchConsists of an investigation that:

seeks answers to a question

systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question

collects evidence

produces findings that were not determined in advance

produces findings that may be applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study

RESEARCH

MIXEDQUALITATIVEQUANTITAIV

E

APPLIED STUDY

TRADITIONAL QUALITATIVE STUDY

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Which Method We Use:

depends on:- The type of research question

- The nature of the problem being

investigated

Qualitative Research (“Phenomenology”)

Includes collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Qualitative research refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things.

It helps to understand the perspectives of the local population, thus providing the culturally specific information about opinions, values& behaviors. (Social Context)

What Sort Of Research Questions Can Qualitative Methods Best

Answer?

The Scope of Qualitative Research is to explore&

understand through

Participant’s ‘Lived experience’

“Insider’s” perspectives

And to understand In the Context

Functions Of Qualitative Research

Developing and delineating program elements

before a quantitative evaluation

Generating theory

Boosting the power of quantitative design&

Broadening the observation field

Analyzing process and individual cases to explain

the how and why of an outcome

Mixed Study MethodsQual Quant

Quant Qual

• Generate hypothesis Then Test it• Tests Generalisability

• Guides Purposive Sampling• Helps Interprets Results

Qualitative Studies

Seek to confirm hypotheses about phenomena

Instruments use more rigid, inflexible style of eliciting and categorizing responses to questions

Use highly structured methods such as questionnaires, surveys& structured observation

To quantify variation

To predict causal relationship

To describe characteristics of a population

Quantitative Studies

Seek to explore phenomena

Instruments use more flexible, iterative style of eliciting& categorizing responses to questions

Use semi-structured methods such as interviews, focus groups, and participant observation

To describe variation

To describe& explain relationship

To describe individual experiences& group norms

QualitativeStudies

Closed- ended

Numerical (obtained by assigning numerical values to responses)

Study design is stable from beginning to end

Participant responses do not influence or determine how and which questions researchers ask next- Researcher is limited by the Questionnaire

Study design is subject to statistical assumptions and conditions

Quantitative Studies

Open- ended

Textual (obtained from audiotapes, videotapes, and field notes)

Some aspects of the study are flexible

Participant responses affect how and which questions researchers ask next- Researcher may use probes

Study design is iterative, that is, data collection and research questions are adjusted according to what is learned

Example:

Close Ended Questions

Do you give OPV to your child during PPI rounds?

Yes, Always

No, Never

Sometimes/Occasionally

Most of the times

Example:

Open Ended Questions

What are your opinions about giving OPV to children, during PPI rounds?

Probe:

Why do you think that giving OPV can harm your child?

Qualitative Studies

Quantitative Studies

When To Use Qualitative Research

To inform what people are doing, thinking, and saying about a problem

To identify the important problem to be solved at community/ local/ policy levels

Generate a list of options for interventions

To investigate how best to implement promising interventions

To monitor response to interventions and assess how best to present its results to public and scientific community

When NOT To Use Qualitative Research

AloneWhen numbers are needed to make a

decision (what proportion of people )

Results are to be projected to the total

population (unless generalisability

ensured by researcher through

appropriate measures)

Sampling Techniques

Snow-ballSampling

QuotaSampling

Purposive Sampling

Chain- ReferralSampling

data review and analysis is done in conjunction with data collection

Finds& recruits “hidden populations,” not accessible through other sampling strategies.

Is a Subtype of Purposive sampling, when we pre-fix the number of participants from every category in the study

Sample SizeUnlike quantitative studies, here sample size Is

not determined by conventional formulae, but depends on the point of Saturation.

Goal is to understand phenomena, not to represent population, so Select information-rich cases for intensive study

Minimum samples based on expected reasonable coverage, given the purpose of the study and constraints

The Steps In Designing A Qualitative Study

1. Establish the general problem to be investigated Of interest to the researcher

2. Stating the purpose of the study Based on problem analysis Arises from previous studies Guided by literature review Determined by who will use the research results

3. Develop a conceptual/theoretical framework for the study

4. Formulate general and specific research questions (aims and objectives)

5. Select a qualitative research design

6 Select a sampling strategy

Establish site of the research

Selection of participants

7. Ensure trustworthiness of the study

8. Determine data collection methods and develop data collection tools

9. Establish how data will be managed and analyzed

10.Interpretation and discussion of findings

11.Prepare research report

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Types Of Qualitative Research Designs

The case study

Ethnography

Grounded theory

Phenomenology

Participatory research

Context

Phenomenon under Study

Analysis(Terminal)

QUANTITATIVE STUDY

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Context

Phenomenon under Study

Context

Phenomenon under Study

Phenomenon under Study

Analysis

Analysis

Analysis(Terminal)

QUALITATIVE STUDY

Traditional Long Term Qualitative

Studies Rapport building over short

time through ice- breaking activities

Concept of Engaging in Selection rather than Holism (see next slide)

Researcher remains a “Short time Visitor” or Can use data collectors from the local community

Data collection is not iterative but can be staggered (see next slide)

Analytical process is Terminal

One-Short/ Applied Qualitative

Studies Strong Rapport Building

over long time through prolonged (>1yr) field work.

Captures field in Holism

Researcher increasingly merges with the field& becomes “as one of them” i.e. a part of the real people’s lives to understand the community “as naturally as possible”

Data collection is iterative& over prolonged time periods

Analytical process is Iterative

Context

Phenomenon under Study

Analysis(Terminal)

Staggered Data Collection

ONE- SHORT/ APPLIED

QUALITATIVE STUDY

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Qualitative Data

Indirect Semi- Direct Direct

Inferential/ Abstract

May not be Accurate

Participant’s Report

May differ with Different Perceptions

Validity of Representation

Represents The Actual Phenomenon Very Closely

Types Of Qualitative Data

Forms Of Qualitative Data

Field NotesAudio- Video

RecordingsDiagrams

Of:Participant Observations

Observations made during FGDs& In- Depth Interviews

Of: • Focused

Group Discussions

• In- Depth Interviews

E.g. Sociograms

Qualitative Research Methods

Includes:

Participant Observation

In- Depth Interviews

Focused Group Discussions (FGD)

PARTICIPANT

OBSERVATION

Participant ObservationA qualitative research method in which

researchers gather data either by

observing or by both observing and

participating, to varying degrees, in the

study-community’s daily activities, in

community settings relevant to the

research questions. Ex at bars, brothels,

and health clinic waiting areas, religious

settings.

Approach the participants in their own

environment

Don’t divulge the confidence- Don’t leak

out secrets!

Take Field notes- record ALL observations,

even informal communications established

can be recorded

What To ObserveAppearance might indicate membership in groups

or in sub-populations of interest to the study, such

as profession, social status, socioeconomic class,

religion or ethnicity

Verbal behavior& interactions Who speaks to whom

and for how long; who initiates interaction;

languages or dialects spoken; tone of voice,

Gender, age, ethnicity, and profession of speakers;

dynamics of interaction

Personal space How close people stand to one another.

What individuals’ preferences concerning personal space

suggest about their relationships.

Human traffic People who enter, leave, and spend time at

the observation site. Where people enter and exit; how long

they stay; who they are (ethnicity, age, gender); whether

they are alone or accompanied; number of people.

People who stand out Identify people who receive a lot of

attention from others. What differentiates them from

others; whether people consult them or they approach other

people; whether they seem to be strangers or well known

by others present.

Types Of Observers:Complete observer

Behind one-way mirror, invisible role

Observer as participantKnown, overt observer

Participant as observerPseudo-member, research role known

Advantages& Disadvantages:

It provides Familiarity with the cultural milieu

It can Uncover The Unknown Factors- It Can provide information previously unknown to researchers that is crucial for project design, data collection& interpretation of other data.

But:

It is Time- consuming- at least 1yr in the field, (as in traditional study pattern)

It is Memory based, so discipline yourself

It is Inherently Subjective so, Practice to be objective rather than narrating subjectively.

Participant Observation Steps

Determine :

the purpose of the participant observation

activity as related to the overall research

objectives.

the population(s) to be observed.

the venues in which you would like to observe

them.

Investigate possible sites for participant

observation.

Select the site(s), time(s) of day, and date(s)

Decide how field staff will divide up or

pair off to cover all sites most effectively.

Consider how you will present yourself,

both in terms of appearance and how you

will explain your purpose to others if

necessary.

Plan how and if you will take notes during

the participant observation activity.

Remember to take your field notebook

and a pen.

After Participant Observation

Schedule time soon after participant

observation to expand your notes.

Type your notes into computer files using

the standard format set for the study

IN

DEPTH INTERVIEWS

In Depth InterviewsA qualitative research method in which a

researcher/interviewer gathers data about

an individual’s perspectives on a specific

topic(s) through a semi-structured

exchange with the individual.

In Depth InterviewsThe researcher/interviewer engages with

the individual by posing questions in a

neutral manner, listening attentively to

responses, and asking follow-up questions

and probes based on those responses.

Purpose Of InterviewsElicit feelings

Thoughts

Opinions

Previous experiences

The meaning people give to certain

events

Types Of InterviewsInformal conversational interview

General interview- guide approach

Standardized open-ended interview

Closed fixed-response interview

Combination of approaches

Types Of QuestionsExperience and behavior questions

Opinion and value questions

Feeling questions

Knowledge questions

Background/demographic questions

Advantages And Disadvantages

Advantages

•Explanatory tool

•Emic perspective

•Facilitate rapport

•More appropriate in rural

setting

•Responses more valid

Disadvantages

• Replicality difficult

• Time consuming

• Results not strictly

comparable

• Require familiarity with

language and culture

FOCUS

GROUP

DISCUSSION

What is Focus Group Discussion?

Focus group discussions are group discussions with a small group of individuals from a well defined target population on pre-selected topics that rely on interaction between group members, under the guidance of a trained facilitator.

Each participant is stimulated by the comments of others and in turn stimulate them.

What is Focus Group Discussion?

It is a qualitative method which helps to

find out the ‘How’ ‘Why’ of human

behaviour

It can provide insight into how a group

thinks about an issue, the range of

opinions and ideas, and the

inconsistencies and variations that exist

in a particular community in terms of

beliefs and their experiences &practices.

Purpose of Focus Group Discussion

Get a variety of perspectives/reactions

to a certain issue

In a short time

Mainly for eliciting opinions, values,

feelings in the group- the group norms

Key ConsiderationsThe topic should is narrowly focused

Selection of participants is also focused

by targeting individuals who meet specific

criteria

Topic should be of interest to both the

investigator and respondents.

The emphasis should be on interaction

between or among the group members.

Designing a Focus Group Discussion

Setting the objectives

Determine the target population

Plan the number of of sessions

Follow the guidelines regarding selection of participants, role of moderator/facilitator etc

Developing F.G.D. guide

Conducting F.G.D.

Analysis and interpretation of result.

Cost-effective

Quality of data enhanced by group participants

Can quickly assess the extent to which there is agreement or diversity on an issue

Enjoyable for participants

Advantages

LimitationsOutside of natural setting

Silences the minority view

Responses by each participant may be Constrained

Restricts number of questions that can be asked

Requires group process skills

Confidentiality not assured

Explores major themes, but fails to catch subtle differences

Holding a FGDHomogenous

Strangers

6-10 people

Discussion Time: 1- 2 hours

2 FGD per type of respondent

Facilitators: Moderator and note taker

Prepare discussion guide

Personal Qualities Of Moderator

Adequate knowledge on background information

about the topic and experience in conducting

FGD

Good listening skills

Leadership skills

Relationship with the participants

Patience and flexibility

Clothing

Role of ModeratorOrient the group in a proper manner.

Put forth issues/ sub issues in appropriate

questions.

Create a non-judgmental environment in

which group members feel free to

express.

Encourage interaction between

participants.

Encourage quiet participants to speak up

and quieten garrulous talkers.

Guide the direction of discussion so that it

does not wander too far from the

designated focus.

Pace the discussion appropriate for the

participant

Subtly control the time allotted to each

question and to the entire discussion.

Role of the RecorderPrimarily an observer, tape record the session.

Observe the nature of interaction, record non-verbal

communication & level of consensus

Should know what type of data she/he is expected to

collect.

If facilitator has omitted a question from the guide,

the recorder can point them out (at the end).

Identify the speakers. Note down the first few words

every time a new person speaks and make brief notes

of the content.

SociogramDiagrammatic representation of entire

session of FGD

Offers a useful method of conceptualising

group dynamics drawing comparisons

between focus groups & reflecting on

moderating technique

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FOCUSED GROUP DISCUSSION

(SOCIOGRAM)

QUALITATIVE

DATA

ANALYSIS

Stages In Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis is a non-

linear/ iterative processNumerous rounds of questioning,

reflecting, rephrasing, analysing,

theorising, verifying after each

observation, interview, or Focus Group

Discussion

During data collectionReading – Data Immersion – reading and re-

reading

Coding – listen to the data for emerging themes

and begin to attach labels or codes to the texts

that represent the themes

After data collection

Displaying – the Themes (all information)

Developing hypotheses, questioning and

verification

Reducing – from the displayed data identify the

main points

Interpretation At all stages – searching for core

meanings of thoughts, feelings, and

behaviours described

Overall interpretation

Identify how themes relate to each

other

Explain how study questions are

answered

Explain what the findings mean beyond

the context of your study

Processes In Qualitative Data Analysis

I. Reading / Data immersion

1. Read for content Are you obtaining the types of information you

intended to collect Identify emergent themes and develop

tentative explanations Note (new / surprising) topics that need to be

explored in further fieldwork

2. Note the quality of the data Have you obtained superficial or rich& deep

responses How vivid and detailed are the descriptions of

observations Is there sufficient contextual detail

3. Develop a system to identify problems

in the data (Audit Trail)

- Read identifying patterns

- After identifying themes, examine how

these are patterned

Do the themes occur in all or some of the

data

Is there a relationship between themes

Are there contradictory responses

Are there gaps in understanding – these

require further exploration

Problems in the quality of the data

require a review of:

How you are asking questions

(neutral or leading)

The venue

The composition of the groups

The style and characteristics of the

interviewer

How soon after the field activity are

notes recorded

II. Coding – No standard rules of how to code

EmergentBorrowed

Record coding decisionsRecord codes, definitions, and revisions

Usually - insert codes / labels into the margins

Building theme related filesCut and paste together into one file

similarly coded blocks of textNB identifiers that help you to identify the

original source Identify sub-themes and explore them in

greater depth

Coding qualitative data does not mean reducing it to

numbers, rather it is a means of indexing your data

While all grounded theory involves coding, not all coding

is grounded theory, again it is often assumed that because

you are coding you are ‘doing’ grounded theory, this is not

always the case

It is a common misconception that computers can code

qualitative data for you, to put it simply, they can’t.

III.Displaying data

Capture the variation or richness of each

theme

Note differences between individuals and sub-

groups

Return to the data and examine evidence that

supports each sub-theme

IV. Developing hypotheses, questioning and

verification

Extract meaning from the data

Do the categories developed make sense?

What pieces of information contradict my

emerging ideas?

What pieces of information are missing or

underdeveloped?

What other opinions should be taken into

account?

How do my own biases influence the data

collection and analysis process?

V. Data reduction

i.e. distill the information to make visible the

most essential concepts and relationships

Get an overall sense of the data

Distinguish primary/main and

secondary/sub- themes

Separate essential from non-essential

data

Use visual devices – e.g. matrices,

diagrams

VI.Interpretation

i.e. identifying the core meaning of the

data, remaining faithful to to the

perspectives of the study

participants but with wider social

and theoretical relevance

Consistent with data collected

Verified with respondents

Present multiple perspectives

(convergent and divergent views)

Did you go beyond what you expected

to find?

Credibility Of Attributed Meaning

TriangulationAs a way to increase credibility, but also check

transferability, dependability and confirmability

triangulation is often used.

Triangulation = a cross-checking of information and

conclusions in research, brought about by the use of

multiple procedures or sources. If there is agreement

between these, there is support of the interpretation of

data.

Using triangulation does not mean you get a certain

truth, but you get closer to it – reflexivity is still

necessary.

Examples Of Triangulation Techniques:

Method triangulation: Comparing data that come from the use of different methods. These could be both quantitative and qualitative. Eg. first using a questionaire to ask about eating habits in a school, and then conduct focus group interviews afterwards.

Researcher triangulation: Involves using different people as researchers. This increased the confirmability and credibility of conclusions. Without this data collection and conclusions might be affected by researcher bias.

Other triangulation thechniques include data triangulation and theory triangulation.

Some Important Concepts NATURALISTIC – Natural setting as source of data

INDUCTIVE – It seeks to build theory from data & avoid imposing researcher’s own categories of analysis

HOLISTIC – It looks at the phenomenon in totality & takes an overall perspective

TRIANGULATION – Comparing data collected from different methods

FLEXIBLE DESIGN- Emergent design as opposed to pre-determined design in quantitative methods

INTERPRETIVE – Aimed at discovering the meaning the events have for the individuals who experience them & interpretation of these meaning by researcher

PARTICULARISTIC - Guided by objectives

PROBES - are neutral questions, phrases, sounds, and even gestures interviewers use to encourage participants to elaborate on their answers and explain why or how

Thank you!

.

We Know Type-I& Type- II Errors, What is Type- III Error?

If a Questionnaire developed in a different cultural setting is

“imported” and used, then one must check its validity in one’s

setting – Qualitative methods in the initial phase, work towards

avoiding this type III error.

e.g. In U.S. It may be fairly normal to ask a single lady how many

children she has, but this Question would create a havoc if asked by

the researcher in India or Pakistan.

Conversely, in U.S or U.K, it may again be a valid question to ask a

mother of two, whether she is married, but this would prove to be

disastrous if asked to an Indian mother.

Thus, in essence, Type III errors deal with right answers to wrong

questions!