QP - Odisha Bigyan Academy · Koch wasyoung, hehadadesire tojoinnavy,...
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Science Horizon2ND YEAR 6TH ISSUE JUNE, 2012
ODISHA BIGYAN ACADEMY
REQUEST FORCONTRIBUTINGSCIENCEBASEDARTICLES IN ENGLISH
The Secretary, Odisha Bigyan Academy invites articles in English on
Basic and Applied Sciences from scientists, technologists and professionals
to be published in the English magazine "SCIENCE HORIZON". The
articles shouldbe lucid and easilyunderstood by students of Higher Secondary
schools, undergraduate students and common readers. They should focus on
scientific topics and should be presented in a popular style covering
information on scientific discoveries/inventions, biography of scientists,
eradication of superstitions, development of scientific temper, story,
features, snippets etc. The article should ordinarily be of two to three printed
pages in one side ofA-4 size paper with attractiveheadings. Theauthors whose
articles are published in the magazine will be paid a token remuneration for
each article. The articles should be sent to the Secretary, Odisha Bigyan
Academy by the following address.
Secretary, Odisha Bigyan Academy,Type-4R/25, Unit-IX(F), Bhubaneswar-751022,
ODISHA, INDIA,Tel: 0674 - 2543468
President, Odisha Bigyan AcademyProf. (DR) Basudev KarVice President, Odisha Bigyan AcademyProf. (DR) Shashi Narayan MohapatraEditorProf. Sodananda TorasiaLanguage ExpertProf. (Dr) D. K. RayManaging EditorSri Sanatan RanaSecretary, Odisha Bigyan Academy
6TH ISSUE2ND YEAR JUNE,2012
Science Horizon
Editorial Board
Dr Ramesh Chandra Parida
DR Nityananda Swain
Dr Pramod Kumar Mahapatra
Dr Prahallad Chandra Nayak
Dr Bhabendra Kumar Patnaik
Prof. (Er) P.C. Patnaik
CONTENTS
Subject Author Page
1. Editorial From Nano to Nova, the search continues..... Prof. Sodananda Torasia 22. Bioplastics for Sustainable Future Padmalochan Pradhan and 3
Jagadish Chandra Paul3. Robert Koch's contribution to Bacteriology K. Pravakar and 5
G. C. Sahoo4. Research Methods in Modern Medicine Guru Prasad Mohanta 105. Coastal Erosion in Odisha Bijay Ketan Patnaik 136. "Cloud Seeding": an effective way to Sarada Prasad Mohapatra 17
fight against drought7. The Brachisto Chrone Problem and the Cycloid N. Parhi 198. The Science of Hydroponics Bishnu Prasad Behera 249. Understanding Computational Chemistry and S. M. Behera 28
Data Mining Chemistry10. Memory Declines as Age Goes Up, But Not Wits Dwijesh Kumar Panda 3011. Production of Baby Corn for Higher Profit Subas Chandra Sahoo 32
12. Metabolomics-Studying Chemical Vocabulary of Plants Prasanta K. Dash, Kishor Gaikward,Pradeep K. Jain and Rhitu Rai 34
13. Calcium - The Essential Health Nutrient G. K. Roy 3814. Plant Tissue Culture and Its Application Sanjeeb Kumar Das and 41
Padmini Bisyoi15. Vitamin A Rich - Golden Rice - A Gift of Biotechnology Basanta Kumar Choudhury 4416. 5W'S+H : Ulcer Nityananda Swain 46
The Cover Page depicts the DNA Molecule, the Fullerene, the IVF Cell division and the Graphene.
EDITORIALWORLD ENVIRONMENT DAY
Green Economy: Population Growth and Limited Resources
World Environment Day (WED) is an annualevent that is aimed at being the biggest and most widely
celebratedglobal day for positiveenvironmental action.
WED activities take place all the year round but theclimax is on 5 June every year, involving everyone
from everywhere. The celebration which began in1972 has grown to become one of the main vehicles
through which the UN Environment Program
stimulates worldwide awareness of the environmentandencourages political attentionandaction. It addition
to this, it personalizes, environmental issues andenableseveryone to realize not only his/her responsibility, but
also their power to becomeagents of change in support
of sustainable and equitable development. This is agreat day for people from all walks of life to come
together to ensure a cleaner, greener and brighteroutlook for themselves and the future generations.
The momentum has picked up since then. Aftertwenty years, during 3-14 June, 1992, 172 Governments
met at Rio-de Janeiro to discuss the issues, reaffirming
the Declaration of the UN Conference on the HumanEnvironment adopted at Stockholm on 16.6.72. The
Rio 'Earth Summit' of 1992 focused on SustainableDevelopment procla iming several principles.
Afterwards several International meets, like ClimateChange Convention, Kyoto Protocol, Biological
Diversity etc. have been held. Since then the world
has woken up from slumber to face with awe thealarming situation threatening the very existence of
the Biosphere. During the last twenty years,extraordinary efforts have been made, for delving more
deeply into the causes of the environmental problems
and possible solutions to save the world. The effortsare matched by the steps taken by the individual
Nations, irrespective of their developing status,
economy and resources. The recommendations over theyears are replete with 'Do's and 'Don'ts, in every sphere
ofhumanactivity, whichwouldcover volumes of literature,enough to fill a small library, yet it appears we are onlytouching the periphery of the vast volcano of the issueswhich will erupt one day, unless controlled from now.
Of late, it has been realised that the core of the
issuelies withthealarming growthofhuman population,with growth rate of 13.4 crores per year, which isexpected to exceed 900 crores by the year 2050. To
feed the mouths of the teeming population would havea great demand on agriculture. This in turn wouldmeanencroaching on the forest land, which we are losing,
about 13 million hectares per year (half of this beingprimary forest area), to meet the industrial growth,other infrastructural needs and forest fire. With the
growth and development of civilisation, the needs ofpeople inrespect ofhousing, education, communicationand energy becomes complementary and weighsheavily on the natural resources. Another very
important component of the natural resources is freshwater, which is only 2.5 per cent of the total volume ofavailable water. Not touching 70 per cent of the water,
which is in the form of snow and ice, would mean acutescarcity in the near future, a situation equally alarming.
In view of the interrelated issues of demandand supply, with its final impact on the WorldEnvironment, thetheme, rightly chosen for theRIO+20,
World Envirornment Day 2012, 'Green Economy', asa means of improving livelihood by tackling theproblems of thepresent andfuture generations is highly
noteworthy.
Let us hope with all the enthusiasm shown
throughout the Globe, we will live to the expectationsof one and all
Sodananda Torasia
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Introduction :
This is the age of plastics. Plastics areused in almost every sphere, such as, in routinehouse hold packaging, in bottles, cell phones,printers etc. It is also utilizedby manufacturingindustries, ranging from pharmaceuticals toautomobiles. They are useful as syntheticpolymers because, their structures can bechemically manipulated to get a variety ofstrengthsand shapes to obtainhigher molecularweight, low reactivity and long durabilitysubstances. Plastics are important materialsfor the society, not only because of the abovementioned properties but also cost efficiency.Unfortunately, these petroleum based plasticsare not biodegradable. This results in one ofthe major causes of solid waste pollutionthough buried in landfills. They are indigestibleand in many cases animals die due to plasticblockage in the gut. Furthermore, plastics areoften soiled by food and other biologicalsubstances, making physical recycling of thismaterial undesirable. Incinerating plastics hasbeen one option, but other than being expensiveit is alsodangerous. Various harmful chemicalslike hydrogen chloride and hydrogen cyanideare released during incineration.
In recent years, there has been increasingpublic concern over the harmful effects ofpetrochemical derived plastic materials in the
BIOPLASTICS FORSUSTAINABLE FUTURE
* PadmalochanPradhan andJagadish Chandra Paul
environment. Problem of managing plasticwaste on the earth is increasing very rapidlynow a days and studies have been initiated tofind out suitable eco-friendly materials tominimize environmental problem.
In their attempt materials, to findalternative researchers have developed fullybiodegradable plastics, which when disposedin the environment and can easily degradethrough the enzymatic action of micro-organisms. The degradation of biodegradableplastics produces carbon dioxide, methane,water, biomass, humic matter and various othernatural substances which can be readilyeliminated. Due to its ability to degrade inbiotic environment these types of materialsare termed as "Bioplastics"
Bioplastics
Bioplas tics ar e sp ecial types ofbiological material which is degradable andeco-friendly in their chemical nature. Theyare polyesters, produced by a range of micro-organism; cultured under different nutrientsand environmental conditions. Bioplastics aremainl y cl as si fi ed int o th re e ty pe s :i) Photodegradableand ii) Semi-biodegradableplastic. The former have light sensitive groupsincorporated directly in to the backbone ofthe polymer as additives. Due to lack ofsunlight in landfill, they remain undegradedand not used widely. However the latter can bedegraded by bacteria because they attack starcheasily and residual polymer released can bedegraded by other bacteria. Due to presenceof starch, bacteria attack and turn off ability of
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polyethylene fragments thereby remain non-degradable. The other type of iii) biodegradableplastic is rather new and promising because ofits actual production and utilization by bacteriato form biopolymer. These polymers, usuallylipid in nature, are accumulated as storagematerial (in the form of mobile, amorphousliquid granules) in microbes and allowmicrobial survival under stress condition. Thissto rage mater ia l is known aspolyhydoxyalkanoates (PHAs), which storecarbon and energy, when nutrient supplies areimbalanced. These polyesters, known asbioplastics, contain long chains of monomerswhich join with each other by ester bond.Bioplastics are accumulated when bacterialgrowth is limited by depletion of nitrogen,phosphorous or oxygen and excess carbonsource is provided. There are varieties ofmaterials which areunutilized as carbon sourcefor the production of Bioplastics.
PHAs can be used for all sorts ofbiodegradable packaging materials, includingcompostingbags,foodpackaging,sanitary articleslike diapers and fishing nets, biodegradablerubbers, application in pharmacy and medicalscience scaffold for tissue engineering.
Petroleum price is increasing sharplyand its stock will end in the near future. It isimportant for global community to have analternative for the product derived frompetroleum oil such as plastics. PHAs at leastwill be a solution for most of the industriesand society, which largely depend on materialsmade of plastic. No new inventions can escape
from the limitations and drawbacks andbioplastic too havesome drawbacks. The mostimportant drawback for PHA production is itsproduction cost, but the good news is that theprice of PHA production is decreasing,whereas, petroleum oil price is increasingconstantly. As a result, the gap between thepetroleum oil and PHA prices are becomingvery narrow.
Conclusion
Conventional plastics, formed frompetroleum products, are one of the importantmaterials for the society but they are createdin a process which is harmful to theenvironment. In order to find alternatives, anew material has been developed known asbioplastic. Bioplastic has evolved into aninnovative area of research for scientistsaround the world. Thi s progre ss ivedevelopment has been driven by a need forenvironmentally friendly substitutes formaterials derived from fossil fuel sources. Inaddition, recent high prices for crude oil, andthe potential market for agricultural materialsin bioplastics is driving an economic pushtowards expanding the bioplastic industry andproviding better alternative for sustainabledevelopment of the future environment.
ReferencesMarjadi, D. and Dharaiya, N. 2010. Bioplastic: A betteralternative for sustainable future. Every man's Science, Vol.XLV(2): 90-92.www.soynewuses.org/downloads/.../DisposalblePlasticsMOS
* College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology,
OUAT, Bhubaneswar-751003.Email: [email protected].
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"It leaves nothing more to be proved"(Julius Cohnheim, a German pathologist on
Koch's discovery of Anthrax life cycle.)
Such was the importance given to RobertKoch, the world over after his dramatic
isolation of an organism from Tuberculosis.
In the mid and late 19th century, scientists
were clueless about the invisible organisms
responsib le fo r infec tions . Scientis ts
interested in research in their respective fieldshad to invent new techniques to carry out their
experiments .These researchers made tireless
efforts to isolate and identify their organisms.
However, one great scientist gave shape anddirection to all future research, especially
medical research, and the credit goes to
Robert Koch. Prior to Robert Koch, there was
no such discipline known as Bacteriology. If
at all, anyone has consolidated Bacteriology
into a separate discipline, it was none otherthan Robert Koch. Though history is replete
with astounding achievements, it can be said
that Koch's achievement ranks amongst one of
themost important contributions to humankind.
Early Childhood
Robert HeinrichHermann Koch was bornon Dec 11, 1843 in klausthal, Hanover,
Germany to Hermann Koch, a mine inspector
and Mathilde Julie Henriette Biewend and was
ROBERT KOCH'S CONTRIBUTION TO BACTERIOLOGYK. Pravakar and
G. C. Sahoo
third of thirteen children. Edward Biewend,
uncle of Robert Koch, had a great influence
onyoungKoch.He generatedyoungHermann'sinterest in minerals, plants, small animals,
lichens, insect collection, nature andphotography. The genius of Koch was noticed
by his parents whenhe learned to readwith theaid of newspaper at the age of five. When
Koch was young, he had a desire to join navy,
was interested in travel, and explore the world.But due to their unaffordability, his father
wanted him to learn shoemaker's trade.
However, when the economic condition of thesenior Koch improved, he was sent to pursue
University education.
Education
Robert Koch started his education from
a local High School, known as Gymnasium.
His main interest was Botany and Literature.After his early education in 1862, he was
enrolled as a medical student in GottingenUniversity. As a student, Robert Koch was
influenced by Anatomist Jacob Henle, whohad published a theory of contagion in 1840.
Jacob Henle recruited Robert Koch as a student
of fifth semester to participate in a Researchproject on the structure of uterine nerves. An
excellent research paper presented on thisoccasion won Koch the first prize. During his
sixth semester, Koch took up a project on the
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secretion of succinic acid in animals fed onfat. Koch was so enthusiastic about the projectthat he decided to experiment on himself, byeatinghalfa pound of buttereveryday. However,after five days he was sick of eating butter anddecided to confine his study on animals only.This particular study eventually became themain thrust of his dissertation. In 1866, Kochgraduated from a medical school with highestdistinction.
Service Career and Marriage
After his graduation, Robert Koch joinedthe Hamburg general hospital as an intern.While serving at the hospital he came in contactwith Emmy Fratz. He was madly in love withEmmy Fratz and proposed to her, but she gaveher consent for the wedding only if RobertKoch gave up his scheme of globe tottering.Robert Koch had to decide between the seaand the lady-love and ultimately he decided totie up the nuptial knot to Emmy Fratz andshelved his plans of adventure. She bore himtheir only daughter, Gertrud who later gotmarried to a doctor.
Robert Koch served in differentprovincial towns for a short while and thenmoved to Rakwitz as a physician. Whilecarrying out his practice he cleared the DistrictMedical Officer's examination. During thisperiod, the Franco-Prussian war broke out andhe volunteered in the army as a medical officer.After a short stint in the army he was appointedas a District Medical Officer at Wollstein, asmall town near the Polish border. It was
during this period that Koch was able to pursuehis Research actively that led to the unravelingthe mysteries of human infections. Though hecontinued to see patients, he converted part ofhis office into a research laboratory. He beganto exp lo re the unknown wor ld ofmicroorganisms with minimum equipment andsa microscope presented to him by his wife onhis twenty eighth birthday.
Research on Anthrax
Koch's inquisitive mind first wanted tostudy aetiology and mode of transmission ofAnthrax. Anthrax was responsible forconsiderable loss of livestock andeven humanswere not spared of this dreaded infection. Thebacillus responsible forAnthrax was identifiedby C. J. Davaine in 1868, but no significantadvances were made for the prevention ortreatment of this infection. With meticulousobservation, Koch confirmed the findings ofC. J. Davaine. One of the puzzling aspects ofAnthrax he found was that, the animalsacquired the infection by grazing in fieldswhere infected animals had grazed yearsbefore. Koch solved this problem by showingthat the vegetative bacillus developed spores,which could resist adverse environmentalconditions, and they could revert to vegetativeforms when the conditions were favourable.
Koch demonstrated his painstakingresults to Ferdinand Cohn, Professor of Botanyat the University of Breslau. Ferdinand Cohn
organized a meeting of other scientists of thattime, including the great German pathologist
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Julius Friedrich, Prof Friedrich Cohnheim,
Paul Ehr li ch the founde r of modemImmunology among others to witness his
experiments. In 1876, Koch's work waspublished in "Beitrage Zur Biolugie Derpflanzen" a popular medical journal by Cohn.Koch's work waswidely acclaimedin Germanyand he exclusively proved that "mysterioussubstances do not cause infectious diseasesbut specific organisms called microbes werethe causative agentsof specificdisease."These
agents were later named Bacteria.
During this period, the Government ofGermany wanted to encourage Koch in hishunt for the microbes and he was appointed a
member of the Reichsgesundheitsamt- theImperial health Bureau, in Berlin. He wasprovided with a well-equipped laboratory. Withhis assistants, Loeffler and Gaffky, hedeveloped techniques to isolate bacteria inpure culture in half-boiled potatoes and lateron in beef broths. Since he wanted to avoidunscientificclaimsofdiscoveryofmicroorganisms,he developed certain criteria if an organismis to be incriminated as an aetiological agent
in a particular disease. These were known asKoch's postulates. They include:
1. Finding the suspected organism in all
cases of the disease and demonstrate itsabsence in healthy individuals.
2. Isolating the organism in pure culture.
3. Reproducing the same disease in suitable
experimental animals.
4. Re-isolating the organism from the
diseased animals.
Koch later turned his attention towards
the most dreaded infection of all times-TheTuberculosis. Initially he observed the bacilli
fromthe tubercles, stained themand cultivated
them in laboratory animals. He isolated theorganisms in culture media, found that the
organisms were fastidious, and observed that
it took not less than two weeks to grow onthese media, where as he observed that the
B.anthracis would grow within 24 hrs on a
solid media. He experimented by inoculatingthe bacillus into all experimental animals he
could think of, including guinea-pigs, rabbits,
dogs, cats, chickens and pigeons. Beforedecidingtomakehis findings public, he worked
out the mode of transmission by inoculating
the guinea pigs in aerosols.
Finally, in March 1882 Koch announced
his findings at a meeting in the Physiological
Society, in the presence of the leading
scientists of his days. This astounding news
spread, not only through out Europe but also
across the Atlantic and was splashed on the
front pages of newspapers. In addition, those
interested doctors and scientists boarded the
available means of travel to Berlin to study the
results of Koch's exploits. This epoch making
observations of Koch shook the earth but
Robert Koch was very modest by saying "this
discovery of mine is not such a great advance".
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Research on Cholera
In 1883, there wasan outbreakof Cholera
in Egypt and Koch with his team arrived in
Egypt to investigate the epidemic. Koch
identified a comma shaped bacillus in the
intestine of the cholera patients within three
weeks. However, he could not completely
satisfy the four postulates, as he could not
initiate the infection in animals. To confirm
the findings in Egypt Koch landed in Calcutta,
India where an epidemic of cholera broke out.
In India, he observed the same comma shaped
bacillus in the victims of cholera and was
convinced beyond doubt that it was caused by
a bacillus and held poor sanitation and hygiene
responsible for the spread.
After ascertaining the aetiology of
cholera, Koch was appointed as a professor
and administrator at Berlin University. During
this period he experimented with the treatment
of Tuberculosis by making a claim that he had
a cure for the dreaded infection and he named
his inoculumas tuberculin.Again,people from
different corners of the globe flocked to Berlin
in the fond hope of a cure for Tuberculosis.
But soon it was realized that tuberculin was
not a perfect cure for Tuberculosis and infact
it produced adverse reactions in some
patients. Initially, Koch did not divulge the
contents of the preparation but later on was
forced to reveal the contents as it was not
found to be safe. Koch faltered and drew
crit ic ism from his peers in this one
experiment.
Added to the failure of tuberculin, Koch
had to bear a personal setback, Differences
arose in Koch's family and the marriage which
lasted twenty five years ending in a divorce.At
fifty, he immediately married HedwigFreiberg,
an actress, thirty years his junior. Koch was in
the news for these two wrong reasons for
some time. However, the German government
continued to support Koch and it had
established an institute for infectious diseases
and made Koch as the Director. Koch plunged
in to his research activities again and gained
some of the lost reputation due to tuberculin
episode by provingthat tuberculin though could
not be used as a cure could be used as a
diagnostic tool.
In 1892, there was an outbreakof cholera
in Hamburgand Koch advocated strict sanitary
conditions. Koch's germ theory of cholera
was challenged and mocked by a senior
hygienist, Max Von Pettenkofer who drank a
culture of cholera. Fortunately, he was not
affected by cholera and this gave him the
reason to sneer at the findings of Koch .But
Koch was strongly convinced that Vibrios were
responsible for cholera and diverted his energy
in preventing the outbreak by adopting strict
sanitary measures.
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In the followingyears, Koch handed over
the charge of the institute to his subordinates
and left to far off places such as India, New
Guinea, Africa and Italy to study various
unexplained fevers. Koch was honoured with
many awards not only by the German
government but also throughout the world and
the notable honour being the award of the
noble prize in physiology and medicine for his
work on tuberculosis. Furthermore, the
German government established the Robert
Koch medal to honour the greatest living
physicians and with the help of U.S.
philanthropist Andrew Carnegie established
the Robert Koch foundation to work towards
the eradication of tuberculosis.
Robert Koch's reputation
Finally, Koch settled down at the Institute
and worked towards refinement of tuberculin
test. In addition to this, he carried out
experiments to study if the bovine and human
Tuberculosis were the same. Koch did not live
long to find answer to some of the questions
that he would have liked to. Koch hada massive
heart attack and he died on May 27,1910 at
Baeden. Koch's obituaries are full of praise of
a man who possessed Research acumen,
scientific temper and perseverance. But his
genius also made a man who was arrogant,
stubborn in hisviews and his inability to accept
his mistakes. Apart from his blunders that
include the use of tuberculin as a treatment
for tuberculosis, that the bovine tuberculosis
is different from human tuberculosis the
contributions of Koch led to the establishment
of a discipline known as Bacteriology. The list
of Robert Koch's achievemen ts or
contributions is exhaustive but he is
remembered for the pioneering techniques of
study in bacteriology and discovery of the
aetiological agents of Tuberculosis, Cholera
andAnthrax.
In its obituary column of June 5, 1910,
the New York Times published an article on
Robert Koch "German Scientist,WhenYoung,
Wanted to Join Brothers here". As a boy,
Robert Koch desired to join several of his
brotherswhohadimmigrated toAmerica.Koch
was highly dissatisfied with the conditions in
Germany and wanted to leave Germany due to
Political discontent. However, Koch's father
wanted at least one of his sons to stay back in
Germany and that decision marred his
ambitions of leaving Germany. It was sheer
quirk of fate that Robert Koch stayed back in
Germany and made remarkable contributions
to the field of medicine. Had Robert Koch
realized his ambition of immigrating to
America, the History of Medicine and the
Course of Research in bacteriology would not
have been the same.
Professor and Head, ENT,Raja Muthia Medical College and Hospital,
Annamalai UniversityAnnamalai Nagar-608002
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Medicines are part of our life. They are
perhaps the greatest weapons of mankind to
fight diseases and illness. They save our lives
and promote good health. For many centuries
people all over the world have discovered and
used medicines, obtained fromnatural sources
to treat illnesses. Most of these medicines are
obtained from plants. India has always been a
rich source of medicinal plants. Since the
early 1900s we have learned developing
synthetic version of these medicines.
Synthetic means, they are artificially prepared
in the laboratory using chemical processes.
The majority of the modern medicines
available in the market are synthetics.
The modern medicines are very effective
but they are toxic too, at the same time. The
chemicals that are synthesized in an attempt to
develop these for medicinal purposes undergo
a series of processes to assess their
effectivenessas wellas toxicity. The chemicals
that are identified through these experiments
to have more benefit risk ratio, successfully
emerge as medicines. Everyday new medicines
are needed to fight the diseases for which no
cure is available at present, or as an alternative
to existing medicines with improved safety
and effectiveness. The development of new
medicines is always a prime concern for
medical, biomedical, and chemical scientists.
RESEARCH METHODS IN MODERN MEDICINEGuru Prasad Mohanta
This is important for pharmaceutical industries
too, where they employ scientists and invest
good amount of money on research to discover
medicines. Though many of the medicines in
current use were discovered by experimental
trial and observation in animals and human
subjects, of late, more rational approach is
followed in drug discovery. In general, the
process of drug discovery, beginning with a
promising chemicalsubstance to its availability
for our use requires 10-15 years of tireless
pursuit. The average cost of the development
of medicine is estimated to be around US
Dollar 800 million to 1 Billion (One million
= 10 lakh and One billion = 100 crore).
Random screen ing, chemica l
modi fi ca tion of known medicine ,
biotechnology, or other techniques lead to
identification of lead compounds, that could
be used as medicine. The lead compound has
fundamental biological or pharmacological
properties. When one or more promising
compounds or lead compounds are in hand, it
becomes necessary to test them extensively
for efficacy and safety in living cell cultures
and animal models. This phase of evaluation
of the compounds is known as pre-clinical
testing. On passing the test of pre-clinical
testing, the compounds are tested on human
beings (healthy persons and patients) for
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ensuring efficacy and safety. This phase of
testing is called clinical trials. The present
article explains the preclinical testing of
the promising compounds and the second
part of the article explains the process of
clinical trials.
The primary aim of the preclinical(animal testing) is to obtain basic
information on promising compound's
effects that may be used to predict safe andeffective use in humans. The testing is
divided basically into two broad categories
of activities: pharmacological test ing(testing to know its medicinal properties)
and toxicological testing.
While the animal testing data are
essential before getting permission to
perform clinical trials, the animal activists
and the animal lovers have been arguing
aga inst the use of anima ls for
experimentations. You might have observed
that recently less and less biological
experiments use whole animals. Now it is
obligatory to obtain the clearancefrom animal
ethics committee be fore doing these
experiments.
Testing of pain relieving activity (analgesic
action):Mice are placed on electrically heated
hot plate maintained at 55-56°C. The response
is measuredby observing jumping, withdrawals
of paws and licking of paws. Normally the
animals show these responses in 6-8 seconds.
If the medicinal substance has analgesic
property, it would increase this reaction time
(there would be delay in response). Delay in
response indicates the pain relieving property.
Testing of antibacterial activity: The
bacteria, against whose the substance is
expected to be effective, are artificiallycultured (grown) in the laboratory using culture
media in petri dishes. The petri dishes are
filled to a uniform depth with culture medialike nutrient agar which has been mixed
(inoculated) with suitable organism. When the
agar solidifies, the holes are cut into themedium using sterile borer. Solutions of the
test medicinal substance are placed in these
holes. On incubation at suitable temperature(37-39°C) for 16 hours, the petri dishes are
examined to find out the effect of the test
substance. A clear circular zone around thehole is an indication of activity.
The testing of test substance is always
conducted with a reference control in order to
judge its comparative effectiveness.
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The scientists have developed many
alternate techniques to study the identified
molecule for its biological activities. These
techniques use cell, tissueculture, andcomputer
programmes that simulate human and animal
systems. Cell cultures are being increasingly
used for toxicity testing before performing the
similar studies in whole animals.
Pharmacological (Study of Medicines)
Testing: The identified molecule is tested to
understand its effects on biological system
like biochemical and physiological effects
and their mechanisms. The study is also done
to understand how body handles the molecule.
The process of evaluatingchemical compounds
for biologic activity and determination of their
mechanisms of action is done by scientists
called pharmacologists. The study is conducted
in a step by step process through increasing
sophisticated levels of evaluation, based on
test compound's success in different studies.
Whole animal studies are reserved for testing
compounds that have demonstrated reasonable
potentialas medicinal substances.Most animal
testing is done on small animals, usually
rodents (mouse, rats), because they are easily
available at cheaper rate, and easy to handle.
However, for final testing two or more species
of animals are used. Dog is an useful model
for studying hypertension (blood pressure),
respiratory and diuretic effects. This study is
followed by further research on metabolism
(biotransformation) to understand how the
promising medicinal substance is metabolized
in the body. The metabolism is the basic
process of transforming the substance to polar
compound for easy removal by the body's
excretory system. Liver is the main organ of
metabolism. Two animal species such as one
rodent and other non rodent (dog) species are
used for this metabolism study.
Toxicological Testing (Safety Testing):
No medicine is safe at all doses. All are toxic
at some dose. Toxicity is the most difficult
property to be evaluated because it could be
species specific, organ specific and could
involve multiple host factors often requiring
chronic dosing. The toxicity studies are
undertaken to determine the test medicinal
substances: potential for toxicity with short
term (acute toxicity) and long term use
(chronic toxicity); potential for organ toxicity;
dose relationship; reproductive or teratogenic
toxicity and potential for carcinogenic and
genotoxicity.
The short term toxicity testing aimed at
findingout the largest single dose that will not
produce a toxic effect, the dose level at which
serious toxicity occurs. During this study, the
animals are observed and compared with
controls (animals to which medicinal substance
is not given) for eating and drinking habits,
weight change, toxic effects etc. over a period
of 30 days after giving the test substance.
JUNE, 2012
13ScienceHorizon
Histopathology study is also done to find out
the toxicity in organs. The sub-acute study
includes giving the test medicinal substance
daily for a minimum period of two weeks to
two animal species. The study is aimed at
finding the initial dose for human testing. The
chronic toxicity testing involves giving the
substancefor twoto sixmonths if the substance
is intended for one week or more in humans.
Medicines meant for chronic illnesses, animal
studies for one year or longer is required. The
prospective medicinal substance is also tested
to know its reproductive performance in
mammalian species to assess fertility and
mating behavior. The animal studies are
continued to assess whether the substance has
cancer causing effects and whether they affect
the stability of genes.
The pre-clinical experiments on animals
are done to help decide whether the drug can
be tested on human beings.Animal experiments
eliminate some potential drugs as either
ineffective or too dangerous to use on human
beings. If a drug passes the animal test, it is
then tested on a small human group before
large scale clinical trial. The animal toxicity
data are required in the dossier for seeking
permission for conducting clinical trials. The
preclinical testing results are the foundation
of clinical testing.
Department of Pharmacy, Annamalai University,P.O. : Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu - 608002,
E. mail: [email protected]
Our state, Odisha is situated along the
East coast, embedded by Bay of Bengal and
having a long coastline of 480.4 Kms long.
This long coast line is interspersed by the
compliance of 10 major rivers such as
Mahanadi, Brahmani, Baitarani, Subarnarekha,
Budhabalanga, Rushikulya etc. falling into the
Bay of Bengal and thus creating numerous
isolates anddeltas. TheCoastal Zone of Odisha
spreads over an approximate area of 22,800
sq.kms, spanning over the 6 coastal districts
of Balasore, Bhadrak, Kendrapa ra ,
Jagatsinghpur, Puri and Ganjam.
Coastal Erosion
Coastal environment is a complex and
dynamic eco-system, where there is a constant
interaction between land, sea and air,
culminating in shore line changes. The
landward displacement of the shore line caused
by the forces of waves and currents, is termed
as 'Coastal Erosion'. In fact coastal erosion is
the wearing away of land and the removal of
beach or dune sediments or loss of sub aerial
land mass, into sea or lake due to natural
processes like wave action, wave current or
drainage.Although coastal erosion is a chronic
problem, it is very often considered as
COASTAL EROSIONIN ODISHA
Bijay Ketan Patnaik
ScienceHorizon14
JUNE, 2012
inevitable alongmost open shores, as a natural
phenomenon. While the effects of waves,
currents, tides and wind are primary natural
factors that influence the coast profile, various
anthropogenic factors also trigger beach
erosion. These include construction of
artificial structures along the foreshore,
mining of beach sand, off shore dredging or
building dams across river basins. These
developments at times are not compatible
with the dynamic nature of shoreline.
Problems of Coastal Ecosystem
Because of increasing utilisation of
coastal region for developmental purposes
like industries, fishing, harbors facility etc.
and vulnerability to natural hazards, sea- level
rise, the following changes are observed along
the coast line :
a) Shifting of the shore line
b) Coastal erosion
c) Formation of sand bars at the in-lets of
water bodies
d) Change in velocity and currents of coastal
water
e) Littoral drift
f) On shore/Off shore sediment transport
g) Sand mining
h) Siltation
i) Change in beach profile
Erosion along Odisha coast
Coastal areas of Odisha state are
potentially vulnerable to accelerated erosion
hazards along the 480 km coast line. Most of
the coastal areas including tourist resorts,
hotels at Puri fishing villages and towns at
Gopalpur of Ganjam district, Pentha and
Satavaya village of Kendrapara district are
already threatened by storm, flood and severe
coastal erosion. The location of major
ecological habitat and delicate systems along
the coast, such as the largest rookeries in the
world of Olive Ridley sea turtles(the extensive
sandy beach of Gahirmatha and Rushikulya)
Asia's largest brakish water lagoon, the Chilika
lake, Mahanadi delta, the second largest delta
in India, extensive mangroves of Bhitarkanika
are also threatened time and again fromcoastal
erosion angle.
To cite a few examples, the coast close
to Pentha Village is continuously eroding. In
July 2007, the saline embankment was in great
danger of collapsing. The continuous buffeting
of the shore by the waves along this stretch
had resulted in the coast line receding
landwards by 200 to 300 meters. The situation
of Pentha village was also studied by
Geological Survey of India, revealing periods
of accretion and erosion related in all
probability to climate change, sea-level
JUNE, 2012
15ScienceHorizon
fluctuations and human activity. Similarly,
panic had gripped the Puri town, a few years
ago, when tidal waves washed away not only
a part of the beach, but also the adjoining
stretch of road, newly constructed from Palm
beach hotel to Ssterling Resort, violating
CRZ norms.
In the year 2008, the ingress of sea
waters along the tourist highway, connecting
Puri and Konark, the entire 'belabhumi ' area
including Paradeep port ,Chil ika lake,
Gopalpur and Rajnagar had caused fresh
worries. It was debated whether the same
could be attributed to the after effects of
dreadful Tsunami of December 2004? During
the years 2008 and 2009, the sea at Gopalpur
in Ganjam district was in spate. Due to
ingress of sea the lighthouse on the shore ,
sea side wall of Oberai Hotel and some
buildings constructed sea ward and site were
damaged. This phenomenon occurred mostly
in pre winter period, just after rains, when
sediments are moved offshore by high energy
storm waves.
Shore line Change Assessment for
Odisha Coast
A study on shore line change assessment
for Odisha coast was entrusted to Prof. R.
Ramesh ofAnna University, Chennai, working
for MoEF's National Centre for Sustainable
Coastal Management. According to the study
report released during April 2011 around 187
km of 480 km stretch of Odisha coast is
exposed to high, medium and low type of
erosion. This accounts for 36.8 % of the coast
line. Out of this 39.3 km i.e. 8.2% was
identified as high erosion zone. This is found
mostly towards North of Devi River in Puri/
Jagatsinghpur district, north of Balijhari river
in Jagatsinghpur district. South of Bitikolia
River in Jagatsinghpur district and Bansagarh
river in Kendraparadistrict. High erosion could
also be found towards north of Subarnarekha
river in Balasore district. 51.96 kmi.e. 10.82%
stretch of beach falls under medium erosion
zone. The report also indicated that the
phenomenon of beach erosion is more
pronounced to the north of Gopalpur port and
Paradeep port across Jatadhar mouth, to the
south of Dhamara and proposed Astaranga
port. Medium and lower type erosion is also
observedin Puri beach,Konark-Chandrabhaga-
Ramachandi beach.
Wildlife experts and scientists are more
worried about intensive erosion taking place
around the mass nesting sites of famous Olive
Ridley sea Turtles. Since, probably half of the
world population of Olive Ridley'sarebreeding
along the east coast of Odisha, global
conservation attention is concentrated here
ScienceHorizon16
JUNE, 2012
and geomorphological changes of the nesting
beaches are monitored regularly. Beach
erosion was observed to begin during March
which reached the peak during the month of
August. A higher rate of erosion is taking
place between Satabhaya and Gahirmatha, a
well known rookery of the endangered turtles
in the Kendrpara district. This has resulted in
complete annihilation of Nasi I and Nasi II
beach and drastic reduction of the beach
bordering Wheeler Island. The total beach
length here has been reduced to almost 1
kilometer. The beach erosion has also
threatened the very existence of strategic
Wheeler Island.
Wind constantly moves sand along the
beach. When this natural event is artificially
obstructed by the construction of a port, then,
on one side of the port, sand gets accumulated
or piled up and the other side of beach
constantly gets eroded and bare rock gets
exposed gradually. It is said by experts that the
beaches ac ross Satabhaya vi llage of
Kendrapara district got eroded leading to
ingress of sea water into the land mass only
after the construction of Paradeep port.
Presently, there are plans to have ports in all
major river mouths of Odisha. Notably among
these are the Dhamara port at Dhamara river
mouth and Barunei port at Mahanadi river
mouth close to either side of Gahirmatha
mass nesting beach which may greatly impact
sea-turtle congregation areas. Ultimately there
will be large scale nest destruction due to
beach erosions and shrinking of the nesting
habitats. Port at Astaranga, close to Devi mass
nesting beach and port at Gopalpur, close to
Rushikulya mass nestingbeach, may also face
similar problem in future. Therefore the
wildlife scientist fervently pleaded for
preservation of only 80 km stretch beach
around these three mass nesting sites as 'No
Disturbance Zone'.
Conclusion
Coastal areas are of enormous socio-
economic importance, both because of their
traditional resources, like fish, tourist
potent ia l, commerci al and resident ia l
development as well as new types of resources
such as wave energy, off-shore mining, marine
resources. The high economic value of these
areas and relative facilities coupled with
vulnerability to natural hazards, sea-level rise
and various anthropogenic activities and not
compatible with the dynamic nature of our
shore line, makes the preservation and
management of coastal zone resources,
ecologically more important.
Former P.C.C.F. (Wildlife) and Chief Wildlife Warden, OdishaPlot No. 57, At-Jagamohan Nagar, Jagamara,
Bhubaneswar-751030
JUNE, 2012
17ScienceHorizon
Introduction
Clouds are a key component of the
Earth's climate system.They can both heat the
planet by trapping the longer-wavelength
radiation given off from the Earth's surface
and cool it by reflecting incoming shorter
wavelength radiation back into space. Cloud
seeding is a weather modification technique
which is used to disperse fog, increase
precipitation level and suppress hail. In cloud
seeding, planes drop ice crystals or salt crystals
into clouds, increasing the precipitation of
rain. It is also knownas artificial rain.In Odisha
many districts have been declared as drought
hit areas. In the year 2011, the monsoon was
delayed by two weeks in Odisha, which badly
affected farming. But despite the arrival of the
monsoon, some of the districts of western
"CLOUD SEEDING" AN EFFECTIVE WAY TOFIGHT AGAINST DROUGHT
Sarada Prasad Mohapatra
Odisha received scanty rainfall. The farmers
of these districts have failed to sow paddy and
other crops.
How does Cloud Seeding Work ?
1. Fine silver iodide is fered into cloud
using flares on planes or from ground.
2. Water droplets attach to these particles,
falling as snow which melts into rain.
3. This boosts updrafts, which pulls moist
air into clouds.
There are three methods of seed clouding
Artificial rain can be produced by-
1. static cloud seeding,
2. dynamic cloud seeding,
3. hygroscopic cloud seeding.
ScienceHorizon18
JUNE, 2012
Static cloud seeding involves spreading
a chemical like silver iodide into clouds.
The silver iodide provides a crystal
around which moisture can condense.
The moisture is already present in the
clouds, but silver iodide essentially
makes rain clouds more effective at
dispensing their water.
Dynamic cloud seeding aims to boost
vertical air currents, which encourages
more water to pass through the clouds,
translating into more rain .Up to 100
times more ice crystals are used in
dynamic cloud seeding than in the static
method. The process is considered more
complex than static cloud seeding
because it depends on a sequence of
events working properly. Dr. William R.
Cotton, a professor of atmospheric
science at Colorado State University,
and other researchers break down
dynamic cloud seeding into 11 separate
stages. An unexpected outcome in one
stage could ruin the entire process,
making the technique less dependable
than static cloud seeding.
Hygroscopic cloud seeding disperses
salts through flares or explosives in the
lower portions of clouds. The salts grow
in size as water joins with them. In his
report on cloud seeding, Cotton says
that hygroscopic cloud seeding holds
much promise, but requires further
research.
Conclusion
Today there is acute water shortage in
several States. Some farmers commit suicide
due to the recurring droughts and the
consequential failure of crops. There is
growing evidence that human activities are
adversely influencing the weather conditions
from local to global scales in terms of climate
change Cloud seeding is an effective weapon
against drought. Cloudseeding has been widely
used in other parts of the world to ease the
drought situation. It has also been used in
India. In this way cloud seeding can ease the
drought situation not only in Odisha but also
in other drought-hit areas of India.
Lecturer in Botany, S.C.S Jr college, Puri
E Mail- [email protected]
JUNE, 2012
19ScienceHorizon
IntroductionHistory of mathematics is replete with
very interesting theorems. Theydate backto 300B.C. or even earlier. Some of the theorems arevery popularandfindcirculationamongthe loversof mathematics. There are others which havefound application in various fields of science.
1. The Brachistochrone Problem
Suppose that a point A is jointed by astraight wire to a lower point B in the samevertical plane. Let a bead be allowed to slide,without friction, down the wire from A to B
under the influence of gravity only. Nextsuppose that the wire is bentinto an arc of a circle (Fig.1)and the bead is allowed tomove along the wire fromA to B . The question is“which descent takes theleast time” Galileo believedthat the bead would descendmore quickly along thecircular path. Do we agreewith him?
In 1696, John Bernoulli posed a moregeneral problem. Suppose that the wire is bentinto the shape of arbitrary curve. His questionwas “which curve among the infinitely manypossibilities will give the shortest possibletime of descent?” This curve is called thebrachistochrone (“brah-kiss-toe-krone”), fromthe Greek word, brachistos meaning shortestand chronos meaning time. We view thisproblem intwo different angles, viz;(i) Calculusof Variations and (ii) Refraction of Light.
THE BRACHISTO CHRONE PROBLEM AND THE CYCLOIDN. Parhi
We take the y-axis in the direction of thegravitational force and make the downwardy-coordinates positive (Fig-2).At A, the beadis at rest and hence the 0=..EK . If we assumethat A is at a height h from the ground level,then ..EP at mghA = , where m is the mass of
the bead and g is acceleration due to gravity..
At an arbitrary point ),(= yxPP on the
cur 2
21=.. mvEK where v is the velocity of the
bead and )(=.. yhmgEP . From the law of
conservation of energy it follows that
ghv 2= .
If S is the arc length,222 )()(=)( dydxdS and v
dtdS = . Hence
dxgydxdy
gy
dydxdS
gydt
2
1=
2
)()(=
21=
2
22
Figure-1
Figure-2
ScienceHorizon20
JUNE, 2012
If fT is the time taken by the bead along
a particular path )(= xfy from A to B , then
(1)2
1=
2
1
0
dx
gydxdy
Tx
f
Now the question is “what curve
)(= xfy minimizes fT ?”. This can be done by
the calculus of variations. The required curve
is the Cycloid (It is explained below). Suppose
that a ray of light travels from A to P with
velocity 1v andtravels fromB to P with velocity
2V . Suppose that B is in a denser medium.
Hence 21 > vv . From Fig. 3(a) it follows that
the total time T required for the journey of
light from A to B though P is given by
11= TVAP and 22= TVPB , where 21= TTT
1
22
1 =v
xaT
and
2
22
2
)(=
vxcb
T
2
22
1
22 )(=
vxcb
vxaT
will give the
shortest possible time.
If we assume that this ray of light is ableto select its path from A to B through in such
a way that T is minimum, then 0,=dxdT
that is, ,)(
=22
222
1 xcbv
xc
xav
x
that is,2
2
1
1 =v
sinv
sin .
This is called Snell’s law of refraction.The assumption that the light travels from one
point to another along the path requiring theFigure-3 (a)
Figure-3 (b)
Figure-3 (c)
JUNE, 2012
21ScienceHorizon
shortest time is called Fermat’s principle ofleast time. Suppose we have four layers ofdifferent mediums (media. Suppose that thevelocity of light is constant in an individuallayer but decreases from each layer to the one
below it(see Fig. 3(b)). Applying Snell’s law
we get4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1 ===v
sinv
sinv
sinv
sin .
If we assume that these layers growthinner and hence more numerous, then in thelimiting case the velocity of light decreasescontinuously as the raydescends and we get
aconstantv
sin =(see
Fig. 3(c)). Coming to
Fig.2, we have gyv 2= and
22 )(1
1=1
1=1==ytansec
cossin
.
Hence ,=))((1 2 cyy a constant. Thisis the diffe rential equat ion of the
brachistochrone. The above equation may be
wr it ten as ,=12
cdxdy
y
tha t is ,
dycy
ydx1/2
=
.
We assume that1/ 2
1/ 2
ysinc
and1/ 2
1/ 2
( )cos c yc
(2)=1/2
cyy
tan
Hence and (from above) integrating
we get dcoscsindycsiny 2=,= 2 and(from above) dcoscdcsindytandx )2(1=2== 2
integrating we get (3))2(22
= 1 csinc
x
This curve is to pass through the origin
0).=0=( andyxA Hence 0= by (2) 0=1C
by (3) . Th us )2(22
= sincx and)2(1
2== 2 coscdcsiny . Taking 2
= ca and
,2= we obt ai n
)(1=),(= cosaysinax . Th is isparametric equation of the cycloid.
2. The Cycloid and its properties
Take a circular wire of radius ‘a’. Put iton the horizontal plane and mark point ‘O’where it touches the ground. Roll it on astraight line on the horizontal plane. The pathtraced by the marked point is the Cycloid.After a full tern, the point ‘O’ takes the positionof the point ‘B’ on the straight line. Hencelength of the arch is the perimeter of thegenerating circle. The process continues. Inthe following we discuss some geometricproperties of the cycloid.
Figure-4
(i) Length of one arch of the cycloid is
equal to 4 times the diameter of the generating
ci rcle. Indeed, i f L= length of arch OAB, then
2π 2 2
0L = dx/dθ + dy/dθ dθ
2π 1/22 2
0= a 1+ θ-2cosθ+ θ dθcos sin
2π
0= sin(θ/2)dθ= 8a
This is known as Wren’s theorem.
Christopher Wren (1632-1723), the greatest
ScienceHorizon22
JUNE, 2012
English architects, was an astronomer and
mathematician. He built St. Paul’s Cathedral
in London.
(ii) The area under one arch of the cycloid is
equal to 3 times the area of the generating
circle.From the parametric equations of the
cycloid we get .=),(1=
asinddycosa
ddx
Hence2π 2π
0 0A = y dx = a(1- cosθ)a(1- cosθ)dθ
2π2 2 2
0= a (1- 2cosθ+cos θ)dθ= 3πa
It is known as Torricelli’s theorem.
Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) was an
Italian physicist and mathematician and a
disciple of Galileo, whom he served as
secretary. He gave the correct ideas about
atmospheric pressure and the nature of
vacuums. He invented barometer to measure
atmospheric pressure.
(iii) The cycloid is a tautochrone (“taw-toe-
krone”), a same time curve for O and B.
Aswe arrive at B for = , then B is )2,( aa .
For the cycloid, we obtain from(1)
ga
dcosgacosa
gydydx
Ta
xcycloid
=
)(12)2(2
=2
=2
0=
22
0=
Thus, the amount of time it takes the
frictionless bead to slide down the cycloid to
B after it is released from rest at O is ga/ .
Suppose that instead of starting the bead
at O we st ar t at some lo wer poi nt
).,0)(>=( 0000 yxP The beads velocity at
any later point ),( yxP on the cycloid is
)(2=)(2= 00 coscosgayygv .
Accordingly, the time required for the
bead to slide from ),( 00 yx down to B can be
shown to be given by ga/ .
Thus the bead takes the same amount of
time to reach B, no matter where it starts. This
proves that the cycloid is a ‘tautochrone’.
Remarks:
The Visvesvaraya Science museum in
Bangalore displays a model concerning the
brachistochrone problem. When a visitor
presses a button two balls of different colours
are re lea sed simultaneously at the
position‘A’(Fig.2). One ball moves along the
straight path and the other moves along the
cycloidal path. It is distinctly visible that the
latter reaches the position‘B’(Fig.2) earlier to
the former.
Figure-5
To study motion along an upside-down
cycloid under the influence of gravity, we turn
Fig.4 upside- down. This points the -axis in the
direction of gravitational force and makes the
down-ward y-coordinates positive. The
coordinates of an arbitrary point P on the
cycloid is given by ).,( acosaasina
JUNE, 2012
23ScienceHorizon
3. Bernoulli Family
It would be appropriate to mention a few
points about the famous Bernoulli family whenthe brachistochrone problem is being
discussed. In three generations this remarkable
Swiss family produced eight mathematicians
of repute, three of them outstanding. JamesBernoulli (1654-1705) studied theology at
the insistence of his father but switched over
to mathematics as soon as it was possible. Hestudied the new calculus of Newton and
Leibniz. He wrote papers on infinite series,
studied many special curves, invented polarcoordinates and introduced the Bernoulli
numbers, that appear in the power series
expansion of the function . He was professorof mathematics at Basel from 1687 until his
death. John Bernoulli (1667-1748) was his
youngerbrother. He studied medicine and took
a doctor’s degree at Basel in 1694 for histhesis on muscle contraction. He switched
over to mathematics, being fascinated by
calculus. He quickly mastered it and applied itto many problems in geometry, differential
equations and mechanics. In 1695 he was
appointed professor of mathematics andphysics at Groningen in Holland and later
succeeded hi s brothe r accepting the
professorship at Basel on James’s death. The
Bernoulli brothers, some times, worked onthe same problems but quarreled in the public
for the credit; as it happened over the
brachistochrone problem. In 1696 John
proposed the problem as a challenge to the
mathematicians of Europe. It aroused great
interest. it was solved by Newton and Leibniz,
as well as by Bernoulli brothers. John’s
solution, which is discussed here, was more
elegant, while James’s solution was clumsy
and laborious, although it is more general. The
brothers quarrelled over the problem, which
took a very nasty turn. John was more
quarrelsome. Later, in a fit of jealous rage, he
threw his son, Daniel out of the house for
having won a prize from the French Academy
which he covetedfor himself. Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782) studied medicine, like his father
and received a degree on the basis of a thesis
about ‘the action of the lungs’. Later, he
changed over to mathematics and became a
professor of mathematics at St. Petersburg,
Russia. In 1733, he returned to Basel and was
successively professor of botany, anatomy and
physics. He won ten prizes from the French
Academy, including the one that infuriated his
father. He published many works on physics,
probability, calculus and differential equations.
Many people consider him to be the first
genuine ‘mathematical physicist’.
Reference:
G.F. Simmons, Differentials Equations
with Application and Historical Notes, Tata -Mc-Graw-Hill Pub.Co., New Delhi ,2003.
MIG-II, Plot No.249, Satyasai Enclave, Khandagiri,
Bhubaneswar.
ScienceHorizon24
JUNE, 2012
Hydroponics is a method of growing
plants using mineral nutrient solutions in water
wuthout soil. Terrestrial plants may be grown
with their roots in the nutrient solution only,
or in medium, such as perlite, gravel, mineral
wool and coconut husk etc. The word
"Hydroponics" was derived from the Greek
word,hydro, whichmeans "water"and "ponos"
means labor or water working". Hydroponics
is the practice of growing plants in either a
bath or flow of highly oxygenated nutrient or
enriched water. The term 'hydroponics' was
first used by Dr.W.F.Gericks in the late 1930s
to describe a method of growing plants with
roots immersed in an aerated dilute solution
of nutrients. More recently, the definition of
hydroponics has been broadened to read, "the
cultivation of plants without soil".
Hydroponics has been practised for
centuries. It is thought that the HangingGardens
of Babylon were a hydroponic system. In its
modern form it was developed during the
Second World War. US Air force personnel
used hydroponics to grow crops at military
bases in the Middle East and Pacific. Presently
there are hydroponic home gardens and
commercial croppingoperations in the United
States and many other countries. Under this
system, plants can be grown closer together
than in the field, thereby increasingyields and
THE SCIENCE OF HYDROPONICSBishnu Prasad Behera
multiplecropping can be practiced. In addition
to conserving space, hydroponics almost
eliminates weed and pest problems. The cost
of equipment is high and personnel must be
trained. Here the plants are held upright by
wiresupports or are rooted in a sterile medium,
e.g. pure sand or gravel. The nutrient solutions
must supply in optimum concentrations and in
correct balance, the elements such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium and other essential
nutrients normally found in soil. Other names
of this are soil less gardening, soil less culture
(Fig.l), chemi-culture and water gardening.
Growingsubstrataforhydroponicsystems
A substrata growing system is a
hydroponic system, where the root zone is
physically supported by media. The plants are
fed by applying nutrient solution to the media.
This system is in contrast to an NFT type
hydroponic system, where the root system is
not supported by a growing media, but is
bathed directly in the nutrient solution.Almost
any material that supports the root system,
other than soil, is considered as substrata.
This can be organic, such as peat, pine bark,
sawdust, rice husk etc. These can be petroleum
based such as polymeric foams or plastic
beads or can be inorganic mineral based like
sand, gravel, perlite, and rock wool etc.
JUNE, 2012
25ScienceHorizon
Basically there are two main kinds of
hydroponics, solution culture and medium
cultures. Solution culture does not use a solid
medium for the roots, just the nutrient solution.
Solution culture
Here plants are grown in a container
with a nutrient solution. The container utilized
may differ, however in larger operations, a
tank system is used. This may differ, one may
grow plants in a pot as small as mason jar.
Solution culture may be categorized as static
solution culture, continuous flow solution
culture and aeroponics.
Continuous flow solution culture
In this case there is a continuous flow of
nutrient solution to the roots. One can possibly
automate this flow as compared to static flowand control the quantity of nutrients being
sent to the root system.
Aeroponics
In aeroponics, the nutrient solution is
supplied via a fine mist released to the roots
that are dangling in an air chamber. The
advantage here is the excellent oxygenation;
the plants get by not having its roots dangling
in the solution.
Medium culture
Instead of soil, other solid mediums are
utilized, just to cultivate plants. This might be
peat moss, perlite, vermiculite, coco peat,
wool or gravel (Fig.2). Rock wool is the most
widely used medium in hydroponics. It is
made from molten rock, basalt or slag that is
spun into bundles of single filament fibers and
bonded into a medium capable of capillary
action. Baked clay pellets, also known as
expanded clay (Fig.3) are suitable for
hydroponic systems in which all nutrients are
carefully controlled in water solution. Coco
peat is coir, the leftover material after the
fibers have been removed from the outermost
shell of the coconut. Coir has the appearance
and texture like soil, it contains no mineral
content. Perlite is a volcanic rock that has
Static solution culture
In this kind of solution culture, the
roots hang in the solution, which is
occasionally gently aerated. And in order toprovide oxygenation to the root, the solution
should be low enough to expose several parts
of the roots.
Fig. 1 : Plants grown in soil less culture
ScienceHorizon26
JUNE, 2012
been superheated into very light weight
expanded glass pebbles. It is used loose or in
plastic sleeves immersed in the water. Like
perlite, vermiculite is another mineral that has
been superheated until; it has expanded into
light pebbles. Vermiculite holds more water
than perliteandhas a natural"wicking" property
that can draw water and nutrients in a passive
hydroponic system. Sterilized sand, gravel,
brick shards, peanut covers, wood fiber etc.
can also be used.
First of all they are macro nutrients, such as
nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium,
magnesium and sulphur. Besides, there are
micro nutrients like boron, chloride, copper,
iron, manganese, sodium, zinc, molybdenum
and nickel. The amount of micro nutrients are
less, but essential. In the systems nutrients are
provided to the plants by dissolving in water
and are mostly in organic and ionic form.
Pr imary among the dissolved cations
(positively charged ions) are Ca +, Mg +, K+
and major nutrient anions in nutrient solution
are NCV, SC>42~and HbPCV. It depends on a
plant, how much nutrient it requires. On
different stages of growth, the amount of
nutrient also varies.
Advantages of the system
No soil is needed.
The cultivation takes up less space, get
more production.
Plants grow faster using this system, so
there is less time between transplanting
a seedling and the harvest.
The plants actually useoverall less water
than traditional growing methods.
Produce can receive nutrients till the
last moment, so they remain fresh.
This method is most suitable, where
traditional farming is impossible. In thedesertic areas, mountainous regions,
hydroponics can begrown forfreshcrops.
Hydroponic nutrients
In this culture, nutrients control is very
much required in theprocess of growing plants.
It is required to give everything that a fruit or
vegetable may want and no pesticides are
needed to protect them from various threats.
Moreover by supplying proper nutrients, a
farmer can grow fresh plants all the year
along.There are sixteen basic mineral nutrients
that all the plants require to grow well no
matter, if they are hydroponic or soil grown.
Fig. 2 : Homemade hydroponic garden
JUNE, 2012
27ScienceHorizon
For conducting research work for plant
growth, development of root systems,
that is completely visible, so the students
can see, how the whole plants grow.
Most plant diseases are from the soil.
Hydroponically grown plants are less
affected by diseases. Without applyingpoisonouspesticides, ifany pestsordisease
problems arise, can be controlled fairly.
The root environment is easily controlled
and manipulated for temperature,
darkness, humidity and nutrient mix.
Disadvantages of the system
Initial set up costs are high. This includesequipment, nutrient, houses, lighting etc.
Beginners to hydroponic farming will
undoubtedly suffer from losses. Sotrained persons must be engaged to grow
the crop.
Hydroponic plants are very sensitive to
any change in the environment. If there
is any deficiency, the plants will show it
almost immediately.
All the plants in the system are sharing
the same water and nutrient mix, if a
disease or pest infestation occurs, it
spreads quickly through the entire
growing system.
Weather and oxygen limitations maymake a difference in production and
harvest.
Conclusion
In order to meet the future food crisis
and to grow plants in problematic areas, this
type of technology can be adopted. In a small
scale, important plants of tomatoes, radishes,
lettuce, carnations, roses, cabbage etc. can be
raised. Before growing the plants, the grower
must know about the plant and the hydroponic
system. Plants do not grow well, unless all the
nutrients are available in reasonable amounts.
Properly grown hydroponic plantsare healthier
and more vigorous, because all the necessary
growth elements are readily available. The
plants can mature faster, yielding an earlier
harvest of vegetable and flower crops. The
biggest advantage of the hydroponic gardening
is the ability to automate the entire system
with a timer. Automation reduces the actual
time it takes to maintain plant growth
requireemnts.
References :
1. http://education.yahoo.com/hydroponics
2. wikipedia.org/Hydroponics
3. Greenhouse Managemen t fo r
Horticultural Crops by S. Prasad and U.
Kuma, Agrobios (India) Publication,
Jodhpur.
4. Google images on Hydroponics.
Associate Professor, Dept. of Agril. Structures,Civil & Environmental Engineering, CAET, OUAT,
Bhubaneswar-751003.
ScienceHorizon28
JUNE, 2012
Chemistry has undergone a sea of
changes century after century and many new
branches have emerged out of the three
traditional main branches namely - physical,
inorganic and organic. Even after the advent of
modern Nuclear chemistry, polymer chemistry
and medicinal chemistry, now a new but very
importantand heart throbbing branch has come
up and drawn the attention of the world
sc ient if ic communi ty espec ia ll y the
experimental chemists to a great extent. The
branch is designated as computational
chemistry. Sideby sidedata miningin chemistry
has also extended its wing and is providing a
lot of new concepts while generalization to
available data arecarried out through analytical
studies.
Computational Chemistry
It is a branch of chemistry that uses
computers to assist in solving chemical
problems. It uses the results of theoretical
chemistry incorpora ted in to effi cient
computer programs to calculate the structures
and properties of molecules and solids. While
it s re su lt s no rmal ly complemen t the
information obtained by chemical experiments
(both qualitative and quantitative), it can in
UNDERSTANDING COMPUTATIONALCHEMISTRYAND DATA MINING CHEMISTRY
S. M. Behera
some cases, predict unobserved chemical
phenomena and there by paving the ways to
design new drugs and materials.
Expected positions of the constituent
atoms in organic/ inorganic molecular
structure, absolutely & relative (interacting)
energies, electronic charge distributions,
dipole studies, vibrational frequencies,
reactivity or other spectroscopic quantities,
cross sections for collision with other particles
can be cited as examples under computational
chemistry.
If we look at the history, only in 1970,
two research workers namely, Sideny Fernbach
andAbraham Haskell Taub mentioned the term
computational chemistry in their book
"Computers and their role in the physical
sciences". They have also mentionedthat books
on quantum Mechanics quantum chemistry,
introduction to quantum mechanics with
applications to chemistry written by authors
like Linus pauling & E. Bright Wilson, Eyring,
Walter & Kimball, Coulson etc are regarded
as the pathfinders of computational chemistry.
With the development of efficient computer
technology in 1940s & the solutions of
elaborate wave equations for complex atomic
JUNE, 2012
29ScienceHorizon
systems regarded as the starting phase of the
said objective. In the early 1950s, the first
semi atomic orbital calculations were also
carried out. Theoretical chemist became
extensive users of the early digital computers
thereafter, Calculations on diatomic
molecules, poly atomic calculations were
also undertaken to develop the branch-
computational chemistry. It is worthwhile to
mention that in 1964. Huckel method
calculations (using a simple LCAO (Linear
combination of Atomic orbitals) method for
the determination of electron energies of
molecular orbita l of IT electrons in
conjuga ted hydrocarbon sys tems) of
molecules ranging in complexity from
butadiene to ovalene were generated in
computers at Berkeley & Oxford.
Realizing the role of computation it the
field of research in chemistry, computer
programs such as ATMOL, GAUSSIAN,
IBMOL& POLYAYTOM began to be used to
speed up computation of molecular orbitals.
Out of these four programs, now GAUSSIAN
is massively in use.
Thus Computational chemistry can be
cited as a tool to assist the experimental
chemists on the following major areas.
Storing& searchingfor data on chemical
entities.
Iden ti fy ing co rr el at ions between
chemical structures & properties.
Computational approaches to help in the
efficient synthesis of compounds.
Computational approaches to design
molecules that interact in specific ways
with other molecules (e.g. drug design.)
Data mining in chemistry
With the progressive specialization in
sc iences and the extensive use of
computational methods, the steady increase
of data is barely manageable even by a team of
scientists. Thereby the interest on a specific
information is pushed into the background
while global or superior information of
complete set of data is becoming more and
more important. Thus the recognition of
superior information for complete data set
becomes one of the most important tasks for
information measurement in science.
Therefore, the task of data mining in a
chemical context is to evaluate hidden
information in a set of chemical data. One of
the differences of data mining compared, to
conventional data base queries is the
production of new information that is used
to characterize chemical data in a more
general way.
At present data miningservice chemistry
has been divided into the following sections
ScienceHorizon30
JUNE, 2012
i. Search and processing of raw data.
(Relating to search for basic information
of atom and the bond to other atoms)
ii. Calculation of descriptors. Using the
three dimensional arrangement of atoms
in a molecule includ ing the
physiochemical prosperities of these
atoms, it is possible to calculate a
descriptor of the molecule. Here a
descriptor is defined as mathematical
vector of a. fixed length that is describing
a molecule including its properties.
iii. Analysis of statistical methods.
iv. Analysis by artificial networks (if
statistical methods fail)
v. Optimization by Genetic Algorithms
vi. Expert systems and
vii. Visualization of data and interactivity.
Conclusion
Critical overview on computational
chemistry and Data mining in chemistry are
two sides of a coin. One is enriched with the
other one. It is hoped with the availability of
more and more data through computer
network, computational chemistry will have
a solid footing in chemistry and will enrich
the traditional way of research by
computational analysis.Head, Department of Chemistry,
Trident Academy of Technology, BhubaneswarMobile : 09437696140
Memory researcher Scott Small of
Columbia University Medicalcentre reassures
that " as age goes up, memory goes down " but
not wits. Memory decline occurs in every
one. Most memory loss is normal. Some
people become part of the unlucky minority
that develops Alzheimer's disease or other
forms of dementia.Alzheimer's is expected to
strike 34 million people globally by 2025 and
14 million in the U.S. over the next 40 years.
Half of all people who reach age 85 will
exhibit symptoms of the disease. Since U.S.
life expectancy currently tops out at 80 for
women and 75 for men, by the time the 85th
birth day rolls around, you are not likely to be
troubled by Alzheimer's disease- or anything
else. Memory is supposed to operate in the
Hippocampus, a cashew shaped node of tissue,
sits deep in the temporal lobe of the brain. It
is the gatekeeper of sensory information
which subsequently moves to prefrontal
cortex, where it will be briefly held, called as
short-term memory.
The hippocampus begins to malfunction
early in Alzheimer's disease. Imaging studies
have shown that people with Alzheimer's
typically have a smaller than average
hippocampus. As the hippocampus shrinks,
MEMORY DECLINESAS AGEGOES UP, BUT NOT WITS
Dwijesh KumarPanda
JUNE, 2012
31ScienceHorizon
Neurology showed that people who were over
weight and had a large belly were 2-3 times as
likely to develop dementia as those with
normal weight and belly size. High blood
glucose is one of the main contributors to
age-related memory decline.
In older people, memory problems may
also be the result of poor diet, vitamin
deficiencies or glandular imbalances (all
reversible with treatment) rather than the
classic types of dementia associated with
age. Even if a physician ultimately diagnoses
Alzheimer's disease- which is done by
eliminating other possibilities rather than by
a direct test, because none is available other
than a brain biopsy. The mind-robbing disease
is still incurable, and the drugs that are
current ly avai lable only ease ce rtain
symptoms like anxiety, confusion and
insomnia. Alzheimer's is one of the hottest
area of scientific research. Scientists are
continually identifying genes that appear to
be involved in the growth of nerve cell killing
plaques in the brain. Even if the disease is not
curable, it may soon be more treatable than
ever. Our ability to recall experiences is one
of our most perishable powers. Why do we
remember so much- and forget so much ?
The gray hair has wise brains.
Senior Scientist, Filariologist, Pathologist and Microbiologist,M5/12, Acharya Vihar, Bhubaneswar
Contact No. 94384 70777
the pathway and the prefrontal cortex begins
to degrade as well. The hippocampus also
goes at least somewhat awry in normal
memory loss. It is relatively stable in volume
till about 60 years. As people get older, they
have problems paying attention - a function
controlled by the prefrontal cortex, which
starts to diminish in size well before middle
age. It also begins to use the brain's fuel,
glucose, less efficiently and loses about
half its concentration of the
neurotransmitter dopamine.
Researchers from an Institute in
Stockholmwho have been followingover 1500
people for more than 35 years found a
significantly lower rate of dementia, including
Alzheimer's, in those who exercise. Another
study, of 2000 elderly men living in Hawaii,
showed that those who walked two miles or
more a day were half as likely to develop
dementia as those who walked a quarter mile
or less. But physical activity is not all in
improving memory. There is also what we eat.
Blueberries zap free radicals ( highly reactive
atoms that can damage tissues ) reverse aging,
enhancecognition, cause new neurons to grow.
Similar benefits obtained fromwalnuts, which
contain alpha-linolenic acid, an essential
omega-3 fatty acids. To maintain a sharp
memory, one should strive for a diet that
keeps belly fat down. A study of more than
6,500 people published in the Journal
ScienceHorizon32
JUNE, 2012
Maize is used for various purposes such
as human food, animal feed, fodder, baby corn,
sweet corn, pop corn and production of
industrial items. Baby corn is the young cob
harvested just after emergence of white silk. It
is used for preparation of salad, soup, pakoda,
curry and many other dishes. Now-a-days,
baby corn is gaining popularity with increased
market demand especially among the urban
consumers. As there is growing demand of
baby corn in the urban areas, for which it is
sold at a higher price as compared to other
products of maize. Due to lack of awareness
among the farming
c o m m u n i t y
regarding the trade
poten ti al of the
product, there is
meager utilisation
of maize in the form
of baby corn.
The soiland climate of Odisha is suitable
for baby corn cultivation. Better quality babycorn is obtained when it is grown at
comparatively low temperature condition.
Hence, it can be grown well during winter
season throughout the state. The farmers ofinterior districts residing at higher altitudes
can grow this crop during pre-kharif and post-
rabi seasons also. This crop can be grown in
PRODUCTION OF BABY CORN FOR HIGHER PROFITSubasChandraSahoo
well drained loamy soil with high fertility. The
optimum pH range suitable for good crop
growth is 5.8 to 7.0.
Short duration varieties producing more
than one ear per plant are desirable for higher
yield of baby corn. There are several varietiesnamely VL-42, VL-78, Kiran etc., suitable for
baby corn production. As the plants are grown
at close spacing, the seed requirement is about25 kg/ha. To protect the crop from soil borne
diseases, the seeds can be treated with thiram
@ 3 gmor carbandazim @ 2gmper kgof seed.
The soil should be made well pulverised
by ploughing 3 to 4 times. During finalploughing, farm yard manure @ 5 ton/ha may
be applied in the soil. The seeds are sown at a
spacing of 40 cm x 20 cm to accommodate
nearly 1.25 lakh plants /ha. Before sowing theseeds, furrows are to be made by trench hoe or
bullock plough with a spacing of 40 cm from
line to line. The basal fertilizer @ 30 kg ofnitrogen, 60 kg phosphors and 60 kg
potassium/ha may be applied in the furrows.
The fertilizers have to be mixed thoroughlywith the soil. Then the seeds are put in the
furrow at a distance of 20 cm from seed to
seed. The furrows are covered thoroughly sothat the seeds are not exposed. Light irrigation
is provided for early germination of the seeds.
A day after sowing, the weedicideatrazin, may
Baby corn
JUNE, 2012
33ScienceHorizon
be applied @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha by mixing with
water. This helps in reducing the weed
population in the field. If necessary, gap filling
may be done at 10-12 days after sowing of the
seeds.
Nearly three weeks after sowing, hoeing
should be done in the field, followed byearthing up operation. At this time nitrogen
may be applied @ 60kg/ha. The balance dose
of nitrogen @ 30kg/ha may be applied at theinitiation of silk emergence. Depending on
soil moisture status, irrigation is provided at
regular intervals to maintain crop growth. Thetassels are removed after emergence, which
helps in diversion of nutrient flow towards
formation of more number of cobs. Tomaintain the quality of baby corn, detasseling
is an essential operation. It is doneby removing
the tassel of the plant as soon as it emergesfrom the flag leaf. It should be practiced row-
wise. While detasseling, leaf should not be
removed, since it affects photosynthesis andultimately reduces average baby corn yield.
The removed tassel should be fed to the cattle
as it is nutrient rich.
Time of harvest playsvital role in getting
better quality of baby corn. The crop is
harvested just after emergence of white silk. Ittakes nearly 45-50 days during kharif and 55-
60 during rabi season to get the first harvest.
If harvesting is delayed, the quality of babycorn is reduced and it fetches low price in the
market. Cobs are to be removed from the plant
without disturbing the leaves. Then those arebrought to shade for dehusking the cobs. If
dehusking is delayed, there will be loss of
quality of baby corn. Normally, harvesting isdone 2-3 times in a week. After harvesting of
baby corn, green plants are used as fodder for
cattle. With proper package of practices, theyield is roughly 10-12 quintals of baby corn
and about 220 quintals of green fodder per
hectare. For continuous supply to the market,it is necessary to sow the seeds in staggered
manner. It means a big plot is to be divided
into small plots and sowing should be doneonce in a week to get continuous harvest. This
is a profitable crop with good market potential.
So the farmers may come forward for babycorn cultivation to earn higher profit.
Deputy Director, Directorate of Extension Education
OUAT, Bhubaneswar - 751 003E-mail : [email protected] Corn Harvesting
ScienceHorizon34
JUNE, 2012
Whether it is smell of jasmine, rose orlavender or the flavor of lemon, tulsi or mint- we recognize them instantly. Theiridentification is attributed to synergisticpresence of unique chemical compounds(metabo li te s) in addi tion to othe rmacromolecules inside the plant tissues.Biological systems contain such complexmetabolites and the fragrances/flavors consistof bouquets of volatiles, whose compositionandlevels determine thefragrance of individualplant. Typically, fragrances consist ofterpenoids, fatty acid derivatives, indolecompounds and benzenoids - mostly thesecondary metabolites of plants. Presence ofthese unique metabolites along with proteins,carbohydrates and other metabolites makesfundamental contributions to the remarkablediversity in plants beyond genetic diversity.
The study of metabolites of plants iscritical in biology as they govern cellularfunction of different organs and individualorgans are rich in diverse metaboliccompounds. Moreover, within a plant speciessubstantialquantitativeandqualitative variationexists in metabolite composition. At a givenpoint of time quantity and quality ofmetabolites determine the plasticity of plantsto environment. Study of complete set ofcellular metabolites including metabolic
METABOLOMICS -STUDYINGCHEMICALVOCABULARY OF PLANTS
Prasanta K Dash, Kishor Gaikwad, Pradeep K Jain and Rhitu Rai
intermediates, hormones and secondarymetabolites gives an instantaneous snapshotof the physiology of the organism. Thus, thefocus of biological research is shifting frompure, high-throughput sequencing techniquesto deriving gene function by analyzing widespectrum of metabolites to understand themolecular interplay at metabolic levels thatultimately govern morphology of plants.
It has been estimated that plants containover 100,000 metabolites with each specieshaving its own chemotypic expression pattern.The systematic study of the metabolites ofany organism is known as "Metabolomics". Itis a powerful tool for studying changes ingene expression and the resulting metabolicand phenotypic effects over the course ofdevelopment or in response to environmentalor chemical stresses and helps us to examineoverall biological impact of changes toindividual organism.
Although, the concept of "metabolomics"was introduced in late 1940s by RogerWilliams, the use of metabolomics in practicehas been ancient. Chinese doctors used ants todetect whether urine contained high doses ofglucose and detect diabetes among patients.Medieval ages marked use of "urine charts" todiagnose various medical conditions, which
are of metabolic origin. With advent of new
JUNE, 2012
35ScienceHorizon
biological era, revolution in research made it
possible to move from study of chromosomesto studies that encompass entire genomes,
transcriptomes, proteomes, and metabolomes(Fig. 1). Recently, various metabolomic
research areas have used differingterminology for the definition of metabolic
approaches (Table 1). However, the core ofmetabolomic research involves detection,
identification and quantification of allmetabolites within a sample.
Central to metabolomic study is precisedetection and measurement of metabolites.
Since it deals with diverse range of chemicalcompounds with la rge vari at ions in
concentrations, comprehensive coverage isachieved by usingmultiparallelcomplementary
detection technologies. Current advances inlaboratory automation and informationtechnologies allow conducting analysesquickly and superimposing the various layersof information to yield complex, yet coherent,snapshots of the inner workings of metabolitesin a biological system.
The important techniques suitable forplant metabolomics are gas chromatography(GC)/liquid chromatography (LC) coupledmass spect rometry (MS), capi ll aryelectrophoresis (CE)-MSand nuclear magneticresonance (NMR).
1. Among all, GC-MS technique has beenone of the most popular metabolomicsapproaches because it is able to determine thelevels of primary metabolites such as amino
Fig.1. Transitional biology depicting translational biology
ScienceHorizon36
JUNE, 2012
acids, organic acids, and sugars by employinga chemical derivatization of these hydrophilicmetabolites. In addition to this, goodreproducibility of GC-MS analyses in termsof sharp separation of metabolites by GCcombined with the stable ionization achievedby electron impact (EI) ionization is preferablefor analyzing complex plant extracts. Large-scale analysis of more than one thousandsamples in a day is possible in GC-MSprotocols for high throughput analysis.Although the GC-MS method has variousapplications in plant metabolomics studies,accurate determination of metabolite levels
by this technique plays a critical role in
decoding regulation networks of plant's
primary metabolism.
2. The metabolome analysis using LC-MS
is a unique method for the profiling of plant
secondary metabolites such as phenyl-
propanoids and alkaloids. In fact, modification
of the LC separation employing different
column chemistry and mobile phase enables
analysis of membrane lipids (lipidomics) as
wellas amino acids. One of the most important
applications of LC-MS in metabolomics is to
understand phytochemical diversity in plants.
Term DefinitionMetabolitea Any substance necessary for metabolism or taking part in a particular
metabolic process either as a substrate or generated as a result of endproduct of metabolism is known as metabolite. Examples of suchmetabolites are glucose in the metabolism of sugars and starches; aminoacids in the biosynthesis of proteins; and squalene in the biosynthesis ofcholesterol; hormones; terpenoids; indole and benzoid compounds etc.
Metabolomics Identification and quantification of all metabolites within an organism orsystem, under a given set of conditions, primarily concerned with normalendogenous metabolism.
Metabonomics Identification and quantification of metabolites that are dynamicallyaltered by a living system in response to different stimuli or geneticmodification. It extends metabolic profiling to include information aboutperturbations of metabolism caused by environmental factors includingdiet, toxins, xenobiotics and the involvement of extragenomics influencessuch as pathogens.
Metabolicprofiling
Identification and quantification of metabolites related through theirmetabolic pathway(s) or similarities in their chemistry.
Metabolitefingerprinting
Rapid and high-throughput metabolite profiles of simple cellular extractswithout involving quantification or identification of metabolites.
Metabolome The repertoire of all biochemical complement present within an organism.Metabolite foot-printing
A commonly employed microbial metabolomics approach that measuresmetabolites secreted from the intracellular complement of an organisminto its extracellular growth medium.
Targetedmetabolite analysis
In-depth biochemical profiling of pre-defined groups of metabolites basedon existing knowledge or on broad-spectrum metabolomic analysis.
Table 1. Various terms commonly used in metabolomics and their meanings.
JUNE, 2012
37ScienceHorizon
3. Capillary electrophoresis (CE)-MSmethod in metabolomics offers an advantageof detection of ionic metabolites such assugar-phosphates and nucleotides in additionto amino acids and organic acids. It has beenreported that more than 200 metabolite signalscan be determined in Arabidopsis by thisanalysis in which up to 70-100 metaboliteswere structurally identifiable.
4. NMR offers excellent quantitativeprecision of metabolites and the potential forhigh throughput of >100 samples/day is alsoattainable. In addition, NMR is particularlypowerful for metabol it e st ructuredetermination, including the atomic positionsof isotopic labels in different isotopomersgenerated by stable isotope tracer studies. Asa result, metabolic pathways can now besystematically mapped by NMR withunprecedented precision and speed.
Application to crop biology
The nutritional quality of crop plants is adirect function of metabolite content. It istherefore important to use metabolomicapproach to understand better what especiallyhas occurred during crop domestication inorder to design new concepts for more targetedcrop improvement. The potential for cropimprovement is enormous as has recently beendemonstrated in studies on geneticalmetabolomics (linking metabolic profiles withgenomic information). The extensively newchemical signatures, resulting from differentin tr a- spec if ic all el ic combina tions
(transgressive segregation), reveal the potentialofmetabolomicstodetecttransgressive segregantsbefore a trait is expressed. This 'hiddenbiochemical variation, now revealed to plantbreeders through metabolomics', will open thedoortothe biochemicalway ofcropimprovementand fine tuning of breeding for nutritionaltraits in crop species' related to macro- andmicro-nutrition aspects of food quality.
Conclusion
Metabolomics, the study of the completerepertoire of small molecules in cells, tissues,organs, and biological fluids, represents amajor and rapidly evolving component of newbiology. The development of a series ofanalytical platforms such as NMR, GC-MS,LC-MS, and LCECA,all capable of accuratelymeasuring hundreds or thousands of smallmolecules in biological samples, promises tosubstantially advance our understanding of howplants response to a variety of stress conditions.Currently, a few areas of biomedical researchstand to benefit more from the application ofmetabolomics than plant science. However, infuture we envision more studies that includemetabolomics as an integral part of the systemsbiology approach to study combination ofproteomics, transcriptomics and modeling toprovide scientists a holistic view and enablethem to develop strategies to enhance thetolerance of different plants and crops to bioticand abiotic stresses.
National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology, IARI,
PUSA Campus, New Delhi- 110012e-mail:[email protected], [email protected],
ScienceHorizon38
JUNE, 2012
Introduction
"Drink your milk.You need the calcium
for healthy bone and teeth."- used to be acommon advice of all mothers, when we were
young. Calcium helps in building strong bonesand healthy teeth.As one of the most abundant
minerals in human body, calciumaccounts for
nearly 1.5% of the total body weight. Whilebones and teeth house 99% of the calcium in
the body, the remaining 1% is distributed inother areas. Calcium is the top macro nutrient,
when it comes to our bones. It is a primarystructural constituent of the skeleton, but it is
also widely distributed in soft tissues where it
is involved in neuromuscular, enzymatic,hormonal and other metabolic activities.
Macro-nutrient
Calcium is one of the most importantmacro-nutrients necessary for body's growth
and function. It is known for its role in
maintaining the strength and density of thebones.. Calcium and phosphorous combine to
formcalciumphosphate. The process is known
as bone mineralization. Calcium phosphate isa prime component of the mineral complex
(called hydroxyapatite), which gives structureand strength to bones. In addition to building
strong bones and healthy teeth, calcium is alsoused in muscle contraction, blood clotting and
maintenance of cell membranes. Calcium has
CALCIUM - THE ESSENTIAL HEALTH NUTRIENTG. K. Roy
been found to assist in the production oflymphatic fluids. A part of it is utilized tosupport nerve transmiss ion, musclecontraction (including normal heart rhythm),blood clotting and regulation of hormone and
enzyme activities. Additionally, this mineralassists in the supply of essential nutrients andother substances across cell membranes.
Calcium absorption depends on thecalcium need of the body and the calciumcontent of the food consumed. The absorptionis enhanced by vitamin-D from the diet orexposure to the ultraviolet light of the sun.
With age, the rate of absorption tends todecrease for both men and women. Majorportion of the body calcium (greater than99%) is stored in the bones and teeth tosupport their structure, while the remaining
small amount is found throughout the body inblood, muscle and the fluid between the cells.In view of its biological importance indischarging many physiological activities, thebody utilizes complex regulatory systems to
precisely control the amount of calcium in theblood, so that it is available for these activities.Inconsequence, when dietary intake of calciumis quite low to maintain normal levels ofcalcium in the blood, the body will draw on
calcium stores in the bones to maintain normalblood concentrations, otherwise, after many
years can lead to osteoporosis.
JUNE, 2012
39ScienceHorizon
Calcium as health protector:
Lowering blood pressure: Calcium
seems to help prevent high blood pressure. A
13-year survey conducted by the U.S. National
Centre for Health Statistics revealed that
people consuming 1300 mg of calcium per
day were 12% less likely to develop
hypertension than those consuming only
300mg a day. In people, under the age of 40,
this risk was reduced by up to 25%. Further
studies suggest that in some people an increase
in calciumconsumptioncan helpcontrol blood
pressure without medication.
Preventing heart disease:
Studies show that, calcium may help
lower blood cholesterol and shield the heart
from any harm. A university of Texas study
indicated that an increase of daily calcium
intake from 410mg to 2200mg resulted in the
decrease of total cholesterol by 6% and bad
cholesterol (LDL) by 11% while maintaining
the good cholesterol (HDL)unchanged. Hence,
with an increase in calcium intake, whether
with diet or as supplement, the cholesterol
gets better.
Avoiding kidney stones:
Doctors advise patients suffering from
kidney stones to limit calcium intake, as
calcium is the major component of 80% of all
stones. But a Harvard School of Public Health
study on 45510 men with no kidney stones for
four years indicated that, those on high calcium
diet (average 1326mg per day) were found to
cut their risk of developing stones by one-
third to men with daily intake of 516mg.
However, in view of the two above conflicting
factors, the kidney stone patients should
consult their physicians before changing their
dietary habits.
Fighting osteoporosis:
With gradual thinning and weakening of
bones, osteoporosis affects millions amongst
us especially the women. In theadvanced stage
of the disease, fragility increases with greater
risk of fractures, especially crippling fractures
of the hip. Several studies indicate that the
increase of calcium intake is vital to slow
down the loss andreduce fracture rates brought
on by osteoporosis. This is particularly
significant when calcium is taken with vitamin-
D which increases the capacity of the body to
absorb the mineral.Accordingto many experts,
the time to start increasing the calcium intake
is adolescence when the adult bone mass is
being formed.
Calcium deficiency symptoms:
Insufficient calcium intake,poor calcium
absorption and excessive calcium loss in the
urine andfaeces can lead to calcium deficiency.
In children , calcium deficiency can cause
improper bone mineralization which leads to
rickets. Because bone stores of calcium can
be used to maintain a proper blood calcium
ScienceHorizon40
JUNE, 2012
level ,short term dietary deficiency of calcium
generally does not result in significantly low
blood calcium levels. But over the years,
dietary deficiency eventually depletes bone
stores, rendering the bones weak and prone to
fracture . Some symptoms of calc ium
deficiency are-
(i) Delay in sittingup, crawlingand walking
of babies
(ii) Knock-knees in children
(iii) Cramp pains in legs
(iv) Irregular heart beats
(v) Sleep disorder
(vi) Weakness in bones
Calcium sources and RecommendedDaily Intake (RDI):
Some important food sources, rich in
calcium are given below:
Food Quantity Calcium(mg)
Goat milk one cup(240ml) 325
Cow milk -do- 288
Yoghurt 200gm. 298
( from cow's milk)
Kulfi 100gm 525
(from buffalo's milk)
Dry coconut -do- 400
Dry dates -do- 120
Cheese one ounce 220
Spinach one cup 245
(cooked)
Other sources of calcium include leafy
green vegetables such as spinach, broccoli,
cabbage, calcium-fortified foods from
orange juice to cereals and crackers, ice
creams, oysters, small fish with bones, nuts
and fresh fruits.
Calcium is sometimes lost in cooking
some foods. To retain calcium, foods are to be
cooked in a minimal amount of water for the
shortest possible time.
Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) of
calciumfor different age groups, with category
are as under:
Category Age Calcium
requirement
(mg.)
Infants 0- 6 months 210
-do- 7-12 months 270
Children 1-3 years 500
Children 4-8 years 800
Adults (males 9-18 years 1300
and females)
-do- 19-50 years 1000
-do- 51 and above 1200
Pregnant and less than 1300
lactating 18 years
-do- 19-30 years 1000
-do- 31-50 years 1000
JUNE, 2012
41ScienceHorizon
Calcium absorption may be reduced in
vegetarians as they eat more plant foods
containing oxalic and phytic acids, compounds
which interfere with calcium absorption.
However, vegetarian diet, containing less
protein may reduce calcium excretion. Still
then vegetarians may be at increased risk for
inadequate intake of calcium, which is to be
avoided by takingproper calcium-rich diet and
also supplements if required.
Calcium supplements may also be
necessary for pregnant women, nursing
mothers, children andadolescents, menopausal
women (to avoid the risk of osteoporosis)
specifically when their normal daily diet fails
to meet the RDI.
Conclusion:
Calcium which was considered as an
important nutrient for the development and
maintenance of healthy bones and teeth, a few
decades back, is being accepted now as a
possible player in the fight against many
ailments. Getting enough of this" miracle
mineral" in our daily diet may require a little
effort. If we consider the pay off-good health
it's worth it.
Plot No. 451/1766, Nuasahi, Nayapalli, Bhubaneswar.E.mail: [email protected].
'Tissue Culture' is a general terms that
encompasses and is concerned with the study
of not only tissues but also cells, protoplasts
and organs maintained or grown in- vitro.
Tissue culture techniques should more
accurately be termed as IN-VITRO techniques
(literally means in a glass) because the cultures
are normally contained within glass or clear
plastic vessels. Although in vitro-culture is
relatively a new branch of biological science,
it is based on the concept of "Totipotency of
livingcells", a theory given byGerman Botanist
Dr. G. Haberlandt (1902). Totipotency may be
defined as 'interest capacity of a living cell to
divide, develop and differentiate into the total
range of cell types foundin the adult organism.
A diploid Zygote formed as a consequence of
fertilization from all types of cells in the body
of a zygote or its daughter cells express, such
expression is progressively restricted at the
later stage of tissue and cell-differentiation. It
has been demonstrated that differentiated cells
are capable of acting condition. They are then
said to have demonstrated totipotency.
Haberlandt failed in his experimental work
PLANT TISSUECULTURE AND ITS
APPLICATIONSanjeeb kumar Das and Padmini Bisyoi
ScienceHorizon42
JUNE, 2012
and could not prove his concept of totipotency.
It was so, mainly because his ideas were for
ahead of the technology I know how available
at that time.
However, later during the 1930 the
subject was put on a scientific footing through
the work of R.J. Gautheret (France) and P.R.
White (USA). In the following years, plant
tissue culture techniques have undergone
tremendous refinement and plants belonging
to virtually all families and groups have been
successfully put to tissue culture
experiments.
Today in-vitro technique is considered
to be one of the front-line tools for
undertaking research in genetic engineering.
Types of in-vitro culture :
As has already been pointed out, the
term tissue-culture or in-vitro culture is a
general term. Plant tissue culture recognizes
three main branches.
1. Cell Culture : It refers to growing cells
in-vitro including the culture of single
cells. In cell culture, the cells are
no-longer organized into tissues.
2. Tissue culture : The maintenance or
growth of tissues in-vitro in a way that
mayallow differentiation and preservation
of their architecture and /or function.
3. Organ culture : The maintenance or
growth of organ primordial or the whole
or parts of an organ in vitro that may
allow differentiation and preservation.
Application :
It has many applications in crop
improvement, preservation, breeding and in
industries.
1) Micro-propagation :
Micro -p ropagati on is the rapid
production of a larger no. of identical clones
in-vitro within a short duration. It restores
original genetic make up of parents plant in
the clones. So it is used to breed crop plants
in large numbers.
Micro propagation is practiced in
i. Plants in which seed production is
difficult or impossible.
ii. Plants which fail to produce seed.
iii. Plants in which frequent variations take
place due to cross pollination.
JUNE, 2012
43ScienceHorizon
produced from another culture, pollen
cultures and ovule cultures. The haploids are
used in plant breeding in order to improve
the field and agricultural crops. Nearly 250
haploid species are established through
another culture method.
5) Embryo Rescue :
In some plants, normal fertilization takes
place but the ovule fails to become a seed. In
such cases, the immature embryo is taken
from the immature fruits and cultured in a
tissue culture medium. Subsequently, plants
develop from the embryo. As this method
overcomes embryo immaturity, it is known as
Embryo rescue. It has tremendous application
in plant breeding.
6) Synthetic seeds :
Now-a-days, biotechnologists are
working on the possibilities of producing
artificial or synthetic seeds from somatic
embryos of important agricultural and forest
plants. In synthetic seeds a somatic embryo is
generally encapsulated in some nutrient gel
which acts as the endosperm for the somatic
embryo. These synthetic seeds can be stored
and transported easily and can be sown in the
field beds directly.
Department of Botany( DESM) R.I.E (NCERT), Unit-9Achrayavihar, Bhubaneswar-751022
2) Organogenesi s, adventi tious
regeneration :
Organogenesi s is a process of
differentiation by which plant organs are
formed de novo. Similarly "regeneration" in
vitro is a morphogenetic response to a stimulus
that results in the production of organs,
embryos or whole plant.
Organogenesis and regeneration in-vitro
have many facets of interest for scientists of
both basic and applied areas of plant science.
Impr ovement of cro p pla nt s thr ou gh
manipulations at the cellular level is possible
only if somatic cells are able to give rise to
whole plants, a plant breeder is obviously
interested to obtain modified plants rather
than modified cells.
3) Somaclonal variation :
Generally clones produced through
tissue culture show uniformity in their
character. However, a few clones show
variation among the clones. They are called
somatic variants. The formation of variant
clones from the cultured callus tissue is
called somaclonal variation.
4) Production of Haploids :
The haploid plants contain only a single
set of chromosomes in their cells. They are
ScienceHorizon44
JUNE, 2012
In many countries of Asia, Africa andLatinAmerica, vitaminA deficiency (VAD) isa matter of concern. VAD causes irreversibleblindness in more than 5 lakh childrenannually and results in large scale deaths.Particularly, in South- East Asia, nearly 5million children annually show the symptomsof VAD. It has also been estimated thatvitaminAnutrition may prevent approximately1 to 2 million deaths every year amongchildren aged 1 to 4 years and an additional0.25 to 0.5 in the higher age group of children.In many of the above cited regions, in generaland in the poor farming families of the southAsia, in particular, rice is their staple food.According to the American DieticAssociation,Vitamin Ais essential for healthyvision and glowing skin.
Inview of the above, the biotechnologistshave developed transgenic crops like rice andmustard described as 'golden rice' and 'goldenmustard' respectively. The term golden refersto the golden colour of the endosperm of ricegrain or the mustard oil due to richness ofprovitamin A or beta carotenes.
Transgenic of golden rice:
It is well known that the process ofreproduction occurs among a particularspecies of organisms. As an example, it may
be cited that pollination and fertilization are
VITAMIN A RICH - GOLDEN RICE- A GIFT OFBIOTECHNOLOGY
BasantaKumarChoudhury
only feasible between two mango plants but
notbetween a mango andthe species of banyanplant. The reason is that the mango and banyan
belong to different species. On the other hand,in transgenic, the process of reproduction can
take place beyond the species boundary.Transgenic technology refers to isolation of
genes, modification of such isolated speciesso that they can function better, preservation
of those genes to be modified into new speciesand thereafter, formation of the 'transgenic'.
Extensive researches during 1996 -2000by Ingo Potrykus in Switzerland and Peter
Beyer, in Germany, led to the development ofthe transgenic 'golden rice'. The grains of the
plant contain beta carotene and carotenoidsthe precursors of the vitamin A.The transgenic
golden rice was developed by putting 2 genesfrom Narc is sus (Daf fodi ls ) such as
psy(phytoene synthase and lcy (lycopenebeta cyclase) and 1 gene crtl (phytoene
desaturase) from one species of the bacterium,Erwinia into the rice seeds. Since the new
plants contained genes from a plant far apartfrom rice plant and a bacterium which is not
visible to our naked eye, the new plant producedenriched vitamin A. Thus, it is a transgenic.
When the new crops were harvested, theirgrains were not white but pale yellow due to
predominance of beta carotene.
JUNE, 2012
45ScienceHorizon
Potential:
The biotech company, Zeneca, has taken
the responsibility to market the product under
the name 'Golden rice'. The introduction of
this rice into the poor farming areas has
potential to benefit millions of lives. If the
golden rice is duly accepted by the vulnerable
sections of the third world, it undoubtedly hastremendous potential of vitaminA in the diets
that lack this essential component. Many
ethicists, the Church of England and even the
Vatican have approved this genetically
modified food that provides better nutrition.
In 2001, a sample of golden rice wasprovided to the International Rice Research
Institute, Philippines to investigate its safety
and utility. After obtaining favourable
recommendation in three years time the golden
rice was released to be grown in the rice fields.
Concerns:
Since the transgenic technology involves
creation of new life beyond species boundary,
there is always an apprehension of its long
term effect on human health and environment.
Again, this transgenic crop of rice is a staple
food of overwhelming majority of the world;
it is natural that many ethicists and moralistsexpress concerns about its long term usage.
These people call it a dangerous
'Frankenfood' as nobody knows the long range
effect of genes manipulated from Daffodils
and a bacterium.
It has been argued that golden rice and
other transgenic crops will replace the
traditional varieties in the developingcountries
reducing their biodiversity. Once biodiversity
of a species is lost means it will create a
peculiar situation where any minor change in
the environment will lead to the elimination
of that species or drastic loss in its
productivity. One can imagine this condition
where loss in rice production or complete
disappearance of rice plant. It will definitely
lead to catastrophe or catastrophe like
situation.
The supporters of this technology argue
that the transgenic technology allows only the
desirable genes to be transferred to another
plant so as to create crops that can be more
affordable, more nutritious and have longer
lasting property against the process of decay
and disintegration. Hence, many peoplebelieve
that the genetically modified crops like golden
rice will have far reaching consequences. If
this can be accepted by people in the countries
that rely on rice as their principal diet, it could
make huge inroads in addressing vitamin A
deficiency. It should here be acknowledged
that human nature makes people skeptical to
any new product, especially when introduced
by foreigners.Sidhi, 24/732, Shree Vihar, Patia,
Bubaneswar- 751 024Email: - choudhrybasanta @yahoo.com.
ScienceHorizon46
JUNE, 2012
Q. What is an ulcer ?
The term ulcer is derived from the LatinWord 'ulcus'. Ulcer in Odia is known as 'gha'.
It is an open sore on an external orinternal surface of the body. Hence, it mayappear on skin surface or on the surface ofmucous membrane like that of lining of theoral cavity or of stomach and intestines. Thedischarge from the ulcers may be watery ormay even be blood stained. Pus may exude ifthe wound in infected by microorganisms.
Remember that ulcer is a local effectand it looks like a very shallow excavation inthe surface of an organ or tissue. Some of theulcers may be deep too.
Q. How is an ulcer formed ?
To start with, there occurs inflammation.The inflammationdevelops as a result of attackby microorganisms, by physical agents likeintense heat or cold, radiation, trauma or byvarious chemical agents like acids, alkalis etc.
The ulcers may occur due to obstruction inblood flow.
The inflammatory process leads todestruction and death of tissue cells.Interference with blood supply is the cause ofcell death. These dead cells subsequentlybecome loosened and finally drop off from
5W'S + H :(Why, Who, What, When, Where and How)
ULCERNityananda Swain
Stomach, or peptic, ulcers are caused by abreakdown of the mucous lining of thestomach or overproduction of stomachsecretions.
Duodenal ulcers are the most common type,occurring when acid secreted by thestomach erodes the lining of the duodenum.
JUNE, 2012
47ScienceHorizon
the affected site resulting in a break in thecontinuity of skin or mucous membrance,leaving behind an ulcer.
Q. Where do ulcers occur ?
The ulcers may occur on any part of theskin. But the extremities, especially the lowerones, are the most common sites. They arealso commonly encountered in the mucosa ofthe mouth, stomach, duodenum, intestines orgenitourinary tract.
Ulcers associated with inflammationsare usually painful, but trophic ulcers arepainless.
The trophic ulcers develop when there isimpairment of blood supply to the tissues.Impairment of blood supply cuts off supply ofnutrition to the affected site. Furthermore, ifthe nerve supply to the particular part is notproper, it may lead to injury and ulcerformation. Trophic ulcers are quite commonlyfound in patients with diabetes mellitus andleprosy.
Q. How do the doctors diagnose thedisease by observing the ulcer ?
As you know, the ulcer s ar ecircumscribed lesions developed due to lossof tissues. The observation to the edge of theulcers give valuable clues to the diagnosis aswell as the condition of the ulcers.
If the edge or the ulcer is inflamed andthere is swelling, it indicates a spreading ulcer.On the otherhand, in a healing ulcer, its centreis reddish and the edge purplish-white.
UNDERMINEDEDGE(INTUBERCULOSIS)
PUNCHEDOUT EDGE(IN SYPHILIS, TROPHICULCER)
SLOPINGEDGE(HEALINGULCER)
RAISEDEDGE(RODENT ULCER- A TYPEOF CANCERULCER)
ROLLED-OUT OREVERTEDEDGE
(IN EPITHELIOMA-ATYPE OF CANCER)
ScienceHorizon48
JUNE, 2012
The description of the edge of the ulcer and the disease commonly associated with each
type are as follows :
Diagram Description of edge Associated diseaseA Undermined edge TuberculosisB Punched-out edge Syphilis, Trophic ulcerC Sloping edge Healing ulcerD Raised and pearly-white edge Rodent ulcer (a type of cancer unlcer)
E Rolled-out (everted) edge Epithelioma (a type of cancer)
The endoscopic tests may help in the
diagnosis of ulcers especially in stomach andintestine.
Bariummeal and X' Ray is helpful in the
diagnosis of ulcers in stomach and duodenum.
However, if one suspects a cancer-ulcer,the microscopic examination of the tissue
cells (called biopsy) collected from the ulcer-site confirms the diagnosis or rules it out.
Q. How do ulcers heal ?
Many ulcers heal spontaneously. Healingis a repair process. The repair process involves
regeneration. Regeneration is the replacementof injured tissue by newly formed cells of the
some type. For example, an ulcer in skin ishealed by cells of the skin and a stomach ulcer
by the cells of the stomach. Besides, therealso occurs replacement by collagen fibres.
However, in most instances, both theregeneration and replacement processes
contribute to repair. The fibrous tissue formedin the process of repair gradually contracts to
form a scar. In deep ulcers, there may be lefta permanent scar which is often accepted as an
identification mark. The healing of ulcers maytake days, weeks, or even months.
Q. How are they treated ?
Depending on the type and location ofthe ulcer, doctors plan out the mode of
treatment.For example, a stomach or duodenalulcer is treated by drugs that neutralize acid or
inhibit acid secretion in the stomach. It mayeven require surgical intervention.
On the otherhand, most of the ulcers on
the skin are treated by systemic administrationof antibiotic drugs and dressing with saline
and antiseptic lotions. Antibiotic cream orpowder may be used externally on the ulcer
surface.
There are also situations when skingrafting may be required. Ulcers developed
due to extensive burn injury often require skingrafts. Foot ulcers in diabetic patients may
necessitate even amputation.
ABHIPSA, Sector - 6, Plot No. - 1131, Abhinab Bidanasi,Cuttack - 753 014
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