Q921 re1 lec9 v1

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R eservoir E ngineering 1 Course ( 2 nd Ed.)

Transcript of Q921 re1 lec9 v1

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1. Solutions of Diffusivity EquationA. pD Solution

B. Analytical Solution

2. USS(LT) Regime for Radial flow of SC Fluids: Finite-Radial Reservoir

3. Relation between pD and Ei

4. USS Regime for Radial Flow of C Fluids A. (Exact Method)

B. (P2 Approximation Method)

C. (P Approximation Method)

5. PSS regime Flow Constant

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1. PSS RegimeA. Average Reservoir Pressure

B. PSS regime for Radial Flow of SC Fluids

C. Effect of Well Location within the Drainage Area

D. PSS Regime for Radial Flow of C Fluids

2. Skin Concept

3. Using S for Radial Flow in Flow Equations

4. Turbulent Flow

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Average Reservoir Pressure in PSS

Because the pressure at every point in the reservoir is changing at the same rate, it leads to the conclusion that the average reservoir pressure is changing at the same rate. This average reservoir pressure is essentially set equal to

the volumetric average reservoir pressure p– r. It is the pressure that is used to perform flow calculations

during the semisteady state flowing condition.

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Average Reservoir Pressure Calculation in PSS

In the above discussion, p– r indicates that, in principal, the above Equation can be used to estimate by replacing the pressure decline rate dp/dt with (pi − p– r)/t, or:

(t is approximately the elapsed time since the end of the transient flow regime to the time of interest.)

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Volumetric Average Pressure of the Entire ReservoirIt should be noted that when performing material

balance calculations, the volumetric average pressure of the entire reservoir is used to calculate the fluid properties. This pressure can be determined from the individual well drainage properties as follows:

Where Vi = pore volume of the ith drainage volume

p–ri = volumetric average pressure within the ith drainage volume.

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Using the Flow Rate in Volumetric Avg Reservoir PressureFigure illustrates the

concept of the volumetric average pressure.

In practice, the Vi’s are difficult to determine and, therefore, it is common to use the flow rate qi.

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Applications of the Pseudosteady-State Flow The practical applications of using the

pseudosteady-state flow condition to describe the flow behavior of the following two types of fluids are presented below:Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids

Radial flow of compressible fluids

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Diffusivity Equation in PSS

The diffusivity equation as expressed previously for the transient flow regime is:

For the semisteady-state flow, the term (∂p/∂t) is constant so:

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Radial Flow of Slightly Compressible Fluids Calculation

Where c1 is the constant of the integration and can be evaluated by imposing the outer no-flow boundary condition [i.e., (∂p/∂r) re = 0] on the above relation to give:

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Flow Rate for Radial Flow of Slightly Compressible Fluids (PSS)

Performing the above integration and assuming (rw 2 /re 2) is negligible gives:

A more appropriate form of the above is to solve for the flow rate, to give:

Where Q = flow rate, STB/day

B = formation volume factor, bbl/STB

k = permeability, md

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Q Vs. Average Reservoir Pressure for PSS RegimeThe volumetric average reservoir pressure p– r is

commonly used in calculating the liquid flow rate under the semisteady-state flowing condition.Introducing the p– r into previous Equation gives:

(the volumetric average pressure p–r occurs at about 47% of the drainage radius during the semisteady-state condition.)

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Using Pd Solution (PSS)

It is interesting to notice that the dimensionless pressure pD solution to the diffusivity equation can be used to derive previous Equation.

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Effect of Geometry on PSS Flow

It should be pointed out that the pseudosteady-state flow occurs regardless of the geometry of the reservoir.

Irregular geometries also reach this state when they have been produced long enough for the entire drainage area to be affected.

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Shape Factor

Rather than developing a separate equation for each geometry, Ramey and Cobb (1971) introduced a correction factor that is called the shape factor, CA, which is designed to account for the deviation of the drainage area from the ideal circular form.

The shape factor, accounts also for the location of the well within the drainage area.

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Shape Factors for Various Single-Well Drainage Areas

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Solutions Using CA

Introducing CA into following Equation and performing the solution procedure gives the following two solutions:

In terms of the volumetric average pressure p–r:

In terms of the initial reservoir pressure pi:

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Radial Flow of Compressible Fluids (Gases) (PSS)The radial diffusivity equation was developed to study the performance

of compressible fluid under unsteady-state conditions. The equation has the following form:

For the semisteady-state flow, the rate of change of the real gas pseudopressure with respect to time is constant, i.e.,

Using the same technique identical to that described previously for liquids gives the following exact solution to the diffusivity equation:

Where Qg = gas flow rate, Mscf/day

T = temperature, °R

k = permeability, md

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Approximations for Radial Flow of Gases (PSS)Two approximations to the above solution are

widely used. These approximations are:Pressure-squared approximation

Pressure-approximation

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P2 Approximation

As outlined previously, the method provides us with compatible results to that of the exact solution approach when p < 2000.The solution has the following familiar form:

The gas properties z– and μ are evaluated at:

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P Approximation

This approximation method is applicable at p>3000 psi and has the following mathematical form:

With the gas properties evaluated at:

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Assumptions in Deriving the Flow EquationsIn deriving the flow equations, the following two

main assumptions were made:Uniform permeability throughout the drainage area

Laminar (viscous) flow

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Correction Factors for Assumptions

Before using any of the previous mathematical solutions to the flow equations, the solution must be modified to account for the possible deviation from the above two assumptions.

Introducing the following two correction factors into the solution of the flow equation can eliminate the above two assumptions:Skin factor

Turbulent flow factor

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Wellbore Damage

It is not unusual for materials such as mud filtrate, cement slurry, or clay particles to enter the formation during drilling, completion, or workover operations and reduce the permeability around the wellbore. This effect is commonly referred to as a wellbore

damage and

The region of altered permeability is called the skin zone.

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Skin Zone

Skin zone can extend from a few inches to several feet from the wellbore.

Many other wells are stimulated by acidizing or fracturing, which in effect increase the permeability near the wellbore.

Thus, the permeability near the wellbore is always different from the permeability away from the well where the formation has not been affected by drilling or stimulation.

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Near Wellbore Skin Effect

A schematic illustration of the skin zone is shown in Figure.

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Skin Effect

Those factors that cause damage to the formation can produce additional localized pressure drop during flow. This additional pressure drop is commonly referred to as

Δpskin.

On the other hand, well stimulation techniques will normally enhance the properties of the formation and increase the permeability around the wellbore, so that a decrease in pressure drop is observed.

The resulting effect of altering the permeability around the well bore is called the skin effect.

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Skin Types

Figure compares the differences in the skin zone pressure drop for three possible outcomes:Δpskin > 0, indicates an

additional pressure drop due to wellbore damage, i.e., kskin < k.

Δpskin < 0, indicates less pressure drop due to wellbore improvement, i.e., kskin > k.

Δpskin = 0, indicates no changes in the wellbore condition, i.e., kskin = k.

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Skin Zone Pressure Drop

Hawkins (1956) suggested that the permeability in the skin zone, i.e., kskin, is uniform and the pressure drop across the zone can be approximated by Darcy’s equation. Hawkins proposed the following approach:

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Skin Factor

The additional pressure drop expression is commonly expressed in the following form:

Where s is called the skin factor and defined as:

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Positive Skin Factor

Positive Skin Factor, s > 0When a damaged zone near the wellbore exists, kskin is

less than k and hence s is a positive number.

The magnitude of the skin factor increases as kskin decreases and as the depth of the damage rskin increases.

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Negative Skin Factor

Negative Skin Factor, s < 0When the permeability around the well kskin is higher

than that of the formation k, a negative skin factor exists.

This negative factor indicates an improved wellbore condition.

a negative skin factor will result in a negative value of Δpskin. This implies that a stimulated well will require less pressure

drawdown to produce at rate q than an equivalent well with uniform permeability.

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Zero Skin Factor

Zero Skin Factor, s = 0Zero skin factor occurs when no alternation in the

permeability around the wellbore is observed, i.e., kskin = k.

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Modification of the Flow Equations

The proposed modification of the previous flow equation is based on the concept that the actual total pressure drawdown will increase or decrease by an amount of Δpskin.

Assuming that (Δp) ideal represents the pressure drawdown for a drainage area with a uniform permeability k, then:

The concept can be applied to all the previous flow regimes to account for the skin zone around the wellbore.

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S in SS Regime for Radial Flow of SC Fluids

Where Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day k = permeability, md h = thickness, ft s = skin factor Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB μo = oil viscosity, cp pi = initial reservoir pressure, psi pwf = bottom hole flowing pressure, psi

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S in USS Regime for Radial flow of SC Fluids

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S in USS Regime of Radial Flow of C Fluids

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S in PSS regime for Radial Flow of SC Fluids

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S in PSS Regime for Radial Flow of C Fluids

Where:Qg = gas flow rate, Mscf/day

k = permeability, md

T = temperature, °R

(μ–g) = gas viscosity at average pressure p–, cp

z–g = gas compressibility factor at average pressure p–

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Effective (Apparent) Wellbore Radius

Matthews and Russell (1967) proposed an alternative treatment to the skin effect by introducing the effective or apparent wellbore radius rwa that accounts for the pressure drop in the skin. They define rwa by the following equation:

All of the ideal radial flow equations can be also modified for the skin by simply replacing wellbore radius rw with that of the apparent wellbore radius rwa.

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Turbulent Vs. Laminar Flow

All of the mathematical formulations presented so far are based on the assumption that laminar flow conditions are observed during flow.

During radial flow, the flow velocity increases as the wellbore is approached. This increase in the velocity might cause the

development of a turbulent flow around the wellbore.

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Turbulent (Non-Darcy) Flow

If turbulent flow does exist, it is most likely to occur with gases and causes an additional pressure drop similar to that caused by the skin effect.

The term non-Darcy flow has been adopted by the industry to describe the additional pressure drop due to the turbulent (non-Darcy) flow.

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Turbulent Flow Factor

Referring to the additional real gas pseudopressure drop due to non- Darcy flow as Δψ non-Darcy, the total (actual) drop is given by:

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Non-Darcy Flow Coefficient

Wattenburger and Ramey (1968) proposed the following expression for calculating (Δψ) non-Darcy:

Where:Qg = gas flow rate, Mscf/dayμgw = gas viscosity as evaluated at pwf, cpγg = gas specific gravityh = thickness, ftF = non-Darcy flow coefficient, psi2/cp/ (Mscf/day) 2β = turbulence parameter

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Turbulence Parameter

Jones (1987) proposed a mathematical expression for estimating the turbulence parameter β as:

Where:k = permeability, md

φ = porosity, fraction

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USS Regime in Radial flow for C Fluids (Turbulent Flow)The gas flow equation for an unsteady-state flow

can be modified to include the additional drop in the real gas potential as:

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Inertial or Turbulent Flow Factor

The term DQg is interpreted as the rate dependent skin factor. The coefficient D is called the inertial or turbulent flow

factor and given by:

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Apparent (Total) Skin Factor

The true skin factor s, which reflects the formation damage or stimulation, is usually combined with the non-Darcy rate dependent skin and labeled as the apparent or total skin factor:

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USS Regime in Radial flow for C Fluids (Turbulent Flow) (Cont.)

Where:Qg = gas flow rate, Mscf/dayt = time, hrk = permeability, mdμi = gas viscosity as evaluated at pi, cp

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PSS Regime in Radial flow for C Fluids (Turbulent Flow)

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SS Regime in Radial Flow for C Fluids (Turbulent Flow)

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1. Ahmed, T. (2010). Reservoir engineering handbook (Gulf Professional Publishing). Chapter 6

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1. SuperpositionA. Multiple Well

B. Multi Rate

C. Reservoir Boundary

2. Productivity Index (PI)

3. Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

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