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ManusmtiFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Manusmti (written also as Manusmriti or Manusmruti) (Sanskrit: ), also known asMnava-Dharmastra (Sanskrit: ), is the most important and earliest metrical work

of the Dharmastra textual tradition of Hinduism.[1] Generally known in English as the Laws ofManu, it was first translated into English in 1794 by Sir William Jones, an English Orientalist and

judge of the British Supreme Court of Judicature in Calcutta.[2] The text presents itself as adiscourse given by Manu, the progenitor of mankind to a group of seers, or rishis, who beseech

him to tell them the "law of all the social classes" (1.2). Manu became the standard point of

reference for all future Dharmastras that followed it.[3]

According to Hindu tradition, the Manusmriti records the words of Brahma.[4] By attributing the

words to supernatural forces, the text takes on an authoritative tone as a statement on Dharma, in

opposition to previous texts in the field, which were more scholarly. [5]

The text shows the obvious influence of previous Dharmasutras and Arthasastric work. In particular,

the Manu Smriti was the first to adopt the term vyavaharapadas. These eighteen Titles of Law or

Grounds for Litigation make up more than one fifth of the work and deal primarily with matters of

the king, state, and judicial procedure.[5] Though most scholars had previously considered the text

a composite put together over a long period of time, Olivelle has recently argued that the complex

and consistent structure of the text suggests a single author. However, no details of this

eponymous author's life are known, though it is likely that he belonged to a conservative Brahmin

caste somewhere in Northern India.[3]

A range of historical opinion generally dates composition of the text any time between 200 BCE

and 200 CE.[6] After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga empires, there was a period of

uncertainty that led to renewed interest in traditional social norms.[7] In Thapar's view, "The severity

of the Dharma-shastras was doubtless a commentary arising from the insecurity of the orthodox in

an age of flux."[8]

The dharmaclass of texts were noteworthy also because they did not depend on the authority of

particular Vedic schools, becoming the starting point of an independent tradition that emphasized

dharmaitself and not its Vedic origins.[9]

The original treatise consisted of one thousand chapters of law, polity, and pleasure given by

Brahm. His son, Manu, learns these lessons and proceeds to teach his own students, including

Bhrigu. Bhrigu then relays this information in the Manu Smriti, to an audience of his own pupils.[10]

This original narrative was subdivided later into twelve chapters. There is debate over the effects of

this division on the underlying, holistic manner in which the original treatise was written.[11] The

book is written in simple verse as opposed to the metrical verse of the preceding dharmasutras.

Manu also introduced a unique "transitional verse" which segued the end of one subject and the

beginning of the next.

The treatise is written with a frame story, in which a dialogue takes place between Manu's disciple,

Bhrigu, and an audience of his own students. The story begins with Manu himself detailing thecreation of the world and the society within it, structured around four social classes. Bhrigu takes

over for the remainder of the work, teaching the details of the rest of Manu's teachings. The

audience reappears twice more, asking first about how Brahmins can be subjected to death, and

second to ask the effects of action.[12]

This article contains Indic text.

Without proper rendering support,

you may see question marks or

boxes, misplaced vowels or

missing conjuncts instead of Indic

text.

Part of a series on

Hindu scriptures

Vedas

RigvedaSamaveda

YajurvedaAtharvaveda

Divisions

SamhitaBrahmana

AranyakaUpanishad

Vedangas

ShikshaChandas

VyakaranaNirukta

KalpaJyotisha

Upanishads

Rig vedic

Aitareya

Yajur vedic

BrihadaranyakaIsha

TaittiriyaKatha

Shvetashvatara

Sama vedic

ChandogyaKena

Atharva vedic

MundakaMandukya

Prashna

Puranas

Brahma puranas

BrahmaBrahmnda

Brahmavaivarta

MarkandeyaBhavishya

Vaishnava puranas

VishnuBhagavata

NaradeyaGarudaPadmaAgni

Shaiva puranasShivaLinga

SkandaVayu

Itihasa

Ramayana

Mahabharata (Bhagavad Gita)

Other scriptures

Manu Smriti

Artha ShastraAgama

TantraStraStotra

Dharmashastra

Divya Prabandha

TevaramRamcharitmanas

Yoga Vasistha

Scripture classification

rutiSmriti

Contents

1 Date and context

2 Structure

2.1 Table of Contents

2.1.1 1. Origin of the World (1.1119)

2.1.2 2. Sources of the Law (2.124)

2.1.3 3. Dharma of the Four Social Classes (2.2511.266)

3 Nature and Purpose

4 Commentaries on Manu

4.1 Bhruci

4.2 Medhtithi

5 Economic ideas

6 Views and criticism

7 Notes

8 References

Date and context

Structure

Read View source View history

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This Table of Contents comes from Olivelle's translation of the Manu Smriti and provides the

transitional verses between each subject:[13]

There are no transitional verses for this section

"I have described to you above succinctly the source of the Law, as also the origin of this whole world. Learn now the Laws of the social

classes." (2.25)

3.1 Rules Relating to Law (2.2510.131)

3.1.1 Rules of Action in Normal Times (2.269.336)

3.1.1.1 Fourfold Dharma of a Brahmin (2.266.97)

"I have explained to you above the fourfold Law of Brahmins, a Law that is holy and brings imperishable rewards after death. Listen now to the

Law of kings." (6.97)

3.1.1.2 Rules of Action for a King (7.19.325)

"I have described above in its entirety the eternal rules of action for the king. What follows, one should understand, are the rules of action for the

Vaiyas and dras in their proper order." (9.325)

3.1.1.3 Rules of Action for Vaiyas and dras (9.325-36)

"I have described above the splendid rules of action for the social classes outside times of adversity. Listen now to the rules for them in the

proper order for times of adversity." (9.336)

3.1.2 Rules of Action in Times of Adversity (10.1129)"I have described above the entire set of rules pertaining to the Law of the four classes. Next, I will explain the splendid rules pertaining to

penance." (10.131)

3.2 Rules Relating to Penance (11.1265)

"You have described this Law for the four classes in its entirety, O Sinless One! Teach us accurately the ultimate consummation of the fruits of

actions." (12.1)

The Manu Smriti is written with a focus on the "shoulds" of dharma rather than on the actuality of everyday practice in India at the time. Still, its

practical application should not be underestimated. Through intermediate forces, such as the instruction of scholars, the teachings did indeed

have indirect effects on major segments of the Indian population. It is also an invaluable point of common reference in scholarly debates. [14]

It seems likely that the book was written in a manner which was very mindful of the dangers facing the Brahmin community during a time of

much change and social upheaval. A renewed alliance between the Brahmin and Katra communities is clearly a goal reflected in the

introduction of the vyavahrapadas.[15] The emphasis which this topic receives can be seen as an offering of solidarity from the religiouscommunity to the ruling class.

There have been numerous commentaries written on the Manu Smti. Some of the major commentaries are listed below:

Bhruci is the oldest known commentator on the Manu Smti. Kane places him in the late 10th or early 11th century,[16] Olivelle places him in

the 8th century,[17] and Derrett places him between 600650 CE.[17] From these three opinions we can place Bhruci anywhere from the early7th century CE to the early 11th century CE. The surviving portion of Bhruci's commentary that we have today deals mostly with the duties of

the king and whether or not the king can be a source of dharma.

Medhtithi is one of the most famous commentators on the Manu Smti, and there is some debate regarding the location in which he was

writing, but scholars such as Buhler, Kane, and Lingat tend to believe he was from Kashmir or the area around Kashmir. The exact date that

Medhtithi was writing is also unclear, and he has been placed anywhere between 820CE and 1050CE. [18]

The economic ideas found in Manusmriti have been traced by Ratan Lal Basu.[19]

The work is considered an important source for sociological, political and historical studies. Manu Smriti is one of the most heavily criticized of

the scriptures of Hinduism, having been attacked by colonial scholars, modern liberals, Hindu reformists, Dalit advocates, feminists,[20]Marxists

and certain groups of traditional Hindus, namely Smartas[citation needed]. Much of its criticism stems from its unknown authority, as some believe

the text to be authoritative, but others do not. There is also debate over whether the text has suffered from later interpolations of verses.

In northern/southern India Vaishnavism and Shaivism were the common religious traditions, and the teachings of the Manu Smriti was not as

widely followed or well-known.

In 300 BCE, Megasthenes wrote that the people around the Mathura region worshipped "Hercules". Also Faxian did not mention anything about

Timeline

Hindu texts

vde

Table of Contents

1. Origin of the World (1.1119)

2. Sources of the Law (2.124)

3. Dharma of the Four Social Classes (2.2511.266)

Nature and Purpose

Commentaries on Manu

Bhruci

Medhtithi

Economic ideas

Views and criticism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faxianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastheneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaishnavismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feministshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_reform_movementshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratan_Lal_Basuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manusmritihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medh%C4%81tithihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C4%81rucihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyavah%C4%81ra#Vyavah.C4.81rapadashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kshatriyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahminhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Hindu_scriptures&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Hindu_scriptureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Hindu_scriptureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Hindu_texts


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rigid-ness of the varna systems. Chanakya, the author of Arthashastra, never mentioned any social laws prevailing in the society during the first

integrator and Mauryan EmperorChandragupta's reign.

The Manu Smriti was one of the first Sanskrit texts studied by the British. It was first translated into English by the founder of indology, Sir

William Jones. His version was published in 1794.[21] British administrative requirements encouraged their interest in the Dharmashastras, which

they believed to be legal codes. In fact, these were not codes of law but norms related to social obligations and ritual requirements.[22]

According to Avari:

The text was never universally followed or acclaimed by the vast majority of Indians in their history; it came to the world's attention

through a late eighteenth-century translation by Sir William Jones, who mistakenly exaggerated both its antiquity and its

importance. Today many of its ideas are popularised as the golden norm of classical Hindu law by Hindu universalists. They are,

however, anathema to modern thinkers and particularly feminists.[23]

The "Law of Manu" was cited favorably by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who deemed it "an incomparably spiritual and superior

work" to the Christian Bible. He observed that "the sun shines on the whole book" and attributed its ethical perspective to "the noble classes,the philosophers and warriors, [who] stand above the mass."[24] However, he also criticized it for its abusive treatment of the chandala, claiming

that "this organization too found it necessary to be terrible."[25]

The law in Manu Smriti also appears to be overtly positive towards the Brahmin (priest) caste in terms of concessions made in fines and

punishments. The stance of the Manu Smriti about women has also been debated. While certain verses such as (III 55, 56, 57, 59, 62) glorify

the position of women, other verses (IX 3, 17) seem to attack the position and freedom women have. The education of women is also

discussed in the text. Certain interpretations of Verse (IX 18) claim that it discourages women from reading Vedic scriptures. Verse (II 240),

however, allows women to read Vedic scriptures. Similar contradictory phrases are encountered in relation to child marriage in verses (IX 94)

and (IX 90).

In his book Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India, Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar asserted that Manu Smriti was written by a sage named

Brigu during the times of Pushyamitra of Sangha in connection with social pressures caused by the rise of Buddhism.[26] However, historian

Romila Thapar considers these claims to be exaggerations. She writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist

persecution by Pushyamitra.[27] Support of the Buddhist faith by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of

Bharhut, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Sungas"[28]

Hinduism does not evangelize.[29]

However, not all Hindus agree with the criticisms of the text, or the assertion that the Manu Smriti is not authoritative. Some prominent Hindu

figures, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati[30] and A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami,[31] hold the text to be authentic and authoritative. Other

admirers of the text have included Annie Besant, P.D. Ouspensky, Pandurang Shastri Athavale and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Friedrich

Nietzsche is noted to have said "Close the Bible and open the Manu Smriti. "It has an affirmation of life, a triumphing agreeable sensation in life

and that to draw up a lawbook such as Manu means to permit oneself to get the upper hand, to become perfection, to be ambitious of the

highest art of living"[32] Contra Nietzsche, Nipissing University philosophy professor W.A. Borody has coined the phrase "sublimation-

transmogrification logic" to describe the underlying 'state of mind' lying behind the ethical teaching of the Manu Smrtia 'state of mind' that

would have found Nietzsche's concept of the Dionysian bermensch abhorrent, and a 'state of mind' or 'voice' that has always been radically

contested within India's various philosophical and religious traditions. [33]

1. ^ See Flood 1996: 56 and Olivelle 2005.

2. ^ Jones's translation is available online as The Institutes of Hindu Law: Or, The Ordinances of Manu , Calcutta: Sewell & Debrett, 1796.3. ^ abOlivelle, "Literary History", p. 16.

4. ^ Olivelle(2004), p. xx.

5. ^ abOlivelle, Literary History, p. 17.

6. ^ For composition between 200 BCE and 200 CE see: Avari, p. 142. For dating of composition "between the second century BCE and third century

CE" see: Flood (1996), p. 56. For dating of Manu Smriti in "final form" to the 2nd century CE, see: Keay, p. 103. For dating as completed some time

between 200 BCE and 100 CE see: Hopkins, p. 74. For probable origination during the second or 3rd centuries AD, see: Kulke and Rothermund,

p. 85. For the text as preserved dated to around the 1st century BCE. see: Encyclopdia Britannica Concise , retrieved 2007-06-24

7. ^ For significance of post-empire social uncertainty as a factor in the development of the Code of Manas, see: Kulke and Rothermund, p. 85.

8. ^ Thapar (2002), p. 279.

9. ^ For the dharmashastras, including Manu Smriti, as the starting point for an independent tradition not dependent on Vedic origins, see: Hopkins,

p. 74.

10. ^ Olivelle(2004), pp. xxixxii.

11. ^ Olivelle(2004), pp. xxvii.

12. ^ Olivelle(2004), p. xxv.

13. ^ Olivelle(2004), pp. xxviiixxix.

14. ^ Olivelle(2004), p. xxli.

15. ^ Olivelle, Literary History, p. 19.

16. ^ Kane, P. V., History of Dharma stra, (Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1975), Volume I, Part I, 566.

17. ^ abOlivelle, Patrick, "Dharma stra: A Literary History", 29.18. ^ Kane, P. V., History of Dharma stra, (Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1975), Volume I, Part II, 583.

19. ^ Ratan Lal Basu & Rajkumar Sen, Ancient Indian Economic Thought, Relevance for Today, Rawat Publications, New Delhi (2008). ISBN 81-316-

0125-0

20. ^ For objections to the work by feminists, see: Avari, pp. 142143.

21. ^ For Manu Smriti as one of the first Sanskrit texts noted by the British and translation by Sir William Jones in 1794, see: Flood (1996), p. 56.

22. ^ For British interest in Dharmashastras due to administrative needs, and their misinterpretation of them as legal codes rather than as social and

ritual texts, see: Thapar (2002), pp. 23.

23. ^ Avari, Burjor. India, the ancient past: a history of the Indian subcontinent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200. New York: Routledge, 2007. p. 142.

24. ^ Friedrich Nietzche, The Antichrist(1888), 5657.

25. ^ Friedrich Nietzche, Twilight of the Idols(1888).26. ^Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India

27. ^ Romila Thapar, Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, Oxford University Press (1960) p. 200.

28. ^John Marshall, "An Historical and Artistic Description of Sanchi", from A Guide to Sanchi, citing p. 11. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government

Printing (1918). Pp. 729 on line, Project South Asia.

29. ^ K. V. Rao, Socialism, Secularism, and Democracy in India, pp. 2830. Nagendra K. Singh, Enforcement of Human Rights in Peace and War and

Notes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauryan_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandragupta_Mauryahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandragupta_Mauryahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jones_(philologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jones_(philologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jones_(philologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universalism#Hinduismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universalism#Hinduismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universalism#Hinduismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nagendra_K._Singh&action=edit&redlink=1http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/docs/archaeology/primarydocs/Sanchi/HistArt.htmhttp://www.ambedkar.org/ambcd/19A.Revolution%20and%20Counter%20Rev.in%20Ancient%20India%20PART%20I.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8131601250http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371223/Manu-smrtihttp://books.google.com/books?id=4caNTgBa6oEC&dq=william+jones+manu&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=9POvEvMtnM&sig=wae9WVaVrRNClSPrabH0D-eaG58&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPP1,M1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzschehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandurang_Shastri_Athavalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.D._Ouspenskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Besanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.C._Bhaktivedanta_Swamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Dayananda_Saraswatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharhuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romila_Thaparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusyamitra_Sungahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briguhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._R._Ambedkarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzschehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universalism#Hinduismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jones_(philologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Rajhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandragupta_Mauryahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauryan_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthashastrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanakyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)


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the Future of Humanity, p. 35. Martinus Nijhoff (1986) ISBN 9024733022

30. ^ The Light of Truth, Chapter 4

31. ^ Bhagavad Gita As It Is, Chapter 16 Text 7 "...Even up to today, those who are Hindu follow the Manu-samhita..."

32. ^ Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, vol. 1.

33. ^W.A.Borody, "The Manu Smrti and Neo-Secularism", International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol I, No. 9 (Special Issue, July,

2011) [1]

Translation by G. Bhler (1886). Sacred Books of the East: The Laws of Manus (Vol. XXV). Oxford. Available online as The Laws of Manu

Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-43878-0.

Hopkins, Thomas J. (1971). The Hindu Religious Tradition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN0-8021-3797-0.

Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1986). A History of India. New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN0-88029-577-5.Olivelle, Patrick (2005). Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mnava-Dharmastra. Oxford: Oxford University

Press. ISBN0-195-17146-2.

Olivelle, Patrick (2004). The Law Code of Manu . New York: OUP. ISBN0192802712.

Olivelle, Patrick (to be published). "Dharmasastra: A Literary History". In Lubin, Timothy; Krishnan, Jayanth; and Davis, Jr., Donald R.. Law

and Hinduism: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.

Thapar, Romila (2002). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-24225-4.

"The Laws of Manu". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.

Categories:

References

Hindu texts Hindu law Religious law Indian literature

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Hindu_textshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Hindu_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Hindu_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Hindu_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Religious_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Indian_literaturehttp://www.wikimediafoundation.org/http://www.mediawiki.org/http://wikimediafoundation.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manusm%E1%B9%9Bti&useformat=mobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Abouthttp://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_ushttp://www.wikimediafoundation.org/http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Terms_of_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_Licensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Indian_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Religious_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Hindu_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Hindu_textshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Categorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopediahttp://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/The_Laws_of_Manuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-24225-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romila_Thaparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0192802712http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=RGPSEuNsPLEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-195-17146-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88029-577-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8021-3797-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43878-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu.htmhttp://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol._1_No._9_Special_Issue_July_2011/21.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9024733022

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