Purpose / Objective(s): Hypothesis (ese)napavalley.edu/people/briddell/Documents/BIO 105/BIOL...

Biology 105 – Human Biology

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL

of 24 BIOL 105 GENE FREQUENCY Great Example

Name & ID Team Name:

Lab Assignment #: Lab #

Lab Title: Gene Frequency Date: 2014-05-09

Purpose / Objective(s):

In a lab setting, perform a gene frequency test and analysis utilizing different colored beads for different genetic types for 6 generations

Hypothesis (ese):

Theoretically, with random testing, and removal of specific genes (DNA code) we will be able to see what beads/genes are exterminated and which will survive and which will thrive in a new setting several generations later

Gene testing will show which alleles are strong and will survive. An allele is an alternate form of a gene (one member of a pair) that’s located on a chromosome. These DNA codings determine distinct traits that can be passed on from parent to offspring. This was discovered by Gregor Mendel, a monk famous for his pea experiments, and is called Mendel’s law of segregation. (http://biology.about.com/od/geneticsglossary/g/alleles.htm )

One gene = 1 pair, meaning 1 from Mom and 1 from Dad, so we will test genetic dominant and recessive genes in our gene pool. Organisms have two alleles for each trait. When the alleles of a pair are heterozygous, one is dominant and one is recessive. The dominant allele is expressed and excessive allele is masked. In our example, we will use RR to be homozygous dominant, Rw to be heterozygous, and ww to be homozygous recessive. (http://biology.about.com/od/geneticsglossary/g/alleles.htm )

http://biology.about.com/od/geneticsglossary/g/alleles.htm



Session:

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Theoretically, we will probably see recessive traits pop up in our gene pool generations. Recessive traits, like short pea plants in Mendel’s peas, are only expressed when two recessive alleles meet up. This is also an example how organisms of the same phenotype can have different genotypes. (http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9964-introduction-genetics.html#.U3FJ3F7ug1c )

Also, we should see genetic adaption also show up. A species may become adapted to its environment in response to environmental pressures. A trait may be favored due to enhanced survival or reproduction when faced with a particular aspect of the environment. When an environment changes, or when individuals move to a new environment, natural selection may result in adaption to the new conditions. Sometimes, this results in a new species.)

Materials / Subjects / Specimens: 1. Colored beads were provided by the teacher to use as genes

2. Plastic cups were provided for shaking the beads and counting

3. Humans/students were used to count the beads and enter the data

Genotype Beads Symbol Count

Homozygous Dominant Red RR 50

Heterozygous Red & White Rw 50

Homozygous Recessive White ww 50

Gene Frequency Methods / Tools / Instrumentation / Procedures:

Case#1: -33% 1. First, our team counted out 50 red beads and 50 white beads from the lab’s bag o’beads. This was quite difficult for our team, as the @#$% beads kept falling on the floor.

2. We mixed 50 red beads and 50 white beads into a cup.

3. We distributed randomly picked pairs on the table and counted them. Well, most of them, some of them fell on the floor. Again.

4. We determined genotype and phenotype and recorded data. Well, we had to count and re-count a few times to make sure they all added up correctly. And add back in the ones that

fell on the floor.

GENE FREQUENCY:

the frequency of occurrence or proportions

of different alleles of a particular gene in a

given population (also called allele

frequency)

G

Genotype: the entire set

of genes in an organism;

a set of alleles that

determines the expression

of a particular

characteristic or trait

http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9964-introduction-genetics.html#.U3FJ3F7ug1c



Session:

Section:

Class Location:


Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


5. We then took out beads each generation, and elected to remove white beads, so -33% homologous white pairs were removed from the population, so -3 for G2, -3 for G3, -3 for G4, -1 for G5, and -2 for G6.

6. We calculated the frequency of each genotype and allele, and recorded the frequencies on our data table.

Case #2:-100% 7. For the next table, we counted out exactly 50 red and 50 white beads. And recounted when we knocked over the little plastic cups. Twice. And put the beads into their cups.

8. We mixed up the 50 red and 50 white beads in a cup.

9. We distributed randomly picked pairs on the table and counted them. Nancy was fabulous at counting. Christina fired herself for counting incorrectly. Cathy busily stayed out of the counting by recording the time-consuming data.

10. We determined genotype and phenotype and recorded our data.

11. We then took out beads for each generation, and elected to remove white beads, so -100% homologous white pairs were removed from the population, so -12 for G2, -3 for G3, -3 for G4, -3 for G5, and -1 for G6.

12. We calculated the frequency of each genotype and allele, and recorded the frequencies on our data table.

Case #3: 13. For the third table, we counted out 40 white beads, 40 red beads and 20 black beads.

14. We mixed together the 40 white beads, 40 red beads, and 20 black beads in a cup.

15. We distributed randomly picked pairs on the table and counted them.

16. Sets of pairs included with new rules:

a. RR Dominant

b. RW Neutral, all live

c. RB super dominant, add 5 black and 5 red

d. ww Homozygous recessive: rule, all white goes away

e. Bw Heterozygous

f. BB Homozygous Mutation, so add 4 more black beads

17. We then took out beads and added beads for each generation up until the 6th generation and recorded the data.

Phenotype: the

expression of a

particular trait, like

skin color, height,

behavior, according

to the individual’s

genetic makeup and

environment

Mutation: a permanent,

heritable change in the

nucleotide sequence in a gene or

chromosome; the process in

which such a change occurs in a

gene or chromosome


Session:

Section:

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


CASE / Scenario

Name Selection Pressure

0 BASE Case 0 Base Test

1 -33% Recessive Case 1 with forced 33% reduction in homozygous recessive (white beads)

2 - 100% Recessive Case 2 with forced 100% reduction in homozygous recessive (white beads)

3 +100% Recessive Case 3 with forced increase 100%


Session:

Section:

Class Location:


Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Results: Tables

Table #1 summarizes: Genotypes and Generations 1-6 Data in Percentages

Table #2 summarizes: Base Case Table

Table #3 summarizes: -33% Table

Table #4 summarizes: : -100% Table

Table #5 summarizes: +100% M Table

Results: Graphs

Figure #1 shows: Graph of Base Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

Figure #2 shows: Graph of Base 6 Generations and Projections Through 12th

Generation

Figure #3 shows: Graph of -33% Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

Figure #4 shows: Graph of -33% Generations & Projections Through 12th Generation

Figure #5 shows: Graph of -100% Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

Figure #6 shows: Graph of -100% Generations & Projections Through 12th Generation

Figure #7 shows: Graph of +100%M Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

Figure #8 shows: Graph of +100%M 6 Generations & Projections Through 12th Generation

Figure #9 shows: Graph of Homozygous Dominant RR over 6 Generations with 3 Cases

Figure #10 shows: Graph of 6 Generations of Heterozygous Rw Over 3 Cases

Figure #11 shows: Graph of Recessive ww Over 6 Generations with 3 Cases


Session:

Section:

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Analysis: Tables

Figure #1 shows genotypes and generations 1-6 data in percentages. It was interesting to note that in the base table, RR and Rw started out at 24 and 54 but ended up the same after 6 generations at 45. For the -100% table, the ww was 0 by the 6th generation, as we were removing white pairs as per the rules. For the +100% Mutant table, ww was down to zero by the 4th generation, and BB went from 4% in G1 to 34%.

Figure #2 shows the base case in table format. Interestingly, Rw stayed constant for all 6 generations at 25. RR just flipped back and forth between 12 & 13. Like Mendel’s peas, showing up in several generations, the pea inherits traits from each parent, and can show up as a yellow or green pea in future generations. Each of the F1 generation plants (see picture) inherited a Y allele from one parent and a G allele from another. When the F1 plants breed, each has an equal chance of passing on either Y or G alleles to each offspring http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_1.htm

Figure #3 shows the -33% table. RR went from 12 t0 16, back to 12, and then ended up at 17. For example, a pea plant's inheritance of the ability to produce purple flowers instead of white ones does not make it more likely that it will also inherit the ability to produce yellow pea seeds in contrast to green ones. Likewise, the Principle of Independent Assortment explains why the human inheritance of a particular eye color does not increase or decrease the likelihood of having 6 fingers on each hand. Today, we know this is due to the fact that the genes for independently assorted traits are located on different chromosomes. http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_1.htm

Figure #4 shows the -100% table. RR started at 12 and went up to 23. ww started at 12 and ended up at 1 by G6.

Figure #5 shows the +100% table. ww started at 8 and ended up at zero by G4. BB started at 2 and ended up at 23 by G6. According to the Principle of Segregation, for any particular trait, the pair of alleles of each parent separate and only one allele passes from each parent on to an offspring. Which allele in a parent's pair of alleles is inherited is a matter of chance. We now know that this segregation of alleles occurs during the process of sex cell formation (i.e., meiosis) http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_1.htm

Analysis: Graphs

Figure #1 shows a graph of base generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww. Red stays constant here on the graph at 50% and Rw and ww just keep flipping back and forth with each other.

Segregation of alleles in the production of sex

cells

http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_1.htm




Session:

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #2 shows a graph of base 6 generations and projections through 12th generation. Red stays at a constant 50% projection through 12 generations, and ww is at 13 and Rw is at 12 for 12 projected generations.

Figure #3 shows a graph of -33% generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww. Rw declines from 27 to 17 over 6 generations. RR varies from 12 to 17 over 6 generations. ww starts at 11 and drops down to 6.

Figure #4 shows a graph of -33% generations & projections through 12th generation. RR starts at about 25% and then projects to over 70% by the 12th generation. Rw starts about 55% and ends at about 40% over 12 generations. ww starts about 20& and ends up at a negative 12% over 12 generations.

Figure #5 shows a graph of -100% generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww. RR starts about at about 12 and ends up about 23 for the 6th generation. Rw starts about 26 and ends up about 5 for the 6th generation. ww starts about 12 and ends up at 0 for the 6th generation.

Figure #6 shows a graph of -100% generations & projections through 12th generation. RR starts about 25% and goes off the chart over 100%. Rw starts at about 47% and goes negative by 8th generation and ends up about negative 35% by 12th generation. Ww starts about 25% and ends up negative by 7th generation and ends up negative 20% by the 12th generation. Basically, this means that RR is the dominant gene, and stays in the gene pool, whereas Tw and ww are eliminated from the gene pool, similar to a moth’s white color in the 1800’s Industrial Revolution in England, and the black moth becoming the dominant species to survive and regenerate.

Figure #7 shows a graph of +100%M (Mutation) generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww. RB, wB, BB. A mutation is a permanent, heritable change in the nucleotide sequence in a gene or chromosome; the process in which such a change occurs in a gene or chromosome. Rw started about 18 and went down to 4. RR started about 6 and ended up about 12. ww started about 8 and ended up at 0 (eliminated from gene pool). RB started about 10 and ended about 70, the highest of the group, so was the strongest gene in this test. wB started about and ended up about 7 and ended up about 6, so about the same, just a slight dip down over 6 generations. BB started about 2 and ended up about 48, the second highest gene, so many offspring will have this trait.

Figure #8 shows a graph of +100%M 6 generations & projections through 12th generation. This takes the data from Figure 7 and then projects it over 12 generations. In this projection, there are 6 different genes, and only two survive past 12 generations, the RB and the BB, and the rest end up dying out. So, this could be like giraffes with short necks and short legs dying out, and giraffes with long necks and long spindly legs surviving, thriving be eating leaves off tall trees, and reproducing, and their offspring having the same traits.

Figure #9 shows a graph of homozygous dominant RR over 6 generations with 3 cases. Green shows the -100% negative going from about 12 to almost doubling at about 23, so a very strong gene in the pool. The blue line or base RR starts about 13 and ends up about 12. Still alive, but not increasing at a high rate. The red line, or -33% negative, starts at about 16, dips down to about 12, and ends back up about 17. Is this the one that would be wiped out possibly in an earthquake or global explosion like the theory on the dinosaurs?


Session:

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #10 shows a graph of homozygous dominant RR over 6 generations with 3 cases. All three start out the same, about 50%, and drop, like say from a bubonic plague, and either go back up or down. The blue line Rw base starts about 50%, drops to about 28%, goes up and down slightly, and ends up about 29%. This one never gets back to the pre-emergency natural disaster, so it’s possible this gene can fade out after other possible disasters, diseases, etc. The red line ww starts about 50%, drops to about 28%, and bounces up and down, ending up at about 45% in an upswing. This one could possible go back to 50% or higher, or drop again with another disaster. Now, the green line, ww, starts at 50%, drops slightly to about 32, and then just keeps going up, past the original, to about 82%. This one seemed to adapt well after the natural disaster and thrive, so they had some great gene that did well in nature, like being exposed to the bubonic plague added to their immunity and they became immune to smallpox, chickenpox, cancer, SARS and MERS altogether.

Figure #11 shows a graph of recessive ww Over 6 generations with 3 cases. None of these seem super strong and no one is increasing exponentially, as all three are recessive. The ww base starts about 24%, and goes up and down a bit, and ends about 26%. The red line ww starts about 22%, drops to about 7%, goes up to 15%, then back down to about 10%. So this gene could theoretically wipe itself out in another 6 generations. The green line ww starts about 23%, drops to about 8%, slightly goes up to 9%, then drops to 0 by the 6th generation. That one is definitely out of the gene pool.


Session:

Section:

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


ATTACHMENTS

Summary / Formal / Conclusive Results / Tables, Charts, Illustrations

Table #1: Shows Genotypes and Generations 1-6 Data in Percentages

Generation

CASE Genotype 1 2 3 4 5 6

B

AS

E RR 24% 34% 36% 29% 43% 45%

Rw 54% 43% 43% 63% 43% 45%

ww 22% 23% 21% 8% 15% 11%

T 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

-33%

wh

ite

RR 24% 34% 36% 29% 43% 45%

Rw 54% 43% 43% 63% 43% 45%

ww 22% 23% 21% 7% 15% 11%

T 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

-100%

wh

ite

RR 24% 42% 54% 69% 79% 82%

Rw 52% 50% 37% 22% 17% 18%

ww 24% 8% 9% 9% 3% 0%

T 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%


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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


100%

M

uta

nt

RR 12% 27% 34% 27% 15% 9%

Rw 36% 11% 14% 6% 3% 3%

ww 16% 11% 6% 0% 0% 0%

RB 20% 31% 63% 38% 51% 51%

wB 12% 16% 9% 6% 6% 3%

BB 4% 4% 14% 22% 26% 34%

T 100% 100% 140% 100% 100% 100%

Table #2: Base Case Table

Base case Generation

Gen 1 Gen 2 Gen 3 Gen 4 Gen 5 Gen 6

RR 13 12 13 12 13 12

Rw 25 25 25 25 25 25

ww 12 13 12 13 12 13

T 50 50 50 50 50 50

Table #3: -33% Table

-33% white


RR 12 16 16 12 17 17

Rw 27 20 19 26 17 17

ww 11 11 9 3 6 4

T 50 47 44 41 40 38


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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Table #4 : -100% Table

-100% white


RR 12 16 19 22 23 23

Rw 26 19 13 7 5 5

ww 12 3 3 3 1 0

T 50 38 35 32 29 28

Table #5: +100% M Table

+100% Mutant


RR 6 12 12 17 13 12

Rw 18 5 5 4 3 4

ww 8 5 2 0 0 0

RB 10 14 22 24 45 69

wB 6 7 3 4 5 4

BB 2 2 5 14 23 46

T 50 45 49 63 89 135


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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #1: Graph of Base Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

10

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Generation

T

o

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a

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Base Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

RR

Rw

ww


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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #2: Graph of Base 6 Generations and Projections Through 12th Generation

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Gen 1 Gen 2 Gen 3 Gen 4 Gen 5 Gen 6 Gen 7 Gen 8 Gen 9 Gen10

Gen11

Gen12

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Generations 1-12

Base 6 Generations and Projections Through 12th Generation

RR Base

Rw Base

ww Base

Linear (RR Base)

Linear (Rw Base)

Linear (ww Base)


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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #3: Graph of -33% Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

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-33% Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

RR

Rw

ww


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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #4: Graph of -33% Generations & Projections Through 12th Generation

-20.0%

-10.0%

0.0%

10.0%

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30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

Gen1

Gen2

Gen3

Gen4

Gen5

Gen6

Gen7

Gen8

Gen9

Gen10

Gen11

Gen12

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Generations

-33% 6 Generations and Projections Through 12th Generation

RR-33%ww

Rw-335 ww

ww-33% ww

Linear (RR-33%ww)

Linear (Rw-335 ww)

Linear (ww-33% ww)


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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #5: Graph of -100% Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

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-100% Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

RR

Rw

ww


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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #6: Graph of -100% Generations & Projections Through 12th Generation

-75.0%

-55.0%

-35.0%

-15.0%

5.0%

25.0%

45.0%

65.0%

85.0%

Gen 1 Gen 2 Gen 3 Gen 4 Gen 5 Gen 6 Gen 7 Gen 8 Gen 9 Gen 10 Gen 11 Gen 12

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Generations

100% 6 Generations and Projections Through 12th Generation

RR-100% ww

Rw- 100% ww

ww-1005 ww

Linear (RR-100% ww)

Linear (Rw- 100% ww)

Linear (ww-1005 ww)


Session:

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #7: Graph of +100%M Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

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+100%M Generations 1-6 for RR, Rw, ww

Red Red RR

Red white Rw

white white ww

Red Black RB

white Black wB

Black Black BB

Generations


Session:

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #8: Graph of +100%M 6 Generations & Projections Through 12th Generation

-60.0%

-40.0%

-20.0%

0.0%

20.0%

40.0%

60.0%

80.0%

100.0%

120.0%

Gen 1 Gen 2 Gen 3 Gen 4 Gen 5 Gen 6 Gen 7 Gen 8 Gen 9 Gen 10 Gen 11 Gen 12

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Generations

+100%M 6 Generations and Projections Through 12th Generation

RR

Rw

ww

RB

wB

BB

Linear (RR)

Linear (Rw)

Linear (ww)

Linear (RB)

Linear (wB)

Linear (BB)


Session:

Section:

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #9: Graph of Homozygous Dominant RR over 6 Generations with 3 Cases

10

12

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24


N

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b

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s

Generations

Homozygous Dominant RR over 6 Generations with 3 Cases

Base RR

33% Negative RR

100% Negative RR


Session:

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #10: Graph of 6 Generations of Heterozygous Rw Over 3 Cases

0%

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90%


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Generations

6 Generations of Heterozygous Rw Over 3 Cases

Rw Base

Rw-33% ww

Rw- 100% ww


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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Figure #11: Graph of Recessive ww Over 6 Generations with 3 Cases


Session:

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Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


References

Observations/Conclusions / Further Considerations:

1. There are some constraints and possibilities that exist, in nature, for what genes will adapt and survive to win the “Darwin award” and fail to thrive and reproduce. Species have offspring, which tend to grow in number exponentially. There are forces of nature that restrict life, such as a limited number of resources for food, shelter, different predators, diseases, natural disasters like earthquakes, tornadoes and flash floods knocking off a substantial number of a species. Some individuals will have slightly different adaptions, like tall, thin runners, who, during a monsoon, can outrun others of their species and run to the top of a hill, and the intelligence to know that’s what they must due to survive. These survivors of the species will have offspring, and will pass on these genetic traits, like running fast and intelligence, onto their children, and grandchildren, and so on. This is an example of Natural Selection in Darwinism. (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/darwinism/ )

2. When Darwin traveled on the The Beagle in the 1830’s, and went to different islands near South America, he noticed some slight differences from one island to the next in the birds. He realized that the various species live in different kinds of environments. He noticed that there was one type of bird on the mainland, but on the islands, there were 4 different types of the same bird, but with different beak sizes. He noticed that the different beak sizes on each island correlated with different food consumed by the birds. He observed that the finches adapted to each island and survived, and thrived, and had offspring with these traits. They were better adapted to find and eat a specific type of food, so were better fed, and in better shape to mate, and continue the species. (http://anthro.palomar.edu/evolve/evolve_2.htm )

3. Recessive traits pop up in our gene pool generations. Recessive traits, like short pea plants in Mendel’s peas, are only expressed when two recessive alleles meet up. This is also an example how organisms of the same phenotype can have different genotypes. With the seven pea traits he discovered, one appeared dominant over the other. However, the recessive trait, like the color green pea, still exists, and is passed onto the next generation. (http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_1.htm )

4. According to the Principle of Segregation, for any particular trait, the pair of alleles of each parent separate and only one allele passes from each parent on to an offspring. Which allele in a parent's pair of alleles is inherited is a matter of chance. We now know that this segregation of alleles occurs during the process of sex cell formation (i.e., meiosis) http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_1.htm

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/darwinism/

http://anthro.palomar.edu/evolve/evolve_2.htm




Session:

Section:

Class Location:


Spring 2014

55244 4 Units

UVC1 St. Helena

F 9:00 AM – 3:50 PM

RIDDELL


Raw Data / Original Measurements:

1. Mendel’s Law http://biology.about.com/od/geneticsglossary/g/alleles.htm

2. Darwin Theory of Evolution http://www.livescience.com/474-controversy-evolution-works.html

3. Hardy-Weinberg Equation http://evolution.about.com/od/evidence/a/What-Is-The-Hardy-Weinberg-Principle.htm

4. Recessive genes http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9964-introduction-genetics.html#.U3FJ3F7ug1c

5. Gene frequency definition http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gene+frequency

6. Mendel’s peas http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_1.htm

Drawings / Diagrams / Illustrations: 1. Mendel’s Experiments http://www.mhhe.com/cgi-

bin/netquiz_get.pl?qfooter=/usr/web/home/mhhe/biosci/genbio/maderbiology7/student/olc/art_quizzes/0190fq.htm&afooter=/usr/web/home/mhhe/biosci/genbio/maderbiology7/student/olc/art_quizzes/0190fa.htm&test=/usr/web/home/mhhe/biosci/genbio/maderbiology7/student/olc/art_quizzes/0190q.txt&answers=/usr/web/home/mhhe/biosci/genbio/maderbiology7/student/olc/art_quizzes/0190a.txt

2. Charles Darwin http://www.storyline-journeys.co.uk/charles-darwin.htm

3. Hardy Weinberg http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-ii-the-equation.html#lesson

4. Evolution https://smithlhhsb122.wikispaces.com/Aleks+O

5. Genotype definition http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Genotype

6. Phenotype definition http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Phenotype

7. Mutation definition http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mutation


http://www.livescience.com/474-controversy-evolution-works.html

http://evolution.about.com/od/evidence/a/What-Is-The-Hardy-Weinberg-Principle.htm


http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gene+frequency


http://www.mhhe.com/cgi-bin/netquiz_get.pl?qfooter=/usr/web/home/mhhe/biosci/genbio/maderbiology7/student/olc/art_quizzes/0190fq.htm&afooter=/usr/web/home/mhhe/biosci/genbio/maderbiology7/student/olc/art_quizzes/0190fa.htm&test=/usr/web/home/mhhe/biosci/genbio/maderbiology7/student/olc/art_quizzes/0190q.txt&answers=/usr/web/home/mhhe/biosci/genbio/maderbiology7/student/olc/art_quizzes/0190a.txt




http://www.storyline-journeys.co.uk/charles-darwin.htm

http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/hardy-weinberg-equilibrium-ii-the-equation.html#lesson

https://smithlhhsb122.wikispaces.com/Aleks+O

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Genotype

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Phenotype

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mutation

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