Pull Factors in...

NameWednesday, February 19

Pull Factors in ImmigrationBy Patti Hutchison

"Give me your tired, your poor, yourhuddled masses yearning to breathe free, thewretched refuse of your teeming shore. Sendthese, the homeless, tempest-tossed, to me: Ilift my lamp beside the golden door!"-EmmaLazarus.

This quote is written on the base of theStatue of Liberty. It welcomes immigrants tothe "land of opportunity," the United States.For many years, freedom in the U.S. pulledimmigrants to this country.

Pull factors help emigrants decide where to move to. These areconditions in another country that attract people from other nations.They give people the idea that life would be better somewhere else.

The first settlers came here from Europe for religious freedom.Other freedoms later granted by the Constitution attracted manyimmigrants. These include freedom of speech, freedom to vote, anda free education. Many people in other countries did not have theserights. They were pull factors for immigrating to the U.S.

The westward expansion of the 1800's was also a pull factor formany immigrants. Acres of cheap land drew many to the Westernterritories. Many people were not allowed to own land in theirnative countries.

As the U.S. became a more industrial nation, many more pullfactors arose. The great need for workers attracted many peoplefrom Italy, Germany, Ireland, and other European countries. Peoplewho were unable to find jobs in these overcrowded nationsimmigrated to America. They were attracted by the idea that if youworked hard you could make a lot of money.

The idea of social equality was also a pull factor for immigrantsto the U.S. Many heard that their hard work would pay off in

America. They would only be limited by their own ambition. Therewere no restrictions on how much money anyone could make.Although some groups had to work for lower wages than others, theywere still better off than they had been in their homelands.

Most immigrants came to America because of a combination ofpush and pull factors. At first, mostly men came to escape harshconditions in their own countries. They were pulled to the U.S.because of the economic opportunities there. They left their familiesbehind. Their plan was to stay only long enough to make enoughmoney to support their families. These men were called circularimmigrants. However, many became permanent citizens.

Later, another pull factor developed. Families left behind in thehomelands wanted badly to be with their husbands and fathers inAmerica. This important pull factor caused many women andchildren to immigrate in order to reunite their families.

The tolerance, equality, and freedom offered by the U.S. attractedpeople to America. These pull factors continue to attract immigrantsto the U.S. even today.

Pull Factors in Immigration

Questions

1. What do pull factors do?

2. Name two freedoms enjoyed in the U.S. that attractimmigrants.


3. What attracted immigrants to the western U.S. during the1800's?

A. acres of cheap landB. factory jobsC. freedom of speech

4. How did the industrialization of the U.S. attract immigrants?

A. There were more jobs than in their homelands.B. It helped reunite families.C. There was cheap land for sale.

5. Immigrants who intend to stay only a short time and thenreturn to their homelands are called:

A. circular immigrantsB. factory workersC. social equals

What pull factor do you think attracted the most immigrants? Writea paragraph explaining your answer.


Kim Il-sungBy Vickie Chao

Caption: The picture showsKim Jong Il, 3 years old, withfather, Kim Il-sung, and mother,Kim Jong Suk.

Democratic People'sRepublic of Korea is betterknown as North Korea. It is oneof the world's poorest countries.It is also one of the leastunderstood and most isolatedcountries. There is nothingabout it that is remotelydemocratic. Despite its name, it is an absolute totalitarian state.

The country was founded on September 9, 1948. North Korea isfound on the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. For more thansix decades, it has never given up trying to take over its southernneighbor. The Republic of Korea, or South Korea, fought a war inthe early 1950s to remain free. The two countries are divided by thefamous 38th parallel north. In many ways, they are the opposites oftwo extremes. South Korea is prosperous. North Korea is poor.South Korea is industrialized and technologically advanced. NorthKorea does not even have a stable supply of electricity. People inSouth Korea can express their opinions without fear of retribution.People in North Korea are better off keeping their thoughts tothemselves.

To understand what kind of country North Korea really is, wemust first learn about one man -- Kim Il-sung.

Kim Il-sung was born on April 15, 1912, near Pyongyang. Whenhe was about eight years old, his parents moved the family toManchuria (the northeastern region of China). They lived there forseveral years. In China, Kim Il-sung went to a local school andlearned to speak Chinese. In 1929, he was briefly jailed for being amember of a student political group. After he was released, he

dropped out of school and joined the Northeast Anti-Japanese UnitedArmy. For the next few years, he rose through the ranks quickly.Everybody in the group recognized his potential. By the mid-1930s,he decided to change his name from Kim Song-Ju to Kim Il-sung.The new name was supposedly in memory of his uncle who was amember of the so-called March First Movement (or the SamilMovement, an uprising against the Japanese occupation of Korea in1919).

The Second Sino-Japanese War broke out on July 7, 1937. TheJapanese began to crack down on guerrillas with a heavy hand.Knowing that his life was in serious danger, Kim Il-sung and hisfollowers fled from China to seek safety in Russia. (Back then,Russia was called the Soviet Union.) While there, his second wifegave birth to a son named Kim Jong-Il. Strangely, thefather-and-son duo would later deny that fact. The official history ofNorth Korea claims that Kim Jong-Il was born in a log cabin on theslopes of North Korea's highest and most sacred mountain,Paektu-san. The story goes on to say that there was a doublerainbow and a bright star in the sky to mark the auspicious moment.Even the actual year of Kim Jong-Il's birth is now in question. Therecord in Russia shows that it was in February 1941. But the NorthKorean government insists that it was the following year.

Kim Il-sung and his family stayed in Russia until 1945. After theU.S. dropped two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japansurrendered on August 14, 1945. That ended both the SecondSino-Japanese War and World War II. With that surrender, theKoreans finally regained their independence. It was then that KimIl-sung returned to his homeland as a major in the Soviet Army. Oneyear later, he helped to establish the Korean Workers' Party (KWP).He became its leader and remained leader until the day he died.

Even after Japan was defeated, the trouble in the KoreanPeninsula was far from over. The northern half was backed by theSoviet Union. The southern half was backed by the United Nationsand the U.S. The 38th parallel north would later become the borderbetween two countries. Both declared independence in 1948. KimIl-sung was the prime minister of North Korea from the very firstday. One of his ambitions was to take over South Korea. Hedreamed of uniting the whole peninsula under one regime. Helaunched the Korean War on June 25, 1950. The war seemed tofavor Kim Il-sung at first. His forces captured Seoul (the capital ofSouth Korea) on June 28. But the victory turned out to beshort-lived. Soldiers from the U.S. and United Nations began topour in to help South Korea. The North Korean army retreated and


gave up Seoul in late September. Less than a month later,Pyongyang (the capital of North Korea) fell, forcing Kim Il-sung torun. He went to China and persuaded the Chinese government tohelp him. For the next three years, the war dragged on. At last, acease-fire was reached on July 27, 1953. It set the 38th parallel northonce again to be the border between North Korea and South Korea.Along the line, there is now the so-called Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).The DMZ is about 155 miles long and 2.5 miles wide. Troops fromeither side must be stationed outside of it. Right down the center ofthe DMZ is the Military Demarcation Line (MDL). Soldiers fromone side may patrol within their own DMZ, but they can never crossover the MDL.

The Korean War ended with a stalemate. Kim Il-sung began hiseconomic reforms in the north. He launched a five-year plan tomake all the industries state-owned and all the farms collectivized.He introduced the concept of Juche in a speech delivered onDecember 28, 1955. He later explained the ideal and outlined thethree principles. In short, Juche means to be self-reliant in politics,in the economy, and in national defense. When the North Koreangovernment issued its new constitution in 1972, it made Juche thecountry's official ideology. The same year, Kim Il-sung became thepresident. A cult centering on him and his son was in full swing.Like the mythic tale of Kim Jong-Il's birth, the state propagandacontinued to present Kim Il-sung as the person who could do nowrong. Even long after the country's economy collapsed andmillions died of starvation, the North Korean government refuses torelent. Acknowledging the problems would be a direct insult to KimIl-sung or the "Great Leader." To remain true to the core concepts ofJuche, North Korea shuns outsiders. On rare occasions foreignersare allowed to visit, but their trips are scripted down to the minute.They cannot travel on their own. They cannot talk to whomever theywant. Under such an oppressive regime, it is extremely hard to findout how much of the international food aid reaches the hands of thepublic. The little information we have often comes from the NorthKoreans who risked their lives to escape to a better place.

Kim Il-sung died on July 8, 1994. His son and successor, KimJong-Il (or the "Dear Leader"), later proclaimed that his father is thecountry's Eternal President. Both his birthday and the anniversary ofhis death are national holidays.

Kim Il-sung

Questions

1. Kim Il-sung:

A. did not ask for help from other countries during theKorean War

B. became the country's Eternal President under the newconstitution in 1972

C. established the Korean Workers' Party in 1946D. was North Korea's "Dear Leader"

2. Which of the following events took place first?

A. The Second Sino-Japanese War broke out.B. Japan surrendered and ended World War II.C. The DMZ was established to serve as a buffer zone

between North Korea and South Korea.D. Kim Il-sung fled to Russia.

3. Which country was on North Korea's side during the KoreanWar?

A. the United StatesB. ChinaC. JapanD. the Philippines

4. Which of the following wars lasted the longest?

A. the Second Sino-Japanese WarB. the Second World WarC. the Korean WarD. the Six-Day War

5. Who instigated the Korean War?

A. U.S. General Douglas MacArthurB. Kim Il-sungC. U.S. President Harry S. TrumanD. Kim Jong-Il


6. Which of the following is NOT a principle of Juche?

A. to be self-sufficient in national defenseB. to be economically independentC. to be politically independentD. to be culturally independent

7. What is North Korea's official name?

A. Republic of KoreaB. Democratic People's Republic of Korea

8. Which of the following words would people NOT use todescribe North Korea?

A. freeB. isolatedC. totalitarianD. oppressive

Do you believe North and South Korea should be united? Justify youropinion with facts from the story.


Overbooked, OvertiredBy Beth Beutler

Sheila yawned during herninth grade homeroomclass. Mark playfullysmacked her arm, saying,"Wake up, Sleepy!"

The teacher began to callout the names on her roll.

"Sheila."

"Here," Sheila said with a yawn.

After homeroom ended, Sheila slowly gathered up her book bag andstumbled out of class.

"What is wrong with you today?" Mark said.

"I am so tired," Sheila admitted.

"What time did you go to bed?" Mark asked.

"I went to bed around midnight, the same time I usually do."

Mark rolled his eyes. "And what time did you get up?"

"I got up about six o'clock, as usual."

Mark sighed. He had known Sheila a long time and knew she was adriven person. He also knew that only six hours of sleep a night couldcatch up with someone quickly. He sometimes wondered how Sheilakept up the pace she did. She got all A's, had a job after school everyday, volunteered at her church every Sunday, and babysat on Fridaynights.

Out of curiosity, Mark asked, "What do you do on Saturdays,Sheila?"

"We normally get up about 8 o'clock and go to my brother's sportsgames until 12, and then we sometimes visit my grandparents. We gogrocery shopping and do errands too."

"Do you ever have time just to relax?"

Sheila began to feel a little defensive. Why was Mark asking all thesequestions?

"What do you care?" she said sharply.

Mark lifted his hands.

"Hey, don't get upset. I'm just trying to help you see if you areoverbooked."

"And what business is that of yours? Leave me alone!"

Sheila stomped to her locker.

"Boy, who does he think he is? I can handle my own schedule, thankyou."

Throughout the day, Sheila kept going back to what Mark had said.The more she thought about it, the calmer she felt about what Markhad said. She realized that he was a good friend and was only trying tohelp.

Sheila caught up to Mark at the end of the school day.

"Hey, Mark, wait up."

Mark turned and waited, his heavy backpack hanging off his rightshoulder.

"Hey, busy girl, what's up?"

Sheila answered. "I got to thinking about what you said. I just may betoo busy."

"How did you come to that conclusion?" Mark asked.

"I thought about how tired I was feeling today (and almost every day)and how right now, I'd just as soon go home than have to go to myjob."


"And, what did you conclude?"

"That I'm tired of being tired!" Sheila practically yelled.

Mark laughed. "What are you going to about it?"

"I think I'm going to write down all my activities and see which onesI could drop."

"That sounds like a good idea," Mark said. "I did that not too longago. I decided that I really enjoyed baseball, but I wasn't playing wellbecause I was also in two after school clubs and in the band. I talked itover with my parents, and we all agreed that if baseball was myfavorite thing, I could concentrate on that."

"But don't you still have practice almost every day?"

"Yes, but after that, I go straight home and relax. I try to use mystudy halls wisely during the day, too. I get to bed by 10:00 eachnight."

Sheila puckered her lips. "That sounds great. I'm going to work onthat as soon as I get home. See ya!"

Mark laughed. That was Sheila. Even with her prioritizing project,she would go all out. But at least that might help her get some neededrest. He swung his backpack to his other shoulder and headed to theball diamond.

Overbooked, Overtired

Questions

1. Why was Mark concerned about Sheila?

2. What time does Sheila normally go to bed?

3. Mark asked Sheila about her plans on Saturdays. Which offollowing activities was NOT mentioned?

A. Going grocery shoppingB. Sleeping inC. Go to sports gamesD. Doing errands

4. Use one word to describe Sheila's attitude when Mark firstquestioned her about her schedule.


5. Mark encouraged Sheila to do something to figure out howoverbooked she was. What will she do?

6. True or false. Sheila was going to work on her list of prioritieson Saturday.

A. TrueB. False

7. The one main activity that Mark participated in was ______.

8. What attitude did Sheila have at the end of the story?

How would you feel if a friend scolded you for being too busy? Howwould you respond?

NameThursday, February 20

Grasslands

The grassland is aninteresting biome. It is toodry to grow trees, but it isnot dry enough to be adesert. Since neither forestsnor bare ground rule thelandscape there, grassesflourish. They cover thearea like a big, greencarpet!

There are two kinds ofgrasslands. There are temperate grasslands and savannahs. What is thedifference between the two? Well, temperate grasslands have quite acontrast in seasonal temperatures. Summers are hot. Winters are cold.Temperatures can range from 100 degrees Fahrenheit to -40 degreesFahrenheit. Temperate grasslands average about 20-35 inches ofprecipitation a year. Most of their rain falls in late spring or earlysummer. Winter is a tough time for animals living there. Grasses areeither dead or buried under snow. Animals that eat plants find it hardto survive. We can find temperate grasslands in North America,Europe, Central Asia, South Africa, and Argentina.

Savannahs, on the other hand, are warm all year round. They alsoreceive slightly more rainfall than temperate grasslands do. Foranimals living in savannahs, the difficult time of the year is not thewinter but the dry season. The long drought forces animals to travelfor long distances to find food and water. Fires are common, too.Perhaps the biggest difference between temperate grasslands andsavannahs is that savannahs have some trees scattered around! Africa,Australia, and South America all have savannahs.

There are many familiar faces in grasslands. American bison,giraffes, ostriches, cheetahs, and African elephants all live there.Since grasslands are open areas without many places to hide, a lot ofanimals feel safer in large groups than being alone. For example,zebras always travel in herds. They take turns being on the lookout forhungry predators like lions.

What makes grasslands so fascinating is that there are so many worldrecord holders living there! To name just a few, African elephants arethe world's largest land animals. Cheetahs are the world's fastestshort-distance runners. Ostriches are the world's largest and fastestrunning birds. Giraffes are the world's tallest animals!

Grasslands

Questions

1. Which of the following places does NOT have temperategrasslands?

A. ArgentinaB. AntarcticaC. Central AsiaD. Europe

2. Which of the following places does NOT have savannahs?

A. AustraliaB. EuropeC. AfricaD. South America

3. There are no trees in either temperate grasslands or savannahs.

A. trueB. false

4. Which of the following about temperate grasslands is true?

A. It has a long dry season there.B. Antarctica has temperate grasslands.C. It is warm all year round there.D. Temperate grasslands receive about 20-35 inches of

rainfall in a year.

5. Which of the following about savannahs is true?

A. Savannahs are hot in summers and cold in winters.B. Savannahs receive less rainfall than temperate grasslands.C. Winter is the most difficult time for animals living there.D. There are some trees scattered around in savannahs.

NameThursday, February 20

6. Which of the following animals live in grasslands?

A. American bisonB. toucansC. polar bearsD. penguins

7. Grasslands can be divided into two different groups. What arethe two groups?

A. temperate forests and desertsB. rainforests and desertsC. tundra and temperate forestsD. savannahs and temperate grasslands

8. The world's fastest short-distance running animals live ingrasslands.

A. trueB. false

9. Which of the following about grasslands is true?

A. Many animals living there like to travel in herds.B. It is too dry to grow trees, but it is not dry enough to be a

desert.C. Both the world's largest land animals and the world's

tallest animals live in grasslands.D. all of the above

NameFriday, February 21

Battle of Appomattox Court HouseBy Mary Lynn Bushong

At the beginning of April,one of the last remainingvestiges of the Confederacywas Robert E. Lee and hissmall army. General Grantforced them out ofPetersburg and Richmondon April 2.

The Union army enteredthe two cities, looting and burning as they went. Two days later, thenewly re-elected President Lincoln entered the Confederate WhiteHouse.

Lee marched the remainder of his army south. The plan was to maketheir way to Danville, North Carolina and meet up with GeneralJohnston's army. There they had planned to make a final standtogether.

However, Grant moved his army too quickly and blocked Lee frombeing able to use the railroad as he had planned. He changeddirection, and they pushed on across country in an effort to reachLynchburg, where there was a supply depot.

On April 6, one quarter of Lee's army was captured at Saylor's Creek.He continued moving his remaining men northwest and across theAppomattox River. The Union cavalry swung around them andblocked their way again. The Confederates could advance no further.Lee had no other choice. He had to stop and face Grant's army.

Messages were sent back and forth between Grant's camp and Lee's.While Lee's army still numbered about 25,000 men, only about 8,000of those could still take to the field. The others were wounded,exhausted, or too weak from hunger to fight any longer. On Sunday,April 9, the two leaders met in the home of Wilmer McLean to agreeto terms.

Once the Confederate army actually surrendered, Grant had nointerest in continuing to punish them. They were to lay down theirweapons. When they had signed a paper promising not to take uparms against the Union again, they could go home in peace. Theofficer's side arms and the individual soldiers' personally-ownedhorses went with their owners, but the flags were to be left behind.Many that had been followed for so long were carefully tucked insideConfederate uniforms and carried home as heirlooms.

Having accomplished his goal, Grant was willing to be helpful. Heordered rations for the Confederates to be delivered to that army thesame day. When the surrender became official, some of Grant'ssoldiers began to celebrate by shooting off their weapons. That wasimmediately stopped. The Confederates were no longer adversaries,but countrymen.

Lee was assured that Lincoln wanted to help the South overcome thedestruction of the war. He had many plans he wanted to put intoaction. When he was assassinated, that changed. Andrew Johnsonbecame president. He blamed the South for all the destruction thatoccurred during the war, and he wanted to make them pay. Everythingthey possessed were just spoils of war. Instead of having a respectfulpeace that bound the states together again, there was a simmeringanger in the South.

Battle of Appomattox Court House

Questions

1. What did Lee plan to do after leaving Petersburg?

A. Get re-supplied in LynchburgB. Fight in North CarolinaC. Raid Grant's campD. Surrender

2. If you were General Grant, what terms would you haveimposed on the Confederate army?


3. Lee was unable to meet up with General Johnston because:

A. The railroads were blocked.B. Lee's men were too weak to march.C. The roads were blocked.D. Johnston had already been defeated.

4. Why didn't General Grant allow his men to treat theConfederate soldiers like the losers in a war? Explain whetheryou think his approach was right or wrong.

5. Union troops often looted towns they conquered.

A. FalseB. True

6. Lee's men were living on little more than small amounts ofparched corn. Explain how this would affect their ability tomarch and fight.

7. What terms did Grant impose on the Confederates for theirsurrender?

A. They would not fight against the Union any more.B. They would give up all their weapons.C. They would not march as an army anymore.D. All of the above.

8. Many soldiers secretly kept their battle flags to take home withthem. Why do you think they did this?

Lincoln felt that the South had been punished enough during the war.If he had lived, how might reconstruction have been different?


The Mughal DynastyBy Vickie Chao

The year of 1526 was a defining time inthe long history of India. In that year,Babur, a Turkish prince, launched a seriesof attacks against India from his base inpresent-day Kabul, Afghanistan. In theshowdown at Panipat, his troops collidedwith Sultan Ibrahim Lodi's men. As the twosides met head-on, the sultan was confidentthat the victory would belong to him. Afterall, he had nearly 100,000 men and 100elephants in his camp! Things, however,did not go as planned. While Baburcommanded only 12,000 men and had noelephants, he had a better army and the latest weaponry (cannons) athis disposal. Thus, he won the famous battle of Panipat. After thevictory, Babur killed the sultan and captured his capital city of Delhi.He then went on to subdue the city of Agra. Babur chose that city tobe the new capital city of his empire. He proclaimed himself the firstruler of the Mughal (also spelled as Mogul) dynasty.

Babur's Mughal dynasty brought the demise of the so-called DelhiSultanate. The Delhi Sultanate was a series of Muslim dynasties thathad control over northern India since 1206. It was so named becauseDelhi was the capital city of those kingdoms.

Babur was, undoubtedly, a military genius whose family tree couldbe traced all the way back to two of the world's most famous figures.On his father's side, he was the fifth direct descendent of the Turkishconqueror, Timur (also known as Timur the Lame or Tamerlane). Onhis mother's side, he was the thirteenth direct descendent of theMongol warrior, Genghis Khan. Aside from his militaryaccomplishments and impressive familial lineages, Babur was also agifted writer and a lover of nature. He composed poems and builtgardens. His memoir has since become a classic autobiography!

Upon Babur's death in 1530, his son, Humayun, ascended the throne.During his reign (1530-1540 and 1555-1556), he lost control of the

empire to an Afghan chieftain, Sher Shah, and fled to Persia(present-day Iran). Though he managed to regain the lost territory in1555, he died a year later after tripping down a flight of stairs in hislibrary. The power fell into the hands of his son, Akbar, who was onlythirteen years old at the time.

Akbar, like his grandfather, Babur, was a talented soldier. He foughtand conquered numerous smaller kingdoms. Under his leadership, theempire's territory grew considerably. Besides channeling his effortsinto warfare, Akbar also paid close attention to the welfare of hissubjects. He strove to bring peace and prosperity to the land he nowruled. One of his most popular policies was to stop unfair taxes leviedupon non-Muslims. As a Muslim himself, he showed great tolerancetoward other religions. In his court, he cared only about a person'sability, not the person's faith. This open, non-discriminating attitudereduced the tension that previously existed between Muslims andHindus. Akbar was a patron of arts. While he never learned to readand write in his lifetime, he set up studios for painters and supportedpoets. He even invited scholars from different religions to come anddiscuss matters of the world with him. Akbar ruled India for 49 years,from 1556 to 1605. He was undisputedly the greatest of all Mughalemperors. Thus, his nickname, Akbar the Great, was well deserved!

After Akbar died, his son and successor, Jahangir, continued topursue the same policies. He held the same tolerant views towardother, non-Muslim religions. One of his earliest orders was to set upthe Chain of Justice outside of his palace. Anyone in trouble couldsimply pull the chain and receive a hearing from the emperor himself!Jahangir was a nature lover. He designed and built many beautifulgardens. Six years into the supremacy, he married a gorgeous andsmart woman named Mehr-un-Nisa, who later became known asQueen Nur Jehan (also spelled as Noor Jehan). As Jahangir began toslowly lose interest in governing, he gave great authority to hisbeloved wife. Queen Nur Jehan, thus, came to be the kingdom's actualruler. During the era of Jahangir, he signed a treaty with the BritishEast India Company, giving the British merchants permission to tradefreely in his country. This preferential treatment opened India toBritain for the first time. Later in the mid 19th century, the Britishcolonized India and established the British Raj. It is often said that thetreaty was Jahangir's biggest political blunder.

When Jahangir died in 1627, the country fell into a temporaryturmoil. Eventually, Shah Jahan, Jahangir's third son, won the powerstruggle. He laid claim to the throne in 1628.

Shah Jahan had a great passion for architecture. Of the various lavish


buildings he constructed, the white marbled Taj Mahal is the mostfamous! He built the Taj Mahal to immortalize his wife, MumtazMahal, who died in childbirth in 1631. The entire complex tookalmost 22 years and 20,000 people to complete. While Shah Jahansiphoned money away to satisfy his architecture appetite, he alsoplunged the nation's wealth into waging wars against neighboringcountries. The compounded effect brought the empire to the brink ofbankruptcy. But financial matters were not his concerns. Shah Jahanwanted to build another Taj Mahal, this time in black marble forhimself. Sadly, he never got to realize that dream. In 1658, his son,Aurangzeb, plotted a coup and placed him under house arrest in AgraFort. Shah Jahan spent his remaining life locked away in a room witha direct view of the Taj Mahal.

Aurangzeb was the last notable Mughal ruler. Unlike his ancestors,he had little tolerance toward other religions. He imposed a strictIslamic regime and persecuted non-Muslims. This led to numerousrevolts, forcing him to spend more money in wars and pushing theempire further into debt. He ruled India from 1658 to 1707. After hisdeath, the Mughal Empire soon started to disintegrate. By 1748, theMughal's territory had shrunk to only a small area around Delhi. In1857, the British cracked down on local uprisings and sent the lastMughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, to exile in Rangoon, Burma (nowcalled Yangon, Myanmar.) The packing order marked the official endof the Mughal dynasty. Bahadur Shah II died five years later inBurma.

The Mughal Dynasty

Questions

1. How long did the Mughal dynasty last?

A. 408 yearsB. 331 yearsC. 221 yearsD. 250 years

2. Who founded the Mughal dynasty?

A. Shah JahanB. HumayunC. AkbarD. Babur

3. Who built the Taj Mahal?

A. AurangzebB. BaburC. AkbarD. Shah Jahan

4. Which of the following about Mughal dynasty is incorrectA. Akbar the Great abolished the unfair taxes levied upon

non-Muslims.B. The Mughal emperors were Muslims.C. Jahangir set up a Chain of Justice outside of his palace.D. Shah Jahan imposed a strict Islamic regime and

persecuted non-Muslims.

5. Babur was the direct descendent of Alexander the Great.

A. trueB. false

6. With whom did Jahangir sign the treaty that later becameknown as his biggest political blunder?

A. the British North India CompanyB. the British East India CompanyC. the British South India CompanyD. the British West India Company

7. Who ended the Mughal dynasty?

A. the FrenchB. the ChineseC. the BritishD. the Greeks

8. Who was the greatest Mughal emperor?

A. BaburB. AkbarC. Shah JahanD. Humayun


9. Which Mughal emperor loved constructing buildings?

A. Shah JahanB. AurangzebC. JahangirD. Bahadur Shah II

10. Which of the following about Akbar is correct?

A. Akbar built the famous Taj Mahal to immortalize hiswife.

B. Akbar's memoir is still considered a classicautobiography.

C. Akbar ruled India for 49 years.D. Akbar only used capable Muslims in his court.

We often make decisions without clearly thinking through all thepossible consequences. That was probably what happened whenJahangir signed the treaty, giving the British merchants preferentialtreatment. Think about a decision you made in the past that turnedout to be a bad one. Describe the situation, and explain why the resultwas not to your expectation.

NameSaturday, February 22

Why Did the Irish Come to America?By Patti Hutchison

Religious freedom. Soundfamiliar? Many immigrantgroups came to Americaseeking freedom to worshipthe way they wanted to. TheIrish were no different.

During colonial times,there were almost as manyIrish immigrants as therewere English. They hadbeen pushed out of Ireland by religious conflicts. They settled inAmerica, seeking religious freedom.

Economic conditions in Ireland were also poor at this time. Irishpeople who wanted to own land were pulled to America by thepromise of a better way of life. Some Irish immigrants were sent tothe colonies as prisoners. They served their sentences here.

Others came from Ireland as indentured servants. These were peoplewho had their passage paid for by someone else. In return, the servantwould work for that person for a number of years in order to pay themback. Other Irishmen came with the British Army and then remainedin the colonies.

At the beginning of the 1800's, most people in Ireland were farmers.The English had control of Ireland at this time. The English seizedcontrol of all the crops that the Irish farmers grew. They exportedthem to Great Britain. The farmers were allowed to raise only a smallamount of crops to feed their families. They grew potatoes, turnips,and cabbage. This was all they had to eat.

The English persecuted many Irish Catholics. They did not allowthem to practice their faith. They stripped them of their land andhomes. They took away their wealth and their high positions. No IrishCatholic was allowed to own land or vote. They could not hold anyhigh office. Their children were denied an education. A large number

of Irish left their homeland and headed for America during the early1800's.

In 1845, the Potato Famine forced more people to leave Ireland. Atthis time, a fungus invaded the potato plants. The potato harvestfailed, and the price of food went up greatly. People who ate thepotatoes got sick and died. As many as 350,000 died of starvation.

The English landowners tried to get the farmers off their land. Manybought passage for the Irish to go to America. Of course, the ownersdid not want to pay a lot to send them. So they often booked passageon the worst ships. By the end of the 1800's, as many as 4 millionIrish had come to live in America.

Although the average wage in the U.S. was five times higher thanthat in Ireland, many immigrants did not find the easy life they weresearching for. Because there were so many, these people were notvery well accepted by the Americans. They were seen as a drain onsociety.

Many Americans resented that the Irish took jobs away from them.Many ads in the newspaper said "Irish need not apply." They hadtrouble finding jobs. They often had to take dangerous work that noone else wanted to do. They were paid the lowest wages. They livedin dirty apartments in the eastern cities.

Despite the difficult start, many Irish immigrants went on to make agood life for themselves and their families. They became unionleaders and politicians. They also became church leaders. Irishimmigrants contributed to American society in many ways.

Why Did the Irish Come to America?

Questions

1. Indentured servants:

A. worked for someone in order to pay for their passage toAmerica

B. were prisonersC. were slaves


2. Who had control of Ireland in the early 1800's?

A. AmericaB. ScotlandC. England

3. What three crops did the Irish grow for their own food?

4. In the early 1800's Irish Catholics did not have the right to ownland or vote.

A. trueB. false

5. What caused the Irish Potato Famine?

6. Why did some Americans resent the Irish immigrants?

A. they took jobs from AmericansB. they lived in dirty homesC. they worked at dangerous jobs

Find out about some famous Irish immigrants. Write a paragraphabout one of them.


AllosaurusBy Sharon Fabian

In 1883, scientists weredigging for dinosaur bonesin the western part of theUnited States, in an areanamed the MorrisonFormation. Since the firstdinosaur fossils were found there in 1877, it had become one of thebest places in the world to hunt for evidence of dinosaurs. In the lateJurassic period, the area now called the Morrison Formation was aswampy lowland. Rivers there would flood and leave mud and siltthat buried and preserved the bones of dinosaurs that had died. It isnamed for the town of Morrison, Colorado, but the area is huge,covering states from New Mexico to Canada. So finding newdinosaur bones there was not easy.

It takes patience to find dinosaur fossils, but these scientists didn'tgive up. In that year, 1883, they found the first full skeleton of anunknown dinosaur, and named it Allosaurus. Allosaurus means"different lizard," and it was given this name because it hadvertebrae, or backbones, that were different from the other dinosaurs.Eventually, they found over 60 Allosaurus skeletons in the area.With this much evidence, they could put together a good picture ofwhat an Allosaurus was really like.

The Allosaurus was a fierce-looking hunter, and it was big! Itcould have weighed up to five tons. An Allosaurus had a bulky,heavy body with a strong back, a long tail, and an S-shaped neck. Itstood on two legs and had two short arms with three fingers each.Each finger had a sharp claw up to six inches long.

Just the skull of an Allosaurus is nearly three feet long! It hasknobs and ridges on the head and above the eyes and two short horns.The jaws are huge and powerful. A single tooth might be up to fourinches long and serrated like a knife on the front and back edges.

In the late Jurassic period, which was about 150 million years ago,Allosauruses were plentiful in North America, and they also lived in

Australia. They must have scared many of the other animals in thoseareas since Allosauruses were carnivores, or meat-eaters. Thatthree-foot head approaching with its long knife-like teeth ready fordinner must have been a scary sight.

As you can imagine, a four ton meat-eater needs a lot of food! Infact, they ate just about any animal that they could catch. Theywould catch and kill their prey using their short arms and giant claws.They may have hunted in packs, cooperating to catch animals evenlarger than themselves. An Allosaurus even caught and killed anApatosaurus, which was twice its size! We know this becauseApatosaurus bones were found with Allosaurus teeth marks in them.

There are several different species of Allosaurus, some largerthan others. Allosaurus fragilis, Allosaurus atrox, and Allosaurusferox are some of the smaller ones at less than two tons. Allosaurusamplex is one of the larger ones at up to five tons. If you would liketo see what an Allosaurus looks like for yourself, you can go to amuseum, such as the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, to seea skeleton reconstructed from the bones of an Allosaurus, or you canlook at pictures of one on the museum's web site.

Allosaurus

Questions

1. An Allosaurus might have weighed up to ______ tons.

A. 38B. 5C. 2D. 16

2. Allosauruses lived during the ______ period.

A. CambrianB. TriassicC. CretaceousD. Jurassic


3. The name Allosaurus means ______.

A. North American dinosaurB. different lizardC. terrible lizardD. meat-eating dinosaur

4. Allosaurus fossils have been found in ______.

A. North America and EuropeB. North and South AmericaC. Europe and AustraliaD. North America and Australia

5. The word carnivore means ______.

A. fierce fighterB. meat-eaterC. fast hunterD. different dinosaur

6. Which is larger?

A. Allosaurus fragilisB. Allosaurus feroxC. Allosaurus atroxD. Allosaurus amplex

7. Which of these could be an Allosaurus?

A. a half-ton dinosaur that walks on all foursB. a ten-ton carnivorous dinosaurC. a small flying dinosaurD. a three-ton dinosaur that walks on two legs

8. Using the facts in the article, draw what you think anAllosaurus, or an Allosaurus skeleton, would look like.

NameSunday, February 23

Helen Hunt Jackson Writes for the NativeAmericansBy Sharon Fabian

Growing up, Helen Hunt Jackson learnedto do the right thing. After all, her fatherwas a preacher. She learned the importanceof writing, too. Her mother was a writer andher father was also a professor. The famouspoet, Emily Dickinson, was a classmate ofhers. Later in her life, Helen Hunt Jacksonwas also influenced by Harriet BeecherStowe, the author of the anti-slavery novelUncle Tom's Cabin. The success of thatbook showed her how much a piece ofwriting could influence people's ideas.

It is not surprising then that Helen Hunt Jackson considered two ofher books, A Century of Dishonor and Ramona, to be the mostimportant works of her life. Both of these books supported NativeAmericans in their fight for fair treatment.

Helen Hunt Jackson was both an activist for Native Americancauses and a writer. She didn't always write about Native Americanissues, however. Her early writings included children's stories,travel articles, poems, and novels. Like many women writers of hertime, she began her career writing under a pseudonym.

She received a commission to write articles about California for amagazine. When she traveled there, she began to learn about theMission Indians of southern California. Altogether, she publishedabout thirty books and over one hundred articles. She is bestremembered, however, for A Century of Dishonor and Ramona. Shepublished both of these books under her own name.

Mrs. Jackson first got the idea for A Century of Dishonor whenshe attended a lecture by the Ponca Chief Standing Bear. He spokeabout how the Poncas were forcibly removed from the reservationwhere they lived.

After listening to Chief Standing Bear's lecture, she began toresearch the treatment of the Native Americans by the United Statesgovernment and the European settlers. What she found outconvinced her to begin a new book. She felt that she had somethingimportant to say. After completing her research in a New Yorklibrary, she wrote A Century of Dishonor. It was published in 1881.

In her book, she told how the federal and state Indian policieswere unfair to the Native Americans. She told about the UnitedStates' history of broken treaties and dishonest deals. In order tomake members of the government aware of what was reallyhappening to the Native Americans, she sent a copy of her book toevery member of Congress. Although her book was an importantwork in defense of the Native Americans, it did not bring about anysudden changes.

Hoping to take more direct action, Mrs. Jackson applied for a jobas an Indian agent. She was hired as a Special Commissioner ofIndian Affairs in southern California. Her job was to travel to theMission Indian settlements and document the locations and sizes ofthe groups. She was also to make recommendations about pieces ofland that the government might need to buy for use by the NativeAmericans.

Mrs. Jackson did her research thoroughly. She spelled out herfindings in a fifty-six page report titled "Conditions and Needs of theMission Indians." Once again, she was disappointed when herwriting did not convince people to make important changes.

Mrs. Jackson knew that novels could attract a wider audience, andso she decided to write her next book about the Native Americans inthe form of a novel. This novel, called Ramona, was about an Indianwoman who lived in southern California. When it was published in1884, it became an instant success.

In the one year after it was published and before Mrs. Jacksondied, Ramona sold over fifteen thousand copies. Since then, it hasbeen reprinted over three hundred times. It has also been adapted forthe stage and the screen. Ramona did just what Mrs. Jackson hopedit would do. It made thousands of people see and understand theplight of the Native Americans.

Helen Hunt Jackson said that A Century of Dishonor and Ramonawere the two accomplishments she was most pleased with. She feltthat they would live on after she died -- and they have.


Helen Hunt Jackson Writes for the Native Americans

Questions

1. People who influenced Helen Hunt Jackson included ______.

A. her motherB. her fatherC. Harriet Beecher StoweD. all of the above

2. Helen Hunt Jackson is best known for her writings about______.

A. Harriet Beecher StoweB. slaveryC. Native AmericansD. all of the above

3. Helen Hunt Jackson was a ______.

A. writer and publisherB. musician and librarianC. writer and musicianD. writer and activist

4. Helen Hunt Jackson began researching about the treatment ofNative Americans after ______.

A. listening to a lectureB. deciding to be a writerC. publishing her first bookD. becoming an Indian agent

5. Ramona was a ______.

A. poem about natureB. report about Native American settlementsC. novel about a Native American womanD. story about a young student

6. Ramona remained popular for many years.

A. trueB. false

7. What was Helen Hunt Jackson's purpose in writing A Centuryof Dishonor and Ramona?

8. What problems did Helen Hunt Jackson address in her booksabout the Native Americans?


Lewis, Clark, Sacagawea, and PompBy Sharon Fabian

President Jefferson chose Captain Meriwether Lewis to lead anexpedition. Captain Lewis chose Lieutenant William Clark to helphim. Along the way, they recruited other European American tradersand trappers and also Native American Indians to take part in theexpedition. The most famous of these was the Shoshone Indianteenager, Sacagawea. Sacagawea had a baby just before theexpedition began. The baby, named Jean Baptiste, made the journeytoo. Jean Baptiste was nicknamed Pomp.

The main purpose of the expedition was to find a water route acrossthe continent to the Pacific Ocean. This was not a new idea; othershad tried before to find shorter routes across America to the Pacific.Earlier expeditions had often involved fierce and violent battles withthe Native Americans. Earlier expeditions were often a way to searchfor riches, and often these treasures were just stolen from theirowners. Lewis and Clark's expedition was a little different. In fact,another purpose of their expedition was to establish friendlyrelationships and set up trade with Indian nations. Taking Sacagaweaalong turned out to make a big difference too.

Lewis and Clark began their expedition in 1804 with a winter campnear St. Louis, Missouri. There they got their supplies ready as theywaited for their boats to be completed. Their second winter theycamped at Fort Mandan, home of the Mandan Indians. This is whereSacagawea joined the expedition. They traveled through the territoryof the Louisiana Purchase, which had belonged to France. One of theexplorers described the Great Plains as being flat as far as the eyecould see, without a single tree. In the West, there was wildlifeeverywhere they looked: deer, elk, buffalo, antelopes, grizzly bears,bighorn sheep, wolves, coyotes, eagles, geese, and more.

They followed the Missouri River as far as they could. By the timethey arrived in Montana, they realized that if they wanted to reach thePacific Ocean, they would have to make part of their journey overland. The steep Rocky Mountains loomed ahead of them.

Sacagawea helped make the expedition a success in many ways. She

served as a guide, or "pilot" as Clark said, through Shoshone territory.She acted as a translator between the European Americans and theShoshones. She was able to talk Shoshone Indians into trading horses,and also found out from them the best route over the RockyMountains. She also was able to identify edible plants to keep theexplorers fed.

They finally made it to the West Coast and built Fort Clatsop for theirwinter camp, named after the local Clatsop Indians. There Sacagawea,baby Pomp, Lewis, Clark, and the rest of the explorers got to see thePacific Ocean for the first time. They also got their first look at awhale!

It has been more than 200 years since Lewis and Clark set out toexplore the North American continent. To celebrate the anniversary,many parks and museums had special Lewis and Clark events.Sacagawea and Pomp were featured on the gold dollar coin.

Lewis, Clark, Sacagawea, and Pomp

Questions

1. ______ was chosen by President Jefferson to lead theexpedition.

A. Meriwether LewisB. PompC. William ClarkD. Sacagawea

2. ______ was an Indian guide and translator.

A. SacagaweaB. William ClarkC. PompD. Meriwether Lewis

3. ______ was a nickname for Jean Baptiste.

A. Meriwether LewisB. PompC. William ClarkD. Sacagawea


4. The main purpose of the expedition was to ______.

A. establish friendly relationships and trade with the IndiansB. discover the Rocky MountainsC. find the Missouri RiverD. find a water route across the continent

5. Lewis and Clark did accomplish the main purpose of theirexpedition.

A. falseB. true

6. Another purpose of the expedition was ______.

A. find a water route across the continentB. establish friendly relationships and trade with the IndiansC. find the Missouri RiverD. discover the Rocky Mountains

7. The explorers followed the ______ River.

A. PotomacB. MissouriC. MississippiD. St. Lawrence

8. Sacagawea helped to make the expedition successful becauseshe could ______.

A. translateB. find foodC. negotiate tradesD. all of the above

NameMonday, February 24

Emus & Cassowaries

In Australia, there are two birds that couldcompete for the title of the world's secondlargest bird. Both birds stand around 6 feettall. Both weigh about 130 pounds. Both birds- emus and cassowaries - are strongcontenders to stand behind ostriches and benamed the second largest bird on Earth. Justlike ostriches, emus and cassowaries are alsoflightless. Their wings are too small to carrytheir heavy weights into the sky. But emus andcassowaries swim well, run fast (more than 30 miles per hour), andjump high (5 feet)!

Despite many similarities, there are several faint differences betweenemus and cassowaries. First is the cassowaries' gray helmets (called"casques"). These horn-like but soft and spongy crests arewedge-shaped and grow to be about 7 inches long. We cannot be surewhat their casques are for. Some scientists think that casques protectcassowaries' heads from getting scratched and bumped when they runthrough dense tropical forests. Others disagree. They point out that ifthis were true, then cassowaries would hatch with casques on theirheads. Instead, the birds grow them when they are close to theadulthood. Some scientists believe that cassowaries use their casquesto communicate with other birds. Casques may also indicate that thebirds are adults. They may also be used as weapons against theirenemies.

Wattles mark the second major difference between emus andcassowaries. Emus have no wattles. Two out of three cassowaryspecies do. The cassowary that lives in Australia has two wattlesdangling from its throat. This makes it easy to tell if the bird that yousee in Australia is an emu or a cassowary. The southern cassowary (orthe double-wattled cassowary) lives in both Australia and NewGuinea. The northern cassowary (or the single-wattled cassowary) andthe dwarf cassowary live only in New Guinea.

Aside from casques and wattles, emus and cassowaries live indifferent environments and eat different foods. Emus live in

Australian grasslands. They mainly feed on grasses, roots, seeds,fruits, or other vegetation. Because emus often intrude on farmlandsto look for food, Australian farmers dislike them. They consider thesefeathery giants to be pests! Cassowaries prefer to live in rainforestsand love to eat fruits that have fallen to the ground. Both emus andcassowaries also eat insects and other small animals.

The last difference between emus and cassowaries is their feet. Bothemus and cassowaries have three sharp claws on each of their longand muscular feet. But cassowaries' inner claws are about 4 incheslong, straight, and knife-like. When threatened, both emus andcassowaries will not hesitate to kick their enemies. Cassowaries'dagger-like inner claws can inflict serious wounds and can prove to bedeadly!

Emus & Cassowaries

Questions

1. Which of the following is the world's largest bird?

A. the cassowaryB. the ostrichC. the rheaD. the emu

2. Which of the following two birds compete for the title of theworld's second largest bird?

A. the ostrich and the emuB. the emu and the cassowaryC. the cassowary and the rheaD. the ostrich and the rhea

3. All three species of the cassowary can be found in bothAustralia and New Guinea.

A. trueB. false

4. Which of the following about emus is true?

A. Farmers in Australia consider emus to be pests.B. Emus have a single wattle hanging at their throats.C. Emus have casques on the top of their heads.D. Emus have two wattles hanging at their throats.


5. Which of the following about cassowaries is true?

A. The northern cassowary is the only cassowary speciesthat lives in Australia.

B. Cassowaries' inner toes have long, straight, knife-likeclaws.

C. The dwarf cassowary is also known as the single-wattledcassowary.

D. Cassowaries mainly feed on insects and small animals.

6. Cassowaries can do all the following, except ______.

A. runB. swimC. flyD. jump

7. What do scientists think the purposes of cassowaries' casquesare? (Please choose two of the best answers.)

A. to protect their headsB. to indicate their adult ageC. to indicate male or femaleD. to attack their prey

8. Where can you find emus?

A. grasslands in AustraliaB. mountains in AustraliaC. rainforests in AustraliaD. deserts in Australia

9. What is emus' and cassowaries' self-defense strategy?

A. They climb.B. They pretend to be dead.C. They kick.D. They bark.

10. Which of the following about emus and cassowaries is nottrue?

A. Both emus and cassowaries can jump more than 5 feethigh.

B. Both emus and cassowaries can run at a speed of morethan 30 miles per hour.

C. Both emus and cassowaries eat insects and small animals.D. Both emus and cassowaries are considered to be pests.

(Compare and contrast) Compare the cassowary to the emu. Describehow the two birds are alike and how they are different.


Constantine the Great and ChristianityBy Vickie Chao

Since the beginning of time, the ancientRomans worshipped hundreds of gods andgoddesses. Many of those deities camefrom foreign lands that the Romans hadconquered. As different faiths sprang upacross the ever-expanding empire, theywere more or less tolerated. Such openattitude, however, was not the case forJudaism and Christianity. Both religionspointedly refused to honor Roman gods andto idolize Roman emperors. As a result, theJews and Christians endured centuries ofhardship. One good example would beEmperor Nero. In 64 A.D., a big fire engulfed Rome and destroyedmuch of the city. Emperor Nero pinned the blame on the Christians.Through relentless persecution, he also allegedly killed two Christianapostles -- Saint John and Saint Peter.

At the onset of the 4th century, Constantine the Great (orConstantine I) ascended the throne. He held a different view towardChristianity and gave the religion a big break. Seven years after heseized power, in 313 A.D., he and Licinius (his brother-in-law andco-emperor in the east) issued the famous Edict of Milan. Theydeclared that both the Eastern and Western Roman Empires wouldkeep a neutral position on all faiths. Constantine the Great evencommissioned the construction of several grand cathedrals. For thefirst time in ancient Rome, Christians could openly practice theirreligion without fear.

No doubt, Constantine the Great was the driving force behind thespread of Christianity. But who was Constantine the Great, and whatwere his other accomplishments?

Constantine the Great was born Flavius Valerius Constantiusaround 274 A.D. His father, Constantius, was an ambitious armyofficer. His mother, Helena, was probably the daughter of aninnkeeper. When Constantine the Great was just a teenager, his

father left him and Helena in order to marry Theodora. Theodoracame from a very prominent family. Her stepfather -- EmperorMaximian -- was, in fact, the most powerful man in the entireWestern Roman Empire. Through this new marriage, Constantiuswas able to make a huge leap in his career. His father-in-law gavehim the title of Caesar (junior emperor) in 293 A.D.

As Constantius worked hard on proving himself in the WesternRoman Empire, Constantine the Great did the same in the EasternRoman Empire. The young boy joined the military and served withdistinction.

On May 1, 305 A.D., Maximian and Diocletian (the ruler of theEastern Roman Empire) both decided to retire. They each had ajunior emperor to whom they would pass the power. Maximian'ssuccessor was Constantius, and Diocletian's Galerius. After thetransition, Constantius requested his son's presence from Galerius.Galerius agreed, so Constantine the Great moved to the WesternRoman Empire to join his father on a military campaign in Britain.Sadly, the reunion between the father and the son turned out to beshort-lived. On July 25, 306 A.D., Constantius got sick and died atEboracum (modern day's York). Upon his death, his loyal soldiershailed Constantine the Great as their new emperor, but noteverybody in the Western Roman Empire accepted the decision. Forthe next six years, Constantine the Great engaged himself and histroops in a series of civil wars. At last, he managed to crush all hisopponents to become the sole ruler of the Western Roman Empire.It was often said that the night before his deciding battle, the Battleof the Milvian Bridge, he had a dream. In it, he received theinstruction of painting the first two Greek letters of the word "Christ"-- Chi (X) and Rho (P) -- on all his soldiers' shields. When he wokeup, he did just that and went on to win the war. Since then, he hadbecome a committed Christian and continued to have his armiesbearing this unique symbol of Christ, known as labarum.

One year after Constantine the Great finally secured his power, heand his co-ruler from the Eastern Roman Empire, Licinius, issuedthe Edict of Milan together. Though both men pledged to tolerate allfaiths in their respective kingdom, Licinius later strayed from hiscommitment and began the practice of persecuting the Christiansonce again. Furious, Constantine the Great waged wars againstLicinius. After several years of fighting, Constantine the Greatfinally defeated Licinius. In 324 A.D., he united both the Easternand Western Roman Empires. From that point on to his death, hehad the throne all to himself. He no longer needed to share hispower with somebody else as he had done so previously.


The following year, in 325 A.D., Constantine the Great organizedthe first ever council of the Christian church at Nicaea (today's Iznik,Turkey). The objective of the council was to resolve thedisagreement over whether Jesus was a divine or a created being.With about 300 bishops attending the meeting, they eventuallyreached the conclusion that Jesus was of the same or of similarsubstance as God the Father. They also agreed on the date forcelebrating the Christian Passover or Easter.

As Constantine the Great dedicated tremendous resources topromote Christianity, his personal life was a mess. He first killedLicinius, then Crispus (his eldest son and heir apparent), and finallyFausta (his second wife). All the slaughtering took place over ashort period of two years, from 325 A.D. to 326 A.D. Around thesame time as one family tragedy after another unfolded, Helena, themother of Constantine the Great, embarked on a pilgrimage toJerusalem or the Holy Land. Constantine the Great did not join her.He stayed behind to plan for a new capital. He completelydemolished the city of Byzantium (modern day's Istanbul, Turkey)and rebuilt a new one on site. The new capital was unveiled in 330A.D. It was called Constantinople after himself.

Interestingly, though Constantine the Great did many things infavor of Christianity, he himself was not baptized until his final days.Shortly before he died on May 22, 337 A.D., he finally changed intoa white robe so he could get baptized.

To the Christians, Constantine the Great was one of theirstaunchest supporters. Through his efforts, Christianity was able tospread to all corners of the Roman Empire and eventually becomethe kingdom's sole religion in 380 A.D.!

Constantine the Great and Christianity

Questions

1. Which of the following about Constantine the Great andChristianity is correct?

A. Constantine made Christianity the sole religion of theRoman Empire.

B. Constantine the Great commissioned the construction ofseveral grand cathedrals.

C. Constantine the Great drafted and issued the Edict ofMilan alone.

D. Constantine the Great was baptized shortly after theBattle of the Milvian Bridge.

2. Which of the following events took place last?

A. Constantine the Great organized the Council of Nicaea.B. Constantine the Great joined his father on a military

campaign in Britain.C. Constantine issued the Edict of Milan.D. Constantine the Great crushed all opponents and became

the sole ruler of the Western Roman Empire.

3. What was the Edict of Milan about?

A. To determine whether Jesus was a divine or a createdbeing

B. To tolerate all religionsC. To name Christianity the sole religion of the Roman

EmpireD. To pick a day for celebrating Easter

4. For how many years did Constantine the Great rule the unitedRoman Empire?

A. 13 yearsB. 31 yearsC. 63 yearsD. 49 years

5. When Constantine the Great died, where was his capital?

A. EboracumB. ConstantinopleC. MilanD. Nicaea


6. What symbol did the soldiers of Constantine the Great carry?

A. Alpha and OmegaB. LabarumC. TrefoilD. Rose

7. Which two Greek letters did Constantine the Great order to bepainted on all the shields of his soldiers?

A. Alpha (A) and Rho (P)B. Chi (X) and Rho (P)C. Tau (T) and Beta (B)D. Zeta (Z) and Chi (X)

8. With whom and in what year did Constantine the Great issuethe Edict of Milan?

A. Licinius, 313 A.D.B. Crispus, 326 A.D.C. Galerius, 306 A.D.D. Constantius, 293 A.D.

Suppose Constantine the Great never had the vision the night beforethe Battle of the Milvian Bridge. What would history be like? Useyour imagination and write a story about it.

NameTuesday, February 25

Mt. Vesuvius and the City of PompeiiBy Vickie Chao

To people in Pompeii,August 24, 79 A.D.,started out like every othernormal day. The streetswere bustling withactivities. People werebusy going to and fromtheir various destinations.Then, all of a sudden,around 1 o'clock in theafternoon, they saw a column of smoke bursting out of MountVesuvius. Astonished as they were, they knew that this was not thetime to stand idle. They had to make a run for it right away. Someleft town immediately, not knowing exactly where they should go.Others hurried back home to pack up valuables and plan their nextmove. In the midst of this chaos, a hail of pumice stones andvolcanic rocks began to pour down onto the city. The smell of sulfurfilled the air. The day became a horrifying nightmare. Nineteenhours later, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius finally stopped. Thecity of Pompeii was gone, buried underneath 9 feet of volcanic ash!For the next 1,500 years or so, the site remained undisturbed andcompletely forgotten. It might have still been the case had thearchitect Domenico Fontana (1543 A.D. - 1607 A.D.) not decided todig a new water conduit in the late 16th century. While he surveyedthe area, he discovered the ruins of Pompeii by chance. But nothingmore was done until Charles III, King of Naples and Sicily, camealong and ordered a systematic excavation in 1748 A.D. What hefound was a city frozen in time. It was truly amazing!

Now back to that doomed day in August 79 A.D. A man by thename of Pliny the Younger (circa 63 A.D. - 113 A.D.) witnessed theeruption from his uncle's house at Misenum. Later on, he wrote tohis friend Cornelius Tacitus describing what had happened. Thenatural disaster he saw and documented would eventually be knownas the Plinian eruption. Through his words, we know that his unclePliny the Elder, a military commander in charge of the Roman fleetin the Bay of Naples, left home to plan a rescue mission to save his

friends in Pompeii, as well as to gain a better view of thephenomenon. After having the warships prepared, he and his menset sail and managed to cross the bay and reach Stabiae, a coastaltown southwest of Pompeii. En route, Pliny the Elder noticed thatthe wind did not follow its usual direction of blowing from the northout to the sea on that particular day. Rather, it blew inland from thesoutheast across the Bay of Naples. Experts later confirmed thatmuch more of the debris would have fallen into the sea had the windfollowed its usual pattern.

Upon arriving at Stabiae, Pliny the Elder apparently dined andbathed, trying to calm his friends down by showing his owncomposure. Meanwhile, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius was in fullswing. The pumice stones and volcanic rocks were falling downheavily now. Buildings were shaking violently as if theirfoundations were about to give way at any minute. Thinking thatgoing outdoors was simply a notion too dangerous to consider, Plinythe Elder and his companions decided to stay in. Then, according tothe nephew (who most certainly heard it from the survivors for hedid not actually go with his uncle and was still at Misenum with hismother at that time), "The flames and smell of sulfur which gavewarning of the approaching fire drove the others to take flight androused him (Pliny the Elder) to stand up. He stood leaning on twoslaves and then suddenly collapsed, I imagine because the densefumes choked his breathing by blocking his windpipe which wasconstitutionally weak and narrow and often inflamed. Whendaylight returned on the 26th -- two days after the last day he hadbeen seen -- his body was found intact and uninjured, still fullyclothed and looking more like sleep than death."

Though Pliny the Younger was not present at his uncle's death, hehimself had a very close call with his life as well. In a separate letterto Cornelius Tacitus, he described how horrifying it was for him andhis mother to try to get away. He said, " Ashes were already falling,not as yet very thickly. I looked round: a dense black cloud wascoming up behind us, spreading over the earth like a flood. 'Let usleave the road while we can still see,' I said, 'or we shall be knockeddown and trampled underfoot in the dark by the crowd behind.' Wehad scarcely sat down to rest when darkness fell, not the dark of amoonless or cloudy night, but as if the lamp had been put out in aclosed room. You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing ofinfants, and the shouting of men; some were calling their parents,others their children or their wives, trying to recognize them by theirvoices. People bewailed their own fate or that of their relatives, andthere were some who prayed for death in their terror of dying. Manybesought the aid of the gods, but still more imagined there were no


gods left, and that the universe was plunged into eternal darkness forevermore."

The aftermath of the eruption destroyed not only Pompeii butseveral towns nearby (most notably, Herculaneum). During the19-hour ordeal, there were several pyroclastic flows or surges.Pyroclastic flows are fast-moving, fluidized bodies of superheatedgas, ash, and rock. Capable of traveling at a speed of more than 100miles per hour and having a temperature of nearly 2,000 degreesFahrenheit, they can destroy anything in their path. In the case ofMount Vesuvius's eruption in 79 A.D., the first two pyroclastic flowsmissed Pompeii. But that could hardly be taken as good newsbecause a toxic gas cloud (comprised of carbon dioxide andhydrogen chloride) soon followed. The third pyroclastic surge camedown from the side of Mount Vesuvius around 7 o'clock in themorning of August 25 and dumped tons of superheated gas andboiling rock onto Pompeii. Anybody who was still alive there wouldhave died instantly.

Naturally, we wonder if there had been any signs that could havealerted people to evacuate early. The answer is a definite yes!According to Pliny the Younger, there had been tremors throughoutthe region before the eruption. But nobody thought much of it.They did not know that increasing earthquake activity was a strongsignal that the volcano was coming back to life, and any lengthyperiod of inactivity would only make the next eruption even morecatastrophic. Furthermore, they had no idea that Mount Vesuviushad exploded at least twice before, one of which ("AvellinoPumice") occurred around 1800 B.C. and destroyed several BronzeAge settlements.

If people in Pompeii had been made aware of all those facts,many more could have survived. But, of course, as the saying goes,hindsight is always 20/20.

Today, Pompeii is one of the most popular tourist destinations inItaly. As visitors come and take a stroll along the streets, they get tosee what life was like back in 79 A.D. and admire the world's oldestamphitheater, constructed around 80 B.C. While there, they also getto see the final moments faced by the residents who could not escapein time. That is because, during the excavation, scholars found voids

in the volcanic deposits that contained remains of humans andanimals. After pouring plaster into the empty holes, they were ableto make casts out of those victims. The displays are eerie, to say theleast!

Since that dramatic disaster in 79 A.D., Mount Vesuvius has hadmany more small eruptions. The most recent one was in March 1944,during World War II. It destroyed several villages and 88 planes ofa U.S. B-25 bomber group. To the best of our knowledge, all expertsagree that Mount Vesuvius will explode again in the future. Theybelieve that a big eruption like the one in 79 A.D. only happensevery 2,000 years or so. That, of course, leads us to ponder if we arebetter prepared this time around. Well, with all the moderntechnologies that we have at our disposal now, let's certainly hope so!

Mt. Vesuvius and the City of Pompeii

Questions

1. Which of the following statements about Mount Vesuvius iscorrect?

A. Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed by the sameeruption of Mount Vesuvius.

B. Pompeii was destroyed by the eruption of MountVesuvius in 79 B.C.

C. After the catastrophic eruption that ultimately destroyedPompeii, Mount Vesuvius has not exploded.

D. Pliny the Elder wrote to his friend and gave him hisfirst-hand witness account about the eruption of MountVesuvius.

2. What did Pliny the Younger suspect his uncle died of?

A. a downpour of volcanic ashB. the smell of sulfurC. dense fumes that blocked his windpipeD. a hail of pumice stones and volcanic rocks


3. Which of the following could be used as a warning sign for theresidents of Pompeii before the eruption of Mount Vesuviustook place?

A. hurricanesB. animals fleeing the areaC. frequent earthquakesD. tsunamis

4. Which of the following cities was NOT damaged by theeruption of Mount Vesuvius at all?

A. StabiaeB. MisenumC. RomeD. Pompeii

5. The longer the period between two volcanic eruptions, the______ dangerous the disaster will be.

A. lessB. more

6. Who discovered the ruins of Pompeii?

A. Domenico FontanaB. Pliny the YoungerC. Cornelius TacitusD. Charles III

7. When did the so-called Avellino Pumice occur?

A. 1748 A.D.B. 79 A.D.C. 1800 B.C.D. 1944 A.D.

8. Which of the following statements is correct?

A. Pompeii was buried completely after the first surge ofpyroclastic flows.

B. On the day of August 24, 79 A.D., the wind blew frominland out to the sea.

C. The most recent eruption of Mount Vesuvius happenedduring World War I.

D. Pyroclastic flows travel faster than we can run.

9. The so-called "Plinian eruption" was named after ______.

A. Pliny the ElderB. Pliny the Younger


Hippodromes and AmphitheatersBy Vickie Chao

The ancient Romansreally liked to watchpublic games. To enjoytheir pastimes comfortably,they erected numeroussports centers across theempire. All those sportscenters were made ofstone and concrete. Some,called hippodromes, werefor horse and chariot races.Others, called amphitheaters, were for gladiator fights and venationes(combats between men and wild beasts.)

The Romans did not conceive the idea of sports centers in thebeginning. At first, they held their public games outdoors. For horseand chariot races, they would choose a long stretch of land as theirtracks. For gladiator fights, they would gather in a city's main square(called the forum) to watch the spectacle. Later on as such gamesbecame increasingly popular, government officials decided to put upproper venues to meet the demand. The earlier hippodromes andamphitheaters were made of wood. The Romans chose this buildingmaterial because it was cheap. For a while, wooden hippodromesand amphitheaters were the trendsetters. But their drawbacks wereexposed quickly. Many sports centers were so overcrowded thatthey actually collapsed, killing thousands. Many more weredestroyed by fire. In the end, the Romans concluded that lumber wasneither safe nor practical, so they decided to use stone and concreteinstead.

Rome's oldest, largest, and most famous hippodrome is the CircusMaximus. Back in its heyday, this facility (about 2,000 feet long and600 feet wide) had a seating capacity for 250,000 people. One endof the building was semicircular and the other square. Its oblongshape resembled a U with a closed top. Inside the stadium, therewere rows of stone seats running the length of the arena and alongthe curve, overlooking a racetrack. The racetrack had a low wall,

called a spina, in the middle to divide the course. This divider wasoften adorned with beautiful statues, fountains, and monuments. Ontop of the spina were two frames, one with seven eggs and the otherwith seven dolphins. Both devices served as lap counters. A typicalchariot race consisted of anywhere from four to twelve chariotsrunning for seven laps. As each lap was completed, an attendantwould remove one egg and one dolphin, so everybody at the gameknew how many more laps were left. During a race, the four Romanracing companies, called factiones, would compete against eachother. Every faction was represented by a color -- blue, red, green,or white -- and commanded a sizable following. As fans liked toshow up in clothes of their favorite team's color, it was very easy totell who supported which faction. Sometimes, those fans would getso excited and carried away that any unsavory result could lead togroup fights or riots. The Romans were very serious about theirhorse and chariot races. But as the empire began to disintegrate,those pastimes slowly faded into history, too. Subsequently, theCircus Maximus and other hippodromes were deserted. Today, verylittle of the Circus Maximus has survived, leaving behind littleevidence testifying to its past glory.

Fortunately, the same cannot be said about the Colosseum. TheColosseum is the Roman Empire's biggest amphitheater. It issituated right at the city center of Rome. Like a typical amphitheater,the Colosseum is oval-shaped. Its dimensions are roughly 620 feetin length, 513 feet in width, and 156 feet in height. This giganticbuilding, capable of seating 50,000 people, had been the world'slargest superdome for more than 2,000 years!

The construction of the Colosseum began around 72 A.D. (somesaid 70 A.D.) during the reign of Vespasian. When Vespasianascended the throne in 69 A.D., he had two pressing issues thatrequired his immediate attention. The first crisis was to rebuildRome. Back in 64 A.D., a huge fire had engulfed the city. The blazelasted several days and caused tremendous damage. Among thecasualties was the city's wooden amphitheater. Vespasian knew howimportant entertainment was to his people. So he wanted to build amagnificent venue for all to enjoy. The second urgency was to erasethe memory of Nero. For 14 years, from 54 A.D. to 68 A.D., thiscrazy emperor ruled the kingdom ruthlessly. To secure power andadvance his personal agendas, he murdered many Christians, hisstepbrother, his two wives, and even his own mother. After the"Great Fire of Rome" was put out, he showed no compassion for thecity's loss and suffering. All he cared about was building anenormous palace called Domus Aurea (the Golden House). ThoughNero was eventually deposed in 68 A.D., his horrific, oppressive


behaviors were still the talk of the town. To ease people's mindsfrom those unhappy years, Vespasian decided to dismantle DomusAurea and use part of the land for a grand, stony amphitheater. Thatgrand, stony amphitheater was the Flavian Amphitheater, morepopularly known as the Colosseum.

Building the Colosseum was anything but easy. Given thetechnology at the time, it was simply amazing that the Romans wereable to pull it off. Every single step, starting from the transport ofraw materials to the actual construction, required careful planningand fine engineering. The entire process took nearly a decade, andVespasian did not live long enough to see it done. In 80 A.D.,Emperor Titus, Vespasian's son, unveiled the structure for the firsttime. To celebrate the grand opening, he held games for 100 days.After Titus passed away, the next emperor, Domitian (Vespasian'sson and Titus' brother), made more improvements to the superdome.His final touches produced the Colosseum we know today. Thoughthe Colosseum is undoubtedly both the largest and most famousamphitheater of all time, it is worthy to note that it was not the first.That honor belongs to the amphitheater in the city of Pompeii whosesize could accommodate 20,000 people. Its debut predated theColosseum by about one hundred fifty years.

At the height of the Roman Empire, tens of thousands of peoplestreamed through one of the eighty entrances of the Colosseum everyday to watch a variety of shows. Gladiator fights and venationeswere two of the most popular programs. Besides the duo, gameofficials would also invent new sports to entertain the crowd. Oneidea was to fill the arena with water so real boats could come in andperform sea battles. Whatever the new form of pastime gameofficials conjured up, bloodiness and brutality were alwaysguaranteed. Such thrills excited spectators and drew them back tothe Colosseum again and again. From dawn to dusk, there wasalways some sort of tournament going on in the Colosseum. If itwas too hot, attendants would stretch a huge canvas awning over thestadium's open top to provide shade. If a game extended into thewee hours, attendants would suspend a massive iron chandelier toprovide lighting. All said, the Romans were very keen on theirsports, so they would do everything they could to keep games going.

As mighty and sturdy as the Colosseum was, it was not immune

to disasters. Throughout its long history, it was first damaged by fire,then lightning, and finally earthquakes. To make matters worse,later emperors outlawed gladiator fights and other brutal sports.Such bans took away the Colosseum's sole reason for existence.Therefore, it became deserted. Many of the building's fine features,like its marble façade and beautiful ornaments, slowly disappeared.Today, only the structure itself remains, reminding us of the splendidpast it once witnessed.

Hippodromes and Amphitheaters

Questions

1. What material did the Romans use originally to build anamphitheater?

A. bricksB. concreteC. stoneD. wood

2. How many laps was a chariot race?

A. fiveB. elevenC. sevenD. nine

3. Which of the following about hippodromes is correct?

A. They were the venues for all Roman public games.B. They were usually oval-shaped, with seats on all four

sides.C. They were the places where the Romans went for chariot

races.D. The Colosseum is Rome's largest and oldest hippodrome.

4. Which Roman emperor began the construction of theColosseum?

A. VespasianB. NeroC. TitusD. Domitian


5. How many days of games did Titus hold to celebrate the grandopening of the Colosseum?

A. 80 daysB. 300 daysC. 20 daysD. 100 days

6. In which city could we find the Roman Empire's first all-stoneamphitheater?

A. VeniceB. MilanC. RomeD. Pompeii

7. How many more people could the Circus Maximus hold thanthe Colosseum?

A. 180,000B. 600,000C. 300,000D. 200,000

8. What did the Romans use to divide a racetrack?

A. a spinaB. an awningC. a factionD. an iron chandelier

9. Which of the following about the Colosseum is incorrect?A. Its shape resembled a U with a closed top.B. It was made of stone and concrete.C. It was built on the ground where the Golden House once

stood.D. It was originally known as the Flavian Amphitheater.

10. When did the Romans build their first all-stone amphitheater?

A. 50 A.D.B. 30 B.C.C. 80 A.D.D. 70 B.C.

Suppose you could travel back in time to the heyday of the RomanEmpire. You just came back from watching a public game. Explainwhat kind of game you saw, and describe the experience.

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