Publishing Academic Research: Addendum Gary N. McLean Texas A&M University [email protected] Mahidol...

Publishing Academic Research: Addendum

Gary N. McLeanTexas A&M University

[email protected] University

June 30, 2010

How to Write Research Articles 2

Title

• Descriptive; communicates clearly

• Not a paragraph

• Avoid extraneous words, e.g., “A Study of…,” “The Relationship between…,” etc.

• Most important words first

• Use format specified in guidelines


Title

Critique the following titles from a recent issue of HRDR:

• “Knowledge sharing in organizations: A conceptual framework”

• “What’s in a name? A literature-based approach to understanding mentoring, coaching, and other constructs that describe developmental interactions”


Title

Critique the following titles from a recent issue of HRDR:

• “The duality of race and gender for managerial African-American women: Implications of informal social networks on career advancement”

• “Adult learning orientations and action learning”


Abstract

• A brief summary of the article that appears at the beginning of the article.

• Include details, not “findings, discussion, and recommendations are made.”

• Do not exceed the word limit for abstracts contained in the guidelines.

• Usually indented on left and keyed in italics.


Introduction or Background

• Tells readers why to read the article and what they can expect to find in the article.

• Set the context for the present study: reference to other studies is acceptable, but without an elaborate review.

• Most journals do not want this section labeled, though some formats require it (e.g., Harvard).


Purpose & Problem Statement

• Intention of research• “Prove” type of words

should be avoided as we are seldom able to prove anything with 100% certainty, except maybe in the hard sciences

• A problem statement is almost always posed as a question

• Wording of the problem statement usually establishes the kind of study (the research paradigm, methodology)


Hypotheses

• Stated only if statistical test is used

• Sole purpose is to establish a statement that can be rejected or accepted

• Should be a separate null hypothesis for each statistical test that will be performed

• Often, today, not stated in articles (or even reports) but implied


Significance of the Study

Why was the study done?

• Who will care about the results?

• How will business, education, people, government, the country, and so on benefit from the study?


Definitions

• Provide the reader with definitions of technical terms

• The words being defined should be arranged alphabetically.

• When quotes or ideas are used from other sources, appropriate references must be provided.


Theoretical Framework

• No study stands on its own but builds on foundations that have been established previously.

• Typically, one or two theories that are critical to carrying out your study will be described, with relevance to the current study made explicit.


Review of the Literature

• Reviews previous research and writings in the field under research.

• Includes content, methods, and related issues.

• Conduct research based on keywords and keep track of the data sources that you search.


A Poor Review………

• Is boring to read

• Simply lists abstract after abstract—a data dump

• Is not clear about the sources that were used for the search

• Does not provide an adequate background for the current study


A Good Review…….

• Synthesizes and integrates the information• Critiques the literature by pointing out flaws

in previous research • Discriminates present researcher’s

comments from those of the authors of the original research

• Makes the connection with the present study clear

• Provides a conceptual context


Reference to Assist in Reviews

Torraco, R. J. (2005). Writing integrative literature reviews: Guidelines and examples, Human Resource Development Review, 4(3), 356-367.


Methods

• Methodology = Research paradigm• Methods = Research techniques• Provides details of how the study was carried out,

so reader can determine the amount of credibility to place in the findings

• Enables other researchers to replicate the study to determine if the same results will occur when the study is repeated


Methods: Research Design

• Description of the research design

• Should be presented in sufficient detail to permit others to use the same design

• Specifies research paradigm (methodology)


Methods: Population & Sampling

• Should specify the population to which your findings can be inferred (if quantitative)

• Should identify the type of sampling used (if quantitative)

• Specify how samples were selected (if quantitative) or how participants were selected (if qualitative)


Methods: Population & Sampling

• If the method used was not preferred method, say how it was done, why, and indicate its limitations

• Include demographics here to describe participants, not in Findings


Methods: Data Collection

• Explains exactly how information was gathered• Validity and reliability information must be

presented• Specify if an IRB (Institutional Review Board) has

been used, or, at minimum, how human subjects were protected.

• If necessary for understanding, include instrument or sample items in the article or in an appendix.


Methods: Data Analysis

• Describe exactly what analyses were used (statistics or theme identification).

• Standard formulas and software need not be stated; include only if very unusual or it makes a difference in results.

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Methods: Limitations

• Admit limitations in your study; it is always better for you to identify and admit limitations than to have referees do so or to have the study critiqued publicly because you did not acknowledge.

• Provide the reader with the proper cautions to use in interpreting the results.

• Omit limitations that go with every research study using the paradigm you used (e.g., respondents were honest).


Results or Findings• What did you find?• Use same order as hypotheses or

research questions• Use subheadings• Put quantitative findings in a table• Set quotes apart in qualitative

study• Do not mix conclusions and

findings


Summary, Conclusions, Discussion

• Study is recapitulated briefly

• Conclusions drawn from findings and only from findings

• Avoid personal biases in conclusions

• Discussion is the place to put forward your guesses about why you found what you found and tie your findings to your literature review.


Recommendations

• What do conclusions from research mean for practice, policy, theory?

• What additional research is needed/should emerge from new insight gained or recognition of limitations present in the research?


References and Appendices

• References include only reference in the body of the article but all references in body of article.

• Must be alphabetized and follow the style criteria of the journal.

• Appendices are somewhat unusual in an article but may be used to include detailed tables or the instrument used in the study.


KEDI Journal of Educational Policy Criteria

I. EvaluationCriteria: High-(H), Acceptable-(A), Marginal-(M), Low-(L)

Importance of topicAppropriateness for KJEP

Quality of research (theoretical framework, research

methods, discussion, etc.)Quality of writing


KEDI Journal of Educational Policy Criteria

II. Recommendation to the editor. • Recommend as is • Recommend with minor modifications as noted• Recommend major modifications as noted and

resubmit• Reject based on:.

- Topics not significant- Not appropriate for this journal- Inadequate quality of research- Inadequate writing and presentation


Human Resource Development International Criteria

1. The importance of the topic

1a) Theoretical importance Is theoretically important Justifies claims to importance Can take the field into new directions of research

1b) Practical Importance

Is practically important

Links theory and practice



1c) Appropriateness Is appropriate to the journal and its

international readership Is a new, emerging, or under-

researched area Is timely in terms of current trends Is provocative and provides new

insights



2. The Problem Statement

2a) Presenting the Research Problem* Explains the principal propositions in some depth

* Provides an explanatory statement indicating the purpose of the study



2b) Clarity and Logical CoherenceConstructs and variables are clearly defined and differentiated Uses theory and arguments that are internally consistent Reaches logical and clear deductions and inferences Constructs statements in a way to be understood by a wide range of readers



3. Relevance and Scope of the Literature Review Appropriate body of literature clearly identified Literature review is up to date Literature is fully discussed

* Reaches logical, clear deductions and inferences



4. The Research Design and Methodological Rigor4a)Appropriateness Uses appropriate design for the research problem Justifies use of methodology based upon research

problem and questions Addresses issues of control, influence, causation,

internal and external validity, and relevance vs. rigor* Provides a statement of the limitations of the research

design



4b)Technical accuracy * Data is collected using appropriate instruments and

sampling procedures* Uses statistical techniques accurately* Addresses issues relating to statistical techniques* Uses qualitative techniques accurately* Addresses issues relating to analyzing qualitative

data* Describes all procedures clearly



4c) Appropriateness of Data Reporting* Reports both descriptive and inferential statistics,

including significance levels* Reports sample qualitative data to support

conclusions5. Results and Conclusions5a) Appropriateness of Results* Links research questions and data analysis* Does not over-interpret or under-interpret results and

conclusions



5b) Appropriateness of the Conclusions* Links results to conclusions* Does not go beyond results in the conclusions* Derives theoretical implications from the results* Derives practical implications from the results* Places results within a broader context* Considers both limitations and constraints in the study* Does not overlook results that contradict or suggest

alternative explanations



6. Contribution to the field of HRD

* Makes a theoretical contribution

* Makes a practical contribution

* Makes a methodological contribution

* Provides a constructive replication

* Adds new insights

* Suggests new and innovative directions for research



7. Presentation

7a) Quality of the Writing

* Presents ideas clearly and in a logical and orderly manner

* Is impartial, objective and professional in the treatment of the subject matter

* Tells an integrated and consistent story



7b) Conformance to Publication Requirements

* Conforms to publication guidelines

* Follows journal style and format requirements

* Presents citations correctly


English Writing Problems for Thais

Based solely on my experience teaching here and co-authoring with Thai colleagues:

• Misuse of articles: Is one required? Should it be a, an, or the?

• Confusing singulars and plurals• Incorrect verb tense use• Use of inappropriate preposition (of, for,

with)



• Failure to use transition sentences from one idea to the next

• Failure to use topical sentences for paragraphs

• Lack of understanding about the purpose of a paragraph (to cluster ideas related to one idea together)



• Failure to follow journal guidelines

• Failure to use sufficient and appropriate subheadings

• Plagiarism

• Lack of attention to details

• Lack of knowledge about word processing software tools



• Lack of understanding about use of English punctuation, e.g., spacing around parentheses (here is a correct example); spacing around colons and semicolons (no space before either), confusing comma and semicolon use, putting a space before a ? or !, and so on.


Q&A Time!


Appendix: APA Style Guide Summary


APA Style (1)

• The American Psychological Association (APA) has established a style that it uses in all of the books and journals that it publishes.

• Many other journals in the social and behavioral sciences have adopted this style as their standard as well, both in the U.S.A. and elsewhere.


APA Style (2)

• Many organizations (including AHRD) start with APA requirements and then make modifications.

• Dissertations are allowed to deviate in set ways


APA style (3)

Concerns uniform use of:

• Headings

• Citation of references

• Punctuation and abbreviations

• Construction of tables and figures

• Presentation of statistics

• Elements that are a part of every manuscript


APA Calls For…

• At least one inch margin all the way around the text

• Double spacing is required throughout the paper

• Sometimes a problem for Asian countries who have the formatting set for Asian languages (e.g., Chinese)


Page Numbers

• Each page is numbered consecutively, including title page and reference page

• Type the numbers in the upper right corner• Short title is typed one inch below the top

of the page flush with the right margin (of one inch).

• Do not use any identifiers in headers or footers.


Title Page

• Should have the title of the paper centered on the page

• The short title and page number appear at the top right of the title page

• The author's name appears one double-space below the title

• The institutional affiliation appears one double space below author’s name


Sample of Title Page


Manuscript Format

• Running head is typed flush left at the top of the title page (but below the manuscript page header) and in all uppercase letters.

• Within the text, paragraphs are indented five to seven spaces

• Exceptions to this requirement are the abstract, block quotations, titles and headings, entries in the reference list, table titles and notes (if any), and figure captions, which require no indents.


Page Two

• Abstract for the paper• A brief (100-150

words) comprehensive summary of the research paper

• The short title and the number 2 are typed in the upper right corner of the page.

• The word Abstract is centered as the first line of type on this page


Sample of Page Two


Page Three

• Start body of the paper

• The title of the paper appears (centered) one double space below the short title

• The first line of the body of the paper appears one double space below the title


Sample of Page Three


Headings (1)

• Three levels of headings will suffice for most papers

• Double-spacing within the headings required.

• First level centered with upper case and lower case typing


Headings (2)

• Second level, flush left, italics, upper and lower case

• Third level, indented, lower case, paragraph heading ending with a period

First Level HeadingSecond Level Heading

Third level heading.


Quotations (1)

• Short quotations (fewer than 40 words) are incorporated into the text and enclosed by double quotations marks (")

• Long quotations of 40 or more words are displayed in a double-spaced block of typewritten lines with no quotation marks

• The APA suggests that you do not single space


Quotations (2)

• For long quotes, set both margin markers at five spaces from left margin, type the entire quotation with indented margin.

• If the quotation is more than one paragraph, indent the first line of the second and additional paragraphs five spaces from the already indented margin, i.e., ten spaces from the left margin.


Quotations (3)

• Ellipsis points are used to indicate omitted material in the middle of a quote.

• Type three periods with a space before and after each period to indicate omission within a sentence (. . .).

• To indicate an omission between sentences type a punctuation mark for the sentence followed by three spaced periods (. . . .) (?. . .) (! . . .).


Quotations (4)

• Single quotation marks (‘) are used only when there is a quote within a quote.

• Quotation marks are not allowed except for a quote; this contradicts common practice when using words in an unusual way, e.g., the “flavor of the month”


Parenthetical Citation (1)

• The APA system of citing sources indicates the author's last name and the date, in parentheses, within the text of your paper (McLean, 2003).

• A typical citation of an entire work consists of the author's name and the year of publication.

• If the author is named in the text, only the year is cited in parentheses, e.g., McLean (2003) claimed that …



• If both the name of the author and the date are used in the text, parenthetical reference is not necessary, e.g., In 2003, McLean claimed

• Specific citations of pages or chapters follow the year when there is an exact quote, e.g., APA “is essential for scholarly writing” (McLean, 2003, p. 3) – note that there is ALWAYS a space after p.

• When the reference is to a work by two authors, cite both names each time the reference appears.



• If three to five authors, cite all authors the first time the reference appears. Subsequently, use the first author's last name followed by et al. e.g., McLean et al. (2003) found a lot of interest…

• If a corporate author, use the name of the organization as the author.

• Personal letters, telephone calls, and other material that cannot be retrieved are not listed in the Reference list but are cited in the text, e.g., McLean (personal interview, 2003) found...


Parenthetical Citation (4)Parenthetical references may mention more than one work,

Multiple citations should be arranged as follows. Examples: 1. List two or more works by the same author in order of the

date of publication: (Gould, 1987, 1989)

2. Differentiate works by the same author and with the same publication date by adding an identifying letter to each date: (Bloom, 1987a, 1987b)

3. List works by different authors in alphabetical order by last name, and use semicolons to separate the references: (Gould, 1989; Smith, 1983; Tutwiler, 1989).


Appendices

• Materials incorporated for ease of reading a report and, occasionally, a paper or article

• Should be labeled with appendix number and a title.

• Can include questionnaire, test items, cover letters, follow-up letters, letters of permission to use copyrighted instruments, correlation matrices, tables of raw data, etc.


General Rules for Using Tables

• Should be numbered throughout the report

• Title should be complete and explanatory

• Every column should have heading and row, label

• Don't duplicate information in table in the prose.

• Don’t use (%) without number accompanying it.

• Give the units only in the column heading.

• Table should be centered within the body of the report.

• Table title should not be wider than the table itself.


Tables and Figures

• Label each table and figure with the word Table or Figure and an Arabic numeral identifying it.

• Titles should be italicized and on a separate line from label.

• The text accompanying tables and figures must be double-spaced.


Reference List

• Starts on a new page

• Type the word References centered at the top of the page

• Double-space all reference entries

• Do NOT indent the first line of each entry

• The second and succeeding lines in references are indented


Different Reference Types (1)

• Single-Author Book

• Book with More than One Author

• Edition Other than First

• An Edited Volume

• Book Without Author or Editor Listed


Reference Types (2)

• Multi-Volume Work

• Multi-Author Article in a Multi-Author Volume

• Secondary Resources

• Dissertation or Dissertation Abstract


Reference Types (3)

• Journals/Periodicals

• Periodicals Without Volume Numbers

• Brochure or Pamphlet

• Newspaper Articles

• Non-print Media


Reference Types (4)

• Government Documents

• Electronic Resources


More about references

• Entries appear in alphabetical order according to the last name of the first author

• Two or more works by the same author appear in chronological order by date of publication date.

• When there are two or more books or articles by the same author, repeat the name of the author in each entry

• The abbreviation et al. (for "and others") is not used in the reference list; list all authors


Reference Examples

DeYoung, A. (2001). West meets East in Central Asia: Competing discourses on secondary education reform in the Kyrgyz Republic. Unpublished manuscript, University of Kentucky. (Single author, unpublished)

Fishman, L., & Bamberg, J. (1998). Professional values and stereotypes of Russian educational managers. International Journal of Educational Research, 29, 297-484. (Two authors in journal with continuous pagination)

Heyneman, S. P. (1998). The transition from party/state to open democracy: The role of education. International Journal of Educational Development, 18(1), 21-40. (Single author in journal with issue number)


Reference Examples

McLean, G. N. (1997). Multirater 360 feedback In L. J. Bassi & D. Russ-Eft (Eds), What works: Assessment, development, and measurement (pp. 87-108). Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development. (Single author in edited work)

McLean, G. N., Seashore, K., Naimanova, C., & Karimov, M. (2001). Developing and Strengthening Educational Leadership in Kyrgyzstan: Proposal. Washington, DC: Bureau of Education and Cultural Affairs, FY2001 NIS College and University Partnerships Program, U.S. State Department. (Multiple authors in published work)


Hyphens, Dashes, &Minus

• Hyphen: no space before or after (trial-by-trial analysis).

• Dash: type as two hyphens with no space before, between or after except when using formats in which one has no control over line-breaks. Avoid long text-blocks created without the space between the dash (--).

• Minus: type as a hyphen with space on both sides (x - 3).

Publishing Academic Research: Addendum Gary N. McLean Texas A&M University [email protected] Mahidol...

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