PsychologyPsychology

Chapter 3Chapter 3

Lecture QuestionsLecture Questions

Section 1 Section 1 Revised September 2015Revised September 2015

1. What is the human 1. What is the human nervous system involved nervous system involved

with?with? Think of the nervous system as your Think of the nervous system as your

body’s wiring system.body’s wiring system. It is involved with thinking, dreaming, It is involved with thinking, dreaming,

feeling, moving, sleeping, internal feeling, moving, sleeping, internal functions, learning, memory and much functions, learning, memory and much more.more.

When we learn a new behavior or acquire When we learn a new behavior or acquire new information, the nervous system new information, the nervous system registers the experience and changes to registers the experience and changes to accommodate its storage.accommodate its storage.

2. What are the two main parts 2. What are the two main parts of the human nervous system? of the human nervous system? What makes up these parts?What makes up these parts?

The The central central nervous systemnervous system consists of the brain consists of the brain and the spinal cord.and the spinal cord.

The The peripheral peripheral nervous system nervous system is is made up of nerve made up of nerve cells that send cells that send messages between messages between the CNS and all the the CNS and all the parts of the body.parts of the body.

3. What are neurons? What 3. What are neurons? What do they do? How many do do they do? How many do

we have?we have? Neurons are nerve cells that run Neurons are nerve cells that run

through our entire bodies and through our entire bodies and communicate with each other.communicate with each other.

Neurons send and receive messages Neurons send and receive messages from other structures in the body, from other structures in the body, such as muscles and glands.such as muscles and glands.

Each of us has more than Each of us has more than 100 100 billion billion neurons, most of which can neurons, most of which can be found in the brain.be found in the brain.

4. What are the parts of a 4. What are the parts of a neuron?neuron?

Cell body-Cell body-storesstores energy that fuels the cellenergy that fuels the cell DendritesDendrites-receive information from other neurons-receive information from other neurons AxonsAxons-carry messages away from cell body-carry messages away from cell body Myelin sheath-Myelin sheath-insulatesinsulates and protects the axonand protects the axon

5. What is 5. What is neuroplasticity?neuroplasticity?

Recent research has shown that the brain Recent research has shown that the brain has the ability to reorganize itself.has the ability to reorganize itself.

Connections between neurons are altered Connections between neurons are altered to make up for injury or disease, or to to make up for injury or disease, or to adjust to changes in the environment.adjust to changes in the environment. Stroke or traumatic brain injury for example.Stroke or traumatic brain injury for example.

These changes can occur in response to These changes can occur in response to new experiences at different times new experiences at different times throughout an individual’s lifethroughout an individual’s life

6. What is the synapse?6. What is the synapse?

In order for a message In order for a message to be sent from one to be sent from one neuron to another neuron to another neuron, it must cross neuron, it must cross the synapse.the synapse.

The synapse is the The synapse is the junction (gap) junction (gap) between axon between axon terminals and terminals and receiving dendrites.receiving dendrites.

7. How do messages cross the 7. How do messages cross the synapse? What is a synapse? What is a neurotransmitter?neurotransmitter?

Neurons send messages across synapses Neurons send messages across synapses through the release of through the release of neurotransmittersneurotransmitters.. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are stored in Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are stored in

sacs in the axon terminals.sacs in the axon terminals.

A neuron fires, or sends its message, by A neuron fires, or sends its message, by releasing neurotransmitters– much like droplets releasing neurotransmitters– much like droplets of water shooting out of a spray bottle.of water shooting out of a spray bottle. Neurons can fire hundreds of times every second.Neurons can fire hundreds of times every second.

8. What actions are 8. What actions are neurotransmitters involved? neurotransmitters involved?

Involved in everything we do from waving Involved in everything we do from waving a hand, yawning, to thinking about a a hand, yawning, to thinking about a friend.friend.

Some diseases and psychological Some diseases and psychological disorders may also be caused by the disorders may also be caused by the presence of too many or too few of various presence of too many or too few of various neurotransmitters.neurotransmitters.

9. What does acetylcholine do?

Acetylcholine is involved in the control of muscles. First neurotransmitter to be discovered (1921). Also involved in the “scheduling” of REM sleep.

Curare is a poison extracted from plants which South American Indians use to coat their arrows.

When it pierces the skin, the poison prevents acetylcholine from lodging within the receptor sites in neurons. The lack of Ach prevents muscle contractions, thereby resulting in paralysis. The victim is unable to contract the muscles used in breathing and dies from suffocation.

10. What does dopamine do?

Dopamine is primarily involved with motor behavior. A deficiency in dopamine levels plays a role in Parkinson’s disease.

Discovered in the 1950s. Parkinson’s victims suffer from uncontrollable muscle tremors,

problems with balance, and uncoordinated, rigid movements. Dopamine is also strongly associated with reward mechanisms in the

brain. Drugs like cocaine, opium, heroin, and alcohol increase the levels

of dopamine, as does nicotine. If it feels good, dopamine neurons are probably involved !

The severe mental illness schizophrenia has been shown to be partly caused by excessive amounts of dopamine in the frontal lobes.

Drugs to block dopamine are used to help schizophrenics.

11. What are some other neurotransmitters and what do they do?

Noradrenaline is primarily involved with bringing our nervous systems into “high alert.” Discovered in 1946. Also called norepinephrine, it acts with adrenalin (epinephrine) to increase

heart rate and blood pressure. Also involved in forming memories.

Serotonin is involved in emotion, mood, and sleep. Discovered in the 1930s. Too little serotonin has been shown to lead to depression, problems with anger

control, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and difficulty in sleeping. Prozac and other recent drugs help people with depression by preventing the neurons

from “vacuuming” up excess serotonin, so that there is more left floating around in the synapses.

Endorphins are neurotransmitters similar in function to the drug morphine. A “runner’s high” is the result of the release of endorphins. They have a tranquilizing and painkilling effect on the body. It is structurally very similar to the opioids (opium, morphine, heroin, etc) and has

similar functions.

12. Does a neurotransmitter react with every cell? Explain. No. Each neurotransmitter has its own

structure and fits into a receptor site on the next neuron, similar to the way in which a key fits into a lock.

13. Describe the spinal cord.

The spinal cord extends from the brain down the back.

It is a column of nerves about as thick as a thumb, and is protected by the bones of the spine.

It transmits messages between the brain and the muscles and the glands throughout the body.

14. What is a spinal reflex? List 14. What is a spinal reflex? List several reflexes.several reflexes.

A A spinal reflex spinal reflex is a simple, is a simple, automatic response to automatic response to something.something.

If a person touches a hot If a person touches a hot stove, a message goes stove, a message goes immediately from his or her immediately from his or her hand to the spinal cord. A hand to the spinal cord. A message to remove the hand message to remove the hand is then sent back to motor is then sent back to motor neurons in the hand and the neurons in the hand and the had is then removed.had is then removed.

Other reflexes include: blinking Other reflexes include: blinking your eye when a speck of dust your eye when a speck of dust gets in there, sneezing when gets in there, sneezing when you smell pepper, and the you smell pepper, and the knee jerk test at your doctor’s knee jerk test at your doctor’s office.office.

15. What are the two main divisions 15. What are the two main divisions of the peripheral nervous system?of the peripheral nervous system?

The peripheral nervous system is comprised of The peripheral nervous system is comprised of the the somaticsomatic nervous system and the nervous system and the autonomicautonomic nervous system. nervous system.

16. What does the somatic nervous system enable us to do?

The somatic nervous system transmits sensory messages to the central nervous system.

It is activated by touch, pain, changes in temperature, and changes in body position.

It enables us to experience sensations of hot and cold, feel pain and pressure, and maintain posture and balance.

17. What does autonomic mean? What does the autonomic nervous system regulate? What else is it

involved with?• The word autonomic

means “occurring involuntarily”, or automatically.

• It regulates the body’s vital functions, such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and blood pressure.

• Psychologists are interested in the autonomic nervous system because of its involvement in the experience of emotion.

18. What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system? What is each involved with?

The sympathetic system (stress) is activated when a person is going into action, perhaps because of some stressful event. It prepares the body either to confront the event or to run away. (“fight or flight”)

The parasympathetic nervous system (peace) restores the body’s reserves of energy after an action has occurred. Heart rate and blood pressure are normalized, breathing is slowed, and digestion returns to normal.

19. Draw the divisions of the 19. Draw the divisions of the nervous system.nervous system.

PsychologyPsychology

Chapter 3Chapter 3

Lecture QuestionsLecture Questions

Section 2 (pages 59-67)Section 2 (pages 59-67)

1. What are some of the 1. What are some of the ancient beliefs in ancient beliefs in

relationship to the brain relationship to the brain and psychological and psychological

processes?processes? In ancient times, hundreds of years before In ancient times, hundreds of years before scientists had learned much about how the brain scientists had learned much about how the brain functions, people did not attribute human functions, people did not attribute human psychological processes such as thinking to the psychological processes such as thinking to the working of the brain.working of the brain.

Believed that humans were not that different than Believed that humans were not that different than other animals.other animals.

Instead, it was widely believed that the body was Instead, it was widely believed that the body was inhabited by souls or demons.inhabited by souls or demons.

The ancient Egyptians believed that a little person The ancient Egyptians believed that a little person dwelled within the skull and regulated behavior. dwelled within the skull and regulated behavior. (Ka)(Ka)

Aristotle believed that the soul resided in the Aristotle believed that the soul resided in the heart.heart.

2. What are the three sections of the brain?

Average brain weighs 3 pounds.

The brain is divided into three sections: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.

3. What are the parts of the 3. What are the parts of the hindbrain and what is their main hindbrain and what is their main

function?function? MedullaMedulla—vital functions like heart —vital functions like heart

rate, blood pressure, and breathing.rate, blood pressure, and breathing. PonsPons—body movement, attention, —body movement, attention,

sleep, and alertness.sleep, and alertness. CerebellumCerebellum (“little brain”)—balance, (“little brain”)—balance,

coordinationcoordination

4. What is the midbrain 4. What is the midbrain involved with?involved with?

• Areas are involved with hearing and vision.Areas are involved with hearing and vision.– Eye movement, for example, is controlled by Eye movement, for example, is controlled by

an area in the midbrain.an area in the midbrain.• In addition, the midbrain contains part of the In addition, the midbrain contains part of the

reticularreticular activating system.activating system.– This system is important for attention, sleep, This system is important for attention, sleep,

and arousal.and arousal.– Stimulation of the RAS makes us alert.Stimulation of the RAS makes us alert.

•It affects arousal by increasing heart rate It affects arousal by increasing heart rate and blood pressure.and blood pressure.

– The RAS may also filter out some noises. For The RAS may also filter out some noises. For example, a person who lives in the city may example, a person who lives in the city may not be awakened by the noise of traffic.not be awakened by the noise of traffic.

5. What are the parts of the 5. What are the parts of the forebrain and what is their forebrain and what is their

main function?main function? ThalamusThalamus—(”inner chamber”)serves as a relay station for —(”inner chamber”)serves as a relay station for

sensory information.sensory information. HypothalamusHypothalamus—vital to the regulation of body —vital to the regulation of body

temperature, the storage of nutrients, and various aspects temperature, the storage of nutrients, and various aspects of motivation and emotion. Also, involved with hunger, of motivation and emotion. Also, involved with hunger, thirst, and aggression. Disturbances within the thirst, and aggression. Disturbances within the hypothalamus can lead to unusual drinking and eating hypothalamus can lead to unusual drinking and eating behaviors.behaviors.

Limbic system—Limbic system—isis involved with learning, memory, involved with learning, memory, emotion, hunger and aggression.emotion, hunger and aggression. Amygdala-fear responseAmygdala-fear response

CerebrumCerebrum—makes up 70% of the weight of the brain and —makes up 70% of the weight of the brain and is wrinkled with ridges and valleys. The surface is called is wrinkled with ridges and valleys. The surface is called the cerebral cortex or outer layer of the brain. This is the the cerebral cortex or outer layer of the brain. This is the part of the brain that we tend to think of when we talk part of the brain that we tend to think of when we talk about the brain.about the brain.

6. What is the cerebral cortex? What connects its two hemispheres.

It is the part that makes us uniquely human– the part that thinks.

It also deals with memory, language, emotions, complex motor functions, perception, and much more.

Information received by one side of the body is transmitted to the opposite hemisphere.• The corpus callosum connects the two

hemispheres together.

7. How is information received by the cerebral cortex?

Information received by one side of the body is transmitted to the opposite hemisphere.

The corpus callosum aids in getting information from one side of the brain to the other. It is made up of a thick bundle of nerves.

8. How is each hemisphere divided? List these parts and their

location.

• Each hemisphere is divided into four (4) parts or lobes.– Occipital—located at the back of the head– Frontal—located behind the forehead– Parietal—located on top and rear of head– Temporal—located on the sides, near the ears

9. What senses are contained in 9. What senses are contained in each of the lobes?each of the lobes?

• The occipital lobe contains the primary visual area of the cerebral cortex.

• The hearing, or auditory, area of the cortex lies in the temporal lobe.

• Messages received from the skin senses are projected to the sensory cortex in the parietal lobe. These sensations include warmth, cold, touch, and pain.

• The motor cortex in the frontal lobe help us to move certain parts of our body.

10. List three brain facts.10. List three brain facts.

• Neurons create enough electricity to power a 10-watt light bulb.

• Sensory neurons send information to the brain at a speed of more than 150 miles per hour.

• Motor neurons relay information at a speed of more than 200 miles per hour.

• If the cerebral cortex was unfolded, it would cover a typical classroom desk.

• The average human brain is about 75 percent water.• During the first month of life, the number of synapses in

an infant’s brain increases from 50 trillion to 1 quadrillion.

11. What are association areas? What is an aphasia?

Areas that shape information into something meaningful. Involved with specialized tasks.

Also involved with solving problems, sight, and memory.

Other association areas make possible the complex psychological functions of language. Damage to any language area is called an

aphasia.

12. Where are most language 12. Where are most language abilities located in the brain? What abilities located in the brain? What

are the two key language areas are the two key language areas called?called?

Left hemisphereLeft hemisphere Broca’s area—Broca’s area—locatedlocated

in the frontal lobe, any in the frontal lobe, any damage to this area will damage to this area will cause people to speak cause people to speak slowly and laboriously, slowly and laboriously, using simple sentences.using simple sentences.

Language areas (continued)Language areas (continued)

Wernicke’s area—Wernicke’s area—whichwhich is located in the is located in the temporal lobe, pieces temporal lobe, pieces together sounds and together sounds and sights.sights.

People with damage to People with damage to this area may find it this area may find it difficult to understand difficult to understand speech, and their speech speech, and their speech is often meaningless.is often meaningless.

13. What else is located in the left hemisphere? What is the right hemisphere involved with?

The same hemisphere that contains most language functions (left) is usually more involved in logic, problem solving, and mathematical computation than is the other hemisphere.The non-language hemisphere (right) is relatively more concerned with imagination, art, feelings, and spatial relations.

Thus, people who are very logical are said to be “left-brained,” while people who are particularly creative are called “right-brained”.

Although some differences do exist, the hemispheres do not act independently of each other.

14. What is associated with “left-brained” people?

Serious

Objective-sequential-logical

Plans & organizes

Analytical-organized

Handles money well

Good with words and math

Critical thinker

Conscious of time

“Attacks”

15. What is associated with “right-brained” people?

Intuitive-visual

Emotional

Imaginative

Companionable

Creative-spontaneous

Likes hands-on experiences

Likes visuals, charts, diagrams and maps

“Reflective”

16. What is a split-brain operation? 16. What is a split-brain operation? Why is it performed?Why is it performed?

The corpus callosum, which The corpus callosum, which connects the two connects the two hemispheres, is cut.hemispheres, is cut.• Much of what psychologists have Much of what psychologists have

learned about right-left brain learned about right-left brain function comes from this function comes from this procedure.procedure.

This procedure, although This procedure, although performed only rarely is performed only rarely is sometimes used to help sometimes used to help people with serious neural people with serious neural disorders such as epilepsy.disorders such as epilepsy.• Reduces the severity of neural Reduces the severity of neural

firings experienced by epileptics, firings experienced by epileptics, which cause seizures.which cause seizures.

After the surgery, patients After the surgery, patients usually function quite usually function quite effectively despite their effectively despite their hemispheres’ inability to hemispheres’ inability to communicate with each other.communicate with each other.

17. How are accidents used to study the brain?

Brain damage from head injuries can result in loss of vision and hearing, confusion, or loss of memory.

In some cases, the loss of large portions of the brain may result in relatively little loss of function. Yet the loss of vital, smaller parts can result in

language problems, memory loss, or death. In other words, which particular area is

damaged may have a greater effect than the amount of damage. Location, location, location

18. What new technology has assisted scientists in their use of lesions to study the brain?

Scientists can also study a brain by cutting, removing, or destroying parts of it.

By observing an animal’s behavior after a part has been removed, scientists can determine what types of behavior that area of the brain controls. Obviously, ethical considerations prevent this type of

research on humans. New imaging techniques, such as scans, allow

researchers to observe changes in the behavior or bodily functions of humans with brain lesions.

19. How is electrical stimulation used to study the brain? Describe Jose Delgado’s experiment. Describe the study done by Olds and Milner.

Different parts of the brain are associated with different sensations or motor activities.

1969—Delgado used electrical stimulation to show that an animal could be made to change behavioral patterns. An electrode was implanted into a bull’s brain and

when it was stimulated, the bull dramatically stopped his charge and circled to the right.

1969—Olds and Milner used rats who had electrodes implanted in their brains to learn about the functions of the hypothalamus. The electrodes stimulated the “pleasure centers” of the

rats, thus they continued to press the lever to receive this stimulation.

20. Briefly summarize the 20. Briefly summarize the case on Phineas Gage.case on Phineas Gage.

Railroad worker in 1848.Railroad worker in 1848. While tamping down the blasting powder for a dynamite charge, Gage set While tamping down the blasting powder for a dynamite charge, Gage set

the powder off.the powder off. An inch-thick, 3½ foot metal rod shot upward through his brain and out An inch-thick, 3½ foot metal rod shot upward through his brain and out

the top of his head.the top of his head. Gage fell back, but was not dead and eventually stood up to the Gage fell back, but was not dead and eventually stood up to the

amazement of his co-workers.amazement of his co-workers. Gage was carted off to the doctor, who was amazed at the hole in his Gage was carted off to the doctor, who was amazed at the hole in his

head.head. Gage returned to work two months later, his physical wounds healed.Gage returned to work two months later, his physical wounds healed. However, Gage had changed. He no longer was a dependable worker. He However, Gage had changed. He no longer was a dependable worker. He

had become foul-mouthed and ill-mannered.had become foul-mouthed and ill-mannered. It was obvious that he had suffered some serious psychological damage.It was obvious that he had suffered some serious psychological damage. Gage died 13 years later during an epileptic seizure.Gage died 13 years later during an epileptic seizure. His skull was donated to the Warren Medical Museum at Harvard His skull was donated to the Warren Medical Museum at Harvard

University and has been studied ever since.University and has been studied ever since.

Phineas Gage Phineas Gage

21. How is an electroencephalogram used to study the brain?• The EEG is a device that records the electrical

activity of the brain.• Electrodes attached to the scalp with tape

detect small amounts of electrical activity called brain waves.

• Researchers have learned that certain brain wave patterns are associated with feelings of relaxation and with sleep.

• Researchers and physicians can use EEG readings to help diagnose some kinds of psychological disorders and to help locate tumors.

22. What is a CAT scan and 22. What is a CAT scan and MRI?MRI?

CAT scanCAT scan (computerized axial tomography) (computerized axial tomography)—a moving ring passes X-ray beams around —a moving ring passes X-ray beams around and through the head. Computers measure and through the head. Computers measure the amounts of radiation and piece together the amounts of radiation and piece together a three-dimensional view of the brain that a three-dimensional view of the brain that can be displayed on a video monitor.can be displayed on a video monitor.

MRIMRI (magnetic resonance imaging)—is more (magnetic resonance imaging)—is more powerful than the CAT scan and can show powerful than the CAT scan and can show details more clearly. The MRI uses radio details more clearly. The MRI uses radio waves in a magnetic field to create a waves in a magnetic field to create a picture.picture.

CAT scan & MRICAT scan & MRI

23. What two brain imaging techniques 23. What two brain imaging techniques allow to view the brain at work?allow to view the brain at work?

PET scan PET scan (positron (positron emission tomography)—emission tomography)—Shows activity of the brain, Shows activity of the brain, not a snapshot of it. not a snapshot of it. Uses radioactive sugar to Uses radioactive sugar to

produce a picture of the brain produce a picture of the brain as it is working. as it is working.

The The functional MRI functional MRI can can show which parts of the show which parts of the brain are active when we brain are active when we perform different activities.perform different activities.

Listening to music or Listening to music or working on a math working on a math problem.problem.

Chapter 3Lecture Questions

Section 3 (pgs. 67-69)

1. What does the endocrine system 1. What does the endocrine system consist of?consist of?

Glands that secrete substances, Glands that secrete substances, called hormones, into the called hormones, into the bloodstream.bloodstream.

The word hormone is derived from The word hormone is derived from the Greek horman, meaning “to the Greek horman, meaning “to stimulate” or “to excite.”stimulate” or “to excite.”

Endocrine system video (1 min)Endocrine system video (1 min)

2. What do hormones do? How 2. What do hormones do? How are they like are they like

neurotransmitters?neurotransmitters?• Hormones stimulate growth and many

kinds of reactions, such as changes in activity levels and moods.

• Because hormones affect behavior and emotional reactions, psychologists who study the biology of behavior are also interested in the endocrine system.

• Like neurotransmitters, hormones have specific receptor sites.

• Hormones are produced by many different glands.

3. Describe the pituitary 3. Describe the pituitary gland. Why is it so gland. Why is it so

important?important? It lies just below the hypothalamus and is about the size of a It lies just below the hypothalamus and is about the size of a

“pea.”“pea.” It is so important that it has been called the “master gland.”It is so important that it has been called the “master gland.” It is stimulated by the hypothalamus and is responsible for It is stimulated by the hypothalamus and is responsible for

the secretion of many different hormones.the secretion of many different hormones. It also is responsible for keeping a balance of hormones in It also is responsible for keeping a balance of hormones in

the body.the body.

Pituitary gland video Pituitary gland video (37 sec)(37 sec)

4. What hormones does the 4. What hormones does the pituitary gland secrete? What pituitary gland secrete? What

does each do?does each do? Growth hormone—Growth hormone—regulatesregulates the growth of the growth of

muscles, bones, and glands.muscles, bones, and glands. Growth hormone is sometimes given to abnormally slow Growth hormone is sometimes given to abnormally slow

growing children to stimulate growth.growing children to stimulate growth. HGH-illegal HGH-illegal performance-enhancing drug performance-enhancing drug used by used by

athletesathletes ProlactinProlactin—stimulates production of milk in —stimulates production of milk in

nursing women.nursing women. OxytocinOxytocin—stimulates labor in pregnancy.—stimulates labor in pregnancy.

Sometimes when a pregnant woman is overdue, a Sometimes when a pregnant woman is overdue, a doctor may induce labor by injecting the woman with doctor may induce labor by injecting the woman with oxytocin.oxytocin.

5. Where is the thyroid 5. Where is the thyroid gland located? What does it gland located? What does it

produce? What does this produce? What does this hormone do?hormone do?

• The thyroid gland sits like an open The thyroid gland sits like an open butterfly in the throat area.butterfly in the throat area.

• The thyroid produces thyroxin, The thyroid produces thyroxin, which affects the body’s metabolismwhich affects the body’s metabolism—its rate of converting food to —its rate of converting food to energy.energy.

Thyroid video (59 sec)Thyroid video (59 sec)

6. What is hypothyroidism?

Caused by too little thyroxin.• People with

hypothyroidism often are sluggish and overweight.

7. What is cretinism?7. What is cretinism?

For children, too little thyroxin can For children, too little thyroxin can cause a condition called cretinism.cause a condition called cretinism.

Cretinism is characterized by Cretinism is characterized by stunted growth, failure to thrive, stunted growth, failure to thrive, sleeping problems and sometimes a sleeping problems and sometimes a mental handicap.mental handicap.

8. What is hyperthyroidism?8. What is hyperthyroidism?

People who produce too much People who produce too much thyroxin develop hyperthyroidism. thyroxin develop hyperthyroidism. • It is characterized by excitability, It is characterized by excitability,

inability to sleep, and weight loss.inability to sleep, and weight loss.

9. What is a goiter?9. What is a goiter?

Caused by a lack of iodine in Caused by a lack of iodine in a person’s diet.a person’s diet.– Iodine added to table salt Iodine added to table salt

to alleviate this problem.to alleviate this problem. Sometimes removed, which Sometimes removed, which

caused multiple problems.caused multiple problems. Embedded in the thyroid are Embedded in the thyroid are

smaller endocrine glands smaller endocrine glands called the parathyroids.called the parathyroids.– Parathyroids produce Parathyroids produce

hormones involved in hormones involved in calcium levels.calcium levels.

10. 10. Where are the adrenal glands located? Where are the adrenal glands located? What is the outer layer called? What does it What is the outer layer called? What does it

produce? What do these hormones do?produce? What do these hormones do?

Perched like two snow caps on the Perched like two snow caps on the kidneys.kidneys.

The outer layer, or cortex, of the adrenal The outer layer, or cortex, of the adrenal glands secretes cortical steroids.glands secretes cortical steroids.

Cortical steroids increase resistance to Cortical steroids increase resistance to stress and promote muscle development.stress and promote muscle development.

They also cause the liver to release stored They also cause the liver to release stored sugar, making energy available for sugar, making energy available for emergencies.emergencies.

11. What other hormones does the adrenal glands produce? What do they do? The adrenal glands also produce adrenaline and

noradrenaline. Both of these hormones help arouse the body, enabling

the person to cope with a stressful situation. Adrenaline also plays a role in the emotions

people experience. It can intensify emotions such as fear and anxiety.

Noradrenaline also acts to raise blood pressure. However, noradrenaline acts as a neurotransmitter in

the nervous system.

12. What hormone does the testes 12. What hormone does the testes produce? What does this hormone produce? What does this hormone do?do? In the male, testosterone is produced In the male, testosterone is produced

in the testes and plays an important in the testes and plays an important role in development.role in development. In adolescence, it aids the growth of In adolescence, it aids the growth of

muscle and bone as well as the muscle and bone as well as the development of primary and secondary development of primary and secondary sex characteristics like maturation.sex characteristics like maturation.

TestosteroneTestosterone is a kind of steroid. It is a kind of steroid. It affects muscle mass, heightens affects muscle mass, heightens resistance to stress, and increases resistance to stress, and increases the body’s energy supply.the body’s energy supply.

13. 13. What hormones do the What hormones do the ovaries produce? What does each ovaries produce? What does each of these hormones do?of these hormones do? Estrogen and progesterone are Estrogen and progesterone are

female sex hormones.female sex hormones. EstrogenEstrogen fosters the development fosters the development

of primary and secondary sex of primary and secondary sex characteristics.characteristics.

ProgesteroneProgesterone promotes the promotes the growth of the female reproductive growth of the female reproductive organs and helps prepare the organs and helps prepare the body for pregnancy.body for pregnancy.

14. What ethical problems are 14. What ethical problems are associated with steroid use?associated with steroid use? Recently, the production of synthetic human Recently, the production of synthetic human

growth hormone and steroids has gained the growth hormone and steroids has gained the attention of behavioral psychologists.attention of behavioral psychologists.

These athletes gain an unfair advantage over These athletes gain an unfair advantage over other athletes who do not use these banned other athletes who do not use these banned substances.substances.

Side-effects include: moodiness, increased Side-effects include: moodiness, increased anger, aggressive behavior and depression.anger, aggressive behavior and depression.

Researchers have also reported links Researchers have also reported links between steroid use and sleep disturbances, between steroid use and sleep disturbances, liver damage, heart disease, and other liver damage, heart disease, and other medical problems.medical problems.

PsychologyPsychology

Chapter 3 Chapter 3 Lecture QuestionsLecture Questions

Section 4 (pgs. 69-73)Section 4 (pgs. 69-73)

1. What does heredity 1. What does heredity mean?mean?

Heredity is the Heredity is the transmission of transmission of characteristics characteristics from parents to from parents to offspring.offspring.

2. Why are psychologists 2. Why are psychologists interested in studying interested in studying

heredity?heredity? Psychologists are interested in Psychologists are interested in

studying heredity, along with the studying heredity, along with the brain and hormones, as a means of brain and hormones, as a means of understanding why people behave as understanding why people behave as they do.they do.

Heredity also plays a key role in the Heredity also plays a key role in the development of traits both in people development of traits both in people and in animals.and in animals.

The traits we inherit help shape our The traits we inherit help shape our behavior.behavior.

3. What psychological traits 3. What psychological traits have been linked to have been linked to

heredity?heredity? Obviously, heredity is vital in the Obviously, heredity is vital in the

transmission of physical traits such as transmission of physical traits such as height, hair texture, and eye color.height, hair texture, and eye color.

Heredity is also related, to some extent, to Heredity is also related, to some extent, to some psychological traits.some psychological traits.

Researchers have found that some Researchers have found that some psychological traits such as shyness, psychological traits such as shyness, leadership ability, aggressiveness, and even leadership ability, aggressiveness, and even an interest in arts and crafts are influenced an interest in arts and crafts are influenced by heredity.by heredity.

It is important, though, to keep in mind It is important, though, to keep in mind that the environment also plays a role in that the environment also plays a role in shaping these traits.shaping these traits.

4. What is a gene? What is a 4. What is a gene? What is a chromosome? Which chromosome chromosome? Which chromosome

determines sex?determines sex? A gene is the basic A gene is the basic

building block of heredity.building block of heredity. Traits are determined by Traits are determined by

pairs of genes, with one pairs of genes, with one gene in each pair gene in each pair inherited from each inherited from each parent.parent.

Chromosomes are Chromosomes are threadlike structures that threadlike structures that contain genes and are contain genes and are composed of DNA.composed of DNA.

DNA takes the form of a DNA takes the form of a double helix.double helix.

Most normal human cells Most normal human cells contain 46 chromosomes contain 46 chromosomes that are organized into 23 that are organized into 23 pairs.pairs.

Each chromosomes Each chromosomes contains instructions for the contains instructions for the development of particular development of particular traits in the individual.traits in the individual.

The 23rd pair are the sex The 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes, they chromosomes, they determine if we are male or determine if we are male or female.female.

5.What causes Down syndrome? What are the problems causes by this syndrome? One of the most common genetic problems

occurs when there is an extra, or third, chromosome on the 21st pair.

Occurs in about 1 out of every 100 births. Children are usually mentally handicapped

with IQs below 70.May also have heart problems and smaller ear

canals (hearing).

6. What are some other genetic disorders? Parkinson’s disease Cystic fibrosis Sickle cell anemia Skin tumors Alzheimer’s disease Tay-Sach’s disease Malignant melanoma

Scientists studying DNA will be able to learn more about the cause of genetic disorders and then develop more effective cures.

7. What is the nature-nurture 7. What is the nature-nurture debate?debate?

Throughout history, philosophers and scientists Throughout history, philosophers and scientists have debated the role of biology in determining have debated the role of biology in determining who we are, as people.who we are, as people.

NatureNature refers to what people inherit—the refers to what people inherit—the biological groundwork that prepares a person to biological groundwork that prepares a person to develop in certain ways.develop in certain ways.

NurtureNurture refers to environmental factors—what a refers to environmental factors—what a person is exposed to in life.person is exposed to in life. Nurture includes a variety of factors such as family, Nurture includes a variety of factors such as family,

education, culture, living conditions, everyday education, culture, living conditions, everyday individual experiences, and other factors that make up individual experiences, and other factors that make up people’s environment.people’s environment.

8. How do people support 8. How do people support each side of the nature-each side of the nature-nurture debate?nurture debate?

People who support the “nature” side of People who support the “nature” side of the debate argue that people’s traits and the debate argue that people’s traits and personality are primarily determined by personality are primarily determined by their biological makeup.their biological makeup.

Supporters of the “nurture” side, argue Supporters of the “nurture” side, argue that the environment we live in and our that the environment we live in and our everyday experiences—not our biological everyday experiences—not our biological inheritance—determine how we behave inheritance—determine how we behave and think.and think.

9. What do most psychologists 9. What do most psychologists believe today?believe today?

Today most psychologists agree that the Today most psychologists agree that the influences of both nature and nurture influences of both nature and nurture determine our psychological traits.determine our psychological traits.

Biology influences us to act in certain Biology influences us to act in certain ways, but our environment—along with ways, but our environment—along with personal factors such as values and personal factors such as values and decision making—can modify these plans.decision making—can modify these plans.

It is the interaction of heredity and It is the interaction of heredity and environment that determines who we are.environment that determines who we are.

10. Why are kinship studies used to study heredity vs environment?• Kinship refers to the degree to which

people are related, based on the genes they have in common.• The more closely related, the more genes

people share.• Psychologists use this information to

determine how much traits are influenced by genetics and how much by the environment.

Identical twins have 100% of the same genetic makeup.Fraternal twins only have 50% of the same genetic makeup.

◦ Just like a normal sibling.Parent/child—50% shared genes.Aunts/uncles—25% shared genes.Cousins—12.5% shared genes.

These type of studies allow you to sort out the roles that heredity and environment play in determining a trait.

The use of identical twins allows researchers to discount biology, since identical twins have the same exact genetic make-up, any difference must be environmental. . . Or is it?

13. What have recent 13. What have recent studies found about the studies found about the difference between difference between fraternal twins and identical fraternal twins and identical twins inheriting certain twins inheriting certain genetic qualities?genetic qualities?

Researchers have found that identical twins resemble Researchers have found that identical twins resemble one another more strongly than fraternal twins in one another more strongly than fraternal twins in certain traits, including shyness and activity levels, certain traits, including shyness and activity levels, irritability, sociability, even happiness.irritability, sociability, even happiness.

They are also more likely to share physical and They are also more likely to share physical and psychological disorders.psychological disorders. Autism, substance dependence, and schizophrenia.Autism, substance dependence, and schizophrenia.

Thus, these traits appear to be influenced by heredity.Thus, these traits appear to be influenced by heredity.

14. Why are adoptee studies used?14. Why are adoptee studies used?

One problem with twin studies is that identical One problem with twin studies is that identical twins tend to be treated similarly and are twins tend to be treated similarly and are exposed to similar environments.exposed to similar environments.– Because they share the same environment as well as Because they share the same environment as well as

the same heredity, it is sometimes difficult to determine the same heredity, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether their similarities are due to nature or nurture.whether their similarities are due to nature or nurture.

One way to try to eliminate the effects of One way to try to eliminate the effects of common backgrounds is to study children who common backgrounds is to study children who have been adopted.have been adopted.– Children separated at an early age and then raised Children separated at an early age and then raised

elsewhere provide opportunity for sorting out the effects elsewhere provide opportunity for sorting out the effects of nature and nurture.of nature and nurture.

Adoptee studiesAdoptee studies

15. Why are kinship studies on 15. Why are kinship studies on twins reared apart used?twins reared apart used?

Twins reared apart will show the impact of the Twins reared apart will show the impact of the environment because they share common environment because they share common genes.genes.They are less-likely to share common They are less-likely to share common

experiences, than twins reared together.experiences, than twins reared together. Twins reared apart even share many of the Twins reared apart even share many of the

same mannerisms attributed to genetics, such same mannerisms attributed to genetics, such as how they sit or stand, intelligence, as how they sit or stand, intelligence, traditionalism (following rules), risk avoidance, traditionalism (following rules), risk avoidance, aggression, and leadership. aggression, and leadership.