PsychologyLearning & Cognition

Warm-up Brainstorm for one minute everything that comes

to mind when you think of the word: ◦LEARNING

Learning & Cognition

Students will be introduced to the behavioral perspective in psychology, classical conditioning in particular.

Students will know that within the study of psychology the behaviorist perspective focuses on behaviors that are observable, and that within the behaviorist perspective psychologists study classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning.

Students will be able to explain what is distinctive about the classical conditioning perspective.

Objectives

Is the way that a creature profits from its experience; it’s the mechanism by which past experience guides future behavior.

Learning involves making connections—between past experiences and current behavior, pain and response, rewards, etc. ◦ Connections between what you DO and a

particular event that follows (positive or negative)◦ Actions have consequences!

Learning

Behaviorists use the acronym A-B-C

A B C◦ Antecedent Behavior Consequence◦ What happens before the action performed after the action

All learning is a process of conditioning

Learning

Making connections = associations◦ Associative learning: learning that two events are

associated with each other.

Associative Learning

A way of learning in which two events are associated with each other

What is learned is that two previously unassociated stimuli are now “related” or associated. ◦ Taste aversion learning◦ Link between particular food and illness (accurate

or not)◦ Learned that the taste of pesto was “aversive”

Classical conditioning

Some key terms: ◦ Neutral Stimulus (NS): something that does not

produce a significant response◦ Unconditioned stimulus (UC): stimulus that

causes a response that is AUTOMATIC not learned◦ Unconditioned response (UR): response that is

AUTOMATIC, not learned◦ Conditioned response (CR): a learned response

to a stimulus that was PREVIOUSLY NEUTRAL◦ Conditioned stimulus (CS): a previously

neutral stimulus that, because of pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, now produces a conditioned response

Classical conditioning

Going to the dogs: Dr. Pavlov

Was conducting research on digestion, but became much more famous for research on classical conditioning

Dr. Pavlov was NOT a psychologist, but a prominent Russian physiologist who won the Nobel Prize for science in 1904 for his research on digestion

Dog in Pavlov’s Apparatus (clip)

Label the different parts in the image: Neutral Stimuli (NS); Unconditioned stimuli

(US); Unconditioned response (UR); Conditioned stimuli (CS); Conditioned response (CR)

Also label scenes 1, 2, 3, 4 in order Describe what is happening in each scene

Work in pairs

Students will be able to explain and analyze how learning and cognition are influenced and shaped by classical conditioning; students will participate in experiments that demonstrate the classical conditioning perspective and analyze the results

Objectives

◦ Neutral Stimulus (NS): ◦ something that does not produce a significant response◦ Unconditioned stimulus (UC): ◦ stimulus that causes a response that is AUTOMATIC not

learned◦ Unconditioned response (UR): ◦ response that is AUTOMATIC, not learned◦ Conditioned response (CR): ◦ a learned response to a stimulus that was PREVIOUSLY

NEUTRAL◦ Conditioned stimulus (CS): ◦ a previously neutral stimulus that, because of pairing

with an unconditioned stimulus, now produces a conditioned response

Classical conditioning

Volunteer, please!

What is the NS? Bell

What is the US? Water in the face

What is the UR? Squint

What is the CS? Bell

What is the CR? Squint

Observe and take notes

Additional terms Extinction: when a Conditioned Response

(CR) no longer follows a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Think of Dwight Shrute: Jim stops giving him the Altoid after the computer sound; Dwight will eventual “de-couple” the sound and the response

Classical conditioning

Reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period

Jim begins to give Dwight the Altoid again after playing the computer sound—the CR returns!

Spontaneous recovery

Similar stimuli produce similar responses

Pavlov’s dog: after conditioning, dog begins to salivate whenever he hears any sound—not just tuning fork, but bells, clocks, music.

Generalization

Learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other similar stimuli

Dwight Shrute didn’t put his hand out when he heard any old sound, just the sound of Jim’s computer.

Discrimination

Extinction:◦ when a Conditioned Response (CR) no longer

follows a Conditioned Stimulus Spontaneous Recovery:

◦ Reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period

Generalization:◦ Similar stimuli produce similar responses

Discrimination:◦ Learned ability to distinguish between a CS and

other similar stimuli

So let’s review…

Little Albert

Dr. John B. Watson

Founder of Behaviorism

Psychology should be the scientific study of observable behavior

Neutral stimuli: __________________________

Unconditioned response: _________________

Unconditioned stimuli: ____________________

Conditioned stimuli: ______________________

Conditioned response: ____________________

Lemonade experiment results

Two methods for reducing fears (extinction)◦ Flooding: person is exposed to a harmless stimuli

until fear responses to that stimulus are extinguished Fear of heights: How to overcome? Exposure to safe, high environments Forced exposure (tends to be unpleasant)

◦ Systematic desenitization: People taught relaxation techniques Exposed gradually to fearful stimuli gradually while

remaining relaxed Fear of snakes: show person pictures of snakes while

they are relaxed; then move on to real snakes from a distance, then slowly bring them closer...and closer until fear extinguished

Classical conditioning: wrapping up

Counterconditioning: pleasant stimulus is paired repeatedly with a fearful one, counteracting the fear.

Child fears rabbits; gradually pair the child with a rabbit while feeding child candy and cookies; continue to bring animal closer, paired with the treats, and so on.

Pleasure replaces fear (might, however, lead to cavities!)

Classical conditioning: wrapping up

Bird phobia

Identify the technique

Operant Conditioning◦ People and animals learn to do certain things—

and not to do others—because of the results of what they do Learn from CONSEQUENCES

STUDYING GOOD GRADES Organisms (people) learn to engage in

behavior that results in desirable consequences

Learning & Cognition

CAUSE EFFECT

learning that is strengthened when behavior is followed by positive reinforcement.

Voluntary responses are conditioned (behaviors over which we have control)

Operant Conditioning

“Everything we do and are is determined by our history of rewards and punishments”

—B.F. Skinner

B.F. SkinnerMost significant name in behaviorism (behavior is controlled by reinforcement, not your unconscious)

Research on operant conditioning

Creator of the operant chamber (Skinner Box)

YouTube - Changing Behavior with Operant Conditioning

Take notes on pigeon’s behavior; answer questions: what influences pigeon’s behavior? How might this knowledge be helpful for people?

Watch the video, and answer the following:◦ What influences the puppy’s behavior?◦ What positive reinforcement does the puppy

receive after performing the trick?◦ Is there a link between the performance of the

trick and the positive reinforcement?◦ Training a puppy to roll-over

Training a puppy

The Skinner Box

The Skinner Box What is the stimulus?

◦ The food Reinforcement occurs when the rat discovers

that to get the stimulus (food) it must behave a certain way (hit the lever)

It learns this by repeating the process several times—hit the lever, food comes out.

Training a puppy: to get the treat, I need to roll-over

The reinforcer is the treat (food, dog bisquit, good grades, etc.

All reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated

Primary reinforcers are things like food and water—essential for life

Secondary reinforcers are learned—money, attention, social approval; value is ascribed to these reinforcers by the individual

Reinforcement

Positive reinforcers increase the frequency of the behavior they follow when they apply◦ Awards, food, prizes, praise, etc.

Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of the behavior they follow when they are removed◦ Discomfort, fear, shame◦ When we are too hot in the sun, we seek the

shade; when something is stuck in our teeth, we use dental floss, fear of failure motivates one to study for test

Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning Big Bang Theory

Learning & Cognition

Watch the video, take notes on the differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Conditioning How did Pavlov condition the dogs to salivate?

◦ By pairing an unconditioned stimulus (food) with a neutral stimulus (bell)

In operant conditioning, what is used to generate a desired behavior?◦ Reinforcement (which can be positive or negative)

Operant Conditioning

Positive & negative reinforcment

Primary & secondary reinforcers

Food, water, air Varies greatly

Primary Secondary

Rewards & Punishments Rewards increase the

frequency of a behavior

However, while reinforcements remain somewhat constant, rewards vary greatly (money, fame, prizes)

Punishments are unwanted events that decrease frequency of behavior they follow

NOT always effective for altering behavior long-term

Negative reinforcement—removal of a stimulus to increase a certain behavior◦ Moving out of the hot sun into the shade

Punishment—unwanted events that when they are applied decrease the frequency of a behavior they follow

Punishment vs. negative reinforcement

You are driving too fast, and the police pull you over and give you a ticket; next time you’re out driving, you’re more aware of your speed◦ Punishment (positive)

Your girlfriend kisses you because you bring her flowers◦ Reinforcement (positive)

When you get in your car, you put on your seatbelt because it quiets that annoying “ding ding” sound◦ Reinforcement (negative)

Examples

Teacher takes a student’s cell phone away from her in class because she’s texting.◦ Punishment (positive)

An accused murderer is executed for his crimes.◦ Punishment (negative)

Eating an entire box of chocolates and feeling sick as a result◦ Punishment (positive)

You clean up your room so your mom will stop nagging you.◦ Reinforcement (negative)

Examples

In your notebook, answer the following question: In my life, __________________ reinforcement has worked best in my life. One way in particular that it has helped me to learn or change my behavior was when _____________ (example.)

When you are done, turn and talk to your neighbor, sharing your answers.

Turn and talk

Continuous reinforcement◦ Reinforcement follows behavior EVERY time◦ Every time the pigeon taps the disk, food is

dispensed◦ Learning happens VERY QUICKLY◦ However, once you stop the reinforcement,

EXTINCTION occurs quickly◦ Not likely, virtually impossible to maintain

continuous reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement

Partial reinforcement◦ Behavior reinforced SOMETIMES◦ Learning takes longer◦ Takes longer for extinction to occur◦ Do you love EVERY movie you see? But you keep

going, don’t you?◦ Ever have a bad meal at your favorite restaurant?

But you go back…◦ Learning takes longer—but lasts longer

Schedules of reinforcement

If the amount of time (interval) between reinforcements of a behavior is greater than zero seconds, it is on an interval schedule.◦ Time between reinforcements◦ Fixed interval: every five minutes,

reinforcement for behavior occurs (or whatever constant time) Teacher gives a quiz every Friday, you will likely

study every Thursday night (one-week fixed-interval schedule)

Interval schedules

If the amount of time varies between reinforcements…◦ VARIABLE-INTERVAL SCHEDULE◦ Reinforcement at 10:00, then at 10:05, then at

10:07, then at 10:13, and so on◦ Pop-quizzes as opposed to quiz every Friday

Interval schedules

If desired response is reinforced EVERY time the response occurs, there is a one-to-one (1:1) ratio of response to reinforcement.

What if the response must occur five times before being reinforced?◦ 5:1

Bruster’s Sweet Rewards◦ Fixed or variable?

With VARIABLE-Ratio schedule, reinforcement can come at any time—unpredictability maintains a HIGH RESPONSE RATE

gambling

Ratio schedules

Shaping refers to an operant conditioning technique in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer towards a desired goal.

Teaching complex behaviors one step at a time

shaping a child's behavior

Shaping

Programmed learningSkinner believed that learning could be broken down into small steps

Developed teaching machines that presented material to students in a series of steps (frames)

Need to master each frame before moving on to the next

Does not punish students for making errors◦ Reinforces correct responses◦ All students finish program with grade of 100%,

but do so at their own pace

Programmed learning

For cognitive psychologists learning is not just behavior, but about the role of the thought processes in determining behavior

People learn by thinking and watching Latent Learning and Observational

Learning

Cognitive factors in learning

Cognitive map—draw a map from memory of someplace with which you are familiar

Learning that happens without reinforcement

Latent learning

Rats in a maze learned their way around even without food (reinforcement)

They learned about the layout even when just wandering around

Think about your route to school…or when you learned to drive◦ How much you learn just by “wandering around”

or observing, taking “mental notes.” Knowledge that remains “hidden” until you

need it is LATENT LEARNING.

Latent learning

Albert Bandura

Observational learning

bandura

We imitate what we see

Children learn to speak, eat, play at least in part by observing parents and others

Warm-up Recover prior learning on observational learning Investigate impact of violence in media on

individuals, especially children Review and analyze the PQ4R method of

learning Commence study of memory, learning the three

types of memory and examples of each Exit ticket—provide one example of each type

of memory

Objectives & agenda

For each image, describe what you see, and then define the type of learning illustrated, and explain why you chose that answer.

Warm-up

Observational Learning/Modeling Theory Leads to Questions About the Impact of Television on Viewers

A child who watches 2-4 hours of TV daily will have seen 8,000 murders and another 100,000 acts of violence by the time he/she has finished elementary school.

Most health professionals agree that media violence contributes to aggression◦ “models” of aggressive skills◦ Violence as an effective means to resolving

conflict◦ Emotional desensitization

Effects of Media Violence on children

Students learn more when they take an ACTIVE approach to learning

PQ4R developed by psychologist Francis Robinson; six steps◦ Previewing◦ Questioning◦ Reading◦ Reflecting◦ Reciting◦ Reviewing

PQ4R: Learning to Learn

Preview the subject matter in a textbook means getting a general picture of what is covered prior to reading a chapter◦ Familiarity with the overall picture will give you a

cognitive map of the chapter Phrase questions about the subject matter

in each chapter◦ Write down chapter headings◦ Create questions based on those chapter

headings; “what is classical conditioning? Who is Ivan Pavlov?”

PQ4R

After creating questions, read the chapter with the purpose of answering them.◦ Answer each question, jot down key words

After reading, reflect on the subject matter◦ Helps you to understand material more clearly◦ Relate information to your personal life

PQ4R

After reading, answering questions (reflect), recite your answers◦ Helps you to transfer information from short-term

to long-term memory Finally, review your work

◦ “disturbed” learning—review once a week◦ Re-learning is highly effective

PQ4R

I. What is classical conditioning◦ A. Who is Ivan Pavlov?◦ B. What do US, UR, CR, and CS mean?◦ C. How is adaptation to the environment related to

classical conditioning? 1. What is taste aversion? 2. What is extinction? 3. What is spontaneous recovery? 4. How do generalization and discrimination relate to

classical conditioning?

◦ (Found in your textbook, page 148)

PQ4R example: Section One

Brooke, Chris, Royce Danny, Corey, Kristinia Adrian, Samantha, Josh Danielle, Nathan, Brian Jonathan, Nikki, Emma Mark, Tony, Carrington Jerod, Nellie, Austin Carins Austin Crockett, Delaney, Ramon Kayla, Nelson, Claire Michael, Danielle, Lexi Henry, Zaria, D’Arcy

Divide into groups

“Memory is what makes our lives…Without it we are nothing.” Luis Bunuel◦ Do you agree or disagree?

Memory

Create your own statements on memory;What is memory?How does it work?What role does memory play in your lives and in the lives of those around you?What is the importance of memory?

MEMORY

IMPLICIT

EPISODIC

SEMANTIC

The process by which we recollect prior experiences and information and skills learned in the past

Copy the NAMES of the two objects you see:

Memory

EYEGLASSES

HOURGLASS

Events (episodes) Flashbulb memories—of such great

importance it’s like a flashbulb goes off and we photograph every detail in our minds

Flashbulb memory Special events that we recall frequently,

have special meaning

Episodic memory

General knowledge◦ George Washington was the first President,

Raleigh is the capitol of NC◦ Don’t recall WHEN we acquired the information◦ Most of what you learn in school falls in this

category

Both episodic and semantic memory are examples of explicit memory—memory of specific information

Semantic Memory

Skills and procedures you have learned◦ Throwing a ball, riding a bike, swimming, using a

computer, etc. ◦ Once a skill is acquired, it usually stays

Implicit Memory

On the notecard write◦ Your name◦ The three kinds of memory◦ Explain what flashbulb memories are

◦ Turn in to me on way out!

BE SMART—DON’T CRAM TONIGHT; GET TO BED EARLY, EAT A GOOD BREAKFAST—AND CONQUER THE TEST TOMORROW!

Exit ticket

Learning

Learning and Cognition

Warm-up: For each of the images, write down:

◦ 1) What kind of memory is displayed;◦ 2) Provide one additional example of each kind of

memory.

Memory

Image One

Image Two

Image Three

Warm-up: recover prior learning on three types of memory

Teacher-led instruction: Three processes of memory◦ Students will be able to distinguish between

encoding, storage, and retrieval Students will engage in experimental

activities analyzing the three processes of memory

Exit ticket: three processes of memory

Objectives/agenda

Similar to a computer: write to file, save to disk, read from disk 1. ENCODING: information into memory system 2) STORAGE: retention of the information

over time3) RETRIEVAL: process of getting information

out of the memory system

Memory as information processing

1) We receive information: images, sounds

Encoding

Look at the letters on the screen for 30 seconds and memorize as much of the list as you can

OTTFFSSENT

Encoding experiment

Visual codes: when you looked at the letters, did you try to see them in your mind as a picture?

Acoustic codes: read the list aloud to yourself and repeat it several times

Semantic codes: try and make sense of the letters—last four letters were sent; ◦ Semantic means “relating to meaning”

Encoding

Semantic code King Plays Chess On Fat Girl’s Stomach

Any guesses as to what this is a list of? One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight,

nine, ten

OTTFFSSENT

Maintaining stored information over time Big difference between humans and

computers when it comes to storage?◦ Computers need to be instructed to save info;

people use strategies Maintenance Rehearsal: repeating

something over and over again to keep it in memory◦ Phone number, address, lines in a play◦ POOR WAY OF LEARNING—does not make

connection to past learning

Storage

Elaborative Rehearsal: make new information meaningful by relating it to something you already know well.◦ Using new vocabulary words in sentences instead

of just repeating them individually

Storage

StorageOrganizational Systems:Memory resembles a vast storehouse of files and file cabinets in which you store what you need to remember.

On a sheet of paper, QUICKLY write down the names of the 12 months of the year. I will time you.

Now, QUICKLY write down the names of the 12 months of the year…alphabetically.

What’s the difference in response times? How the information is organized in your memory.

Organizational systems

The more you learn, the more your memory organizes new information it receives into certain groups or classes according to common features

Organizational systems

Ever misplaced something??? Written a history paper and mistakenly filed it in your science notebook?

Sometimes our mental filing systems erroneously organize new information, making retrieval difficult.

Locating the stored information and returning it to conscious thought

Retrieval accomplished by knowing proper procedures◦ Different rules apply when remembering our own

names, family, friends as opposed to lines from a play, mathematical formula

Try now to retrieve the letters from earlier in class flashed on the screen.

Retrieval

How did you retrieve OTTFFSSENT?◦ Most effective method would be to recall that they

were the numbers 1-10 (semantic code) Which word below is spelled correctly?◦CONCEIVE or CONCIEVE?◦ Which method of retrieval worked best?

Acoustic (sounding the word aloud)? Maintenance rehearsal (saying it over and

over again)? Semantic code (“i before e except after c”)

Retrieval

Context-dependent Memory: memories dependent on the place where they were encoded and stored◦ Going back to where you grew up◦ Students did better on a test when they studied in

the room where the test was administered◦ Police take witnesses back to the scene of a crime

Retrieval

State-dependent memories: retrieve memories better when you are in the same emotional state as when they were first stored. ◦ Also same state of consciousness (drugs)

Retrieval

On the Tip of the Tongue◦ You feel you know something…you are SURE you

know it…but you can’t seem to verbalize it.◦ Example: the singers name is on the tip of my

tongue We’ve associated a sound with a name, and might be

using an acoustic cue when we originally received the information using a semantic cue.

Retrieval

In this lesson you will:◦ Continue to develop your understanding and

mastery of the study of memory◦ Focus today will be on short-term memory◦ We will watch a film, Remembering and

Forgetting, which will review concepts and material already reviewed and will present new content we will discuss further today and the rest of this week

◦ You will engage in experiential activities that will challenge you to apply your knowledge and experience

Objective/agenda

Warm-up: Write down EVERYTHING that you can recall about that conversation Mr. George and I just had—from the content of the conversation to what Mr. George was wearing. Two minutes!

Memory: Short-term & long-term

Remembering & forgetting

Complete study guide—will be collected!

Memory

Memory

Vanishes as quickly as the light fades First stage of memory, enters through the

senses Memory trace decays within a second Iconic memory: Accurate, photographic

memories—last just a fraction of a second Eidetic imagery: “photographic memory”

◦ About 5% of population Echoic memory: mental traces of sounds;

last for several seconds

Sensory memory

Ability to remember visual stimuli over long periods of time

“photographic memory” About 5% of children have eidetic imagery;

usually declines with age eidetic imagery

Eidetic imagery

Continue research and analysis of short-term memory

Conduct experiments—full-class and groups You will devise your own short-term memory

experiments to use on each other and family/friends (results due Thursday)

Objectives

Also known as working memory Whenever you are thinking about

something, it is in your short-term memory Information fades (degrades) rapidly Rehearsal to prevent information from

degrading

Short-term memory (STM)

Hermann EbbinghausGerman physiologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory; known for his discovery of the forgetting curve & the spacing effect.

Forgetting curve

At the beginning, retention is nearly 100%, but degrades quickly—60% retention after 20 minutes, less than 30% after 2 days

Exponential—in the first days memory greatest; later the loss slows as time passes

In the first period after learning…WE LOSE THE MOST!

He found that the more rehearsal he did on day one, the less he had to do on day two; “over-learning” increased retention

What does the forgetting curve tell us?

Information that is presented over spaced intervals is learned and retained more easily and more effectively than over short intervals◦ PQ4R vs. “cramming” (massed repetition)

Why?◦ We pay more attention to material we haven’t

seen in a while◦ Embeds an item in our minds across a larger

range of contexts

Spacing effect

Robert Bjork Dr. Bjork makes an interesting claim about

cramming; what is it? How does spacing work best? Is there such

a thing as spacing things out too long?

Wait…cramming works???

Primacy effect: in a series of numbers, we tend to recall the initial items in the series (prim- means “first”)

Recency effect: last items in a series; fresher in memory, more easily remembered.

Primacy & recency

Organizing information into manageable “chunks” to keep in STM◦ A method of rehearsing

OTTFFSSENT◦ 10 letters (10 chunks)◦ “other flowers sent”—breaks into three chunks

Average person can hold a list of seven items in STM◦ Telephone numbers, zip codes

Chunking

For the next experiment, look at the list of words that will follow for TWO MINUTES and then I’ll change screens, and try and write down on a sheet of paper as many words as you can recall.

Memorization experiment

Nine Swap Cell Ring Lust

Plugs Lamp Apple Table Sway

Army Bank Fire Hold Worm

Clock Horse Color Baby Sword

Desk Hold Find Bird Rock

Experiment demonstrates limitations of short-term memory◦ How many items can we hold in short-term

memory? For how long?

Try this next list and see if you do better

Feedback

Horse Cat Dog Fish Bird

Orange Yellow Blue Green Black

Table Chair Desk Bookcase Bed

Teacher School Student Homework Class

Apple Banana Kiwi Grape Mango

Here’s your task: Your experiment must answer these questions:

◦ On average, how many words can people remember?◦ Does gender make any difference? What about age?◦ Do people tend to remember certain words more than others?

In your groups, create your own lists; consider using random versus similar words, gender-associated versus gender-neutral words (tested with same and different gender persons)

http://psychology.about.com/library/Psychology_Experiments/bl-memory-experiment.htm?p=1

Divide into groups

STM is like a small shelf; once it fills up, you can’t put anything else on it unless something else falls off!

Interference is that new information that bumps something off the shelf!

Interference

Interference experiment

Long-term memory (LTM)

The continuous storage of information. Some metaphors we have used?

Long-term memory

How do we get information into LTM?◦ Rehearsal (maintenance, elaborative)

Capacity of LTM◦ Everything in code; all images in color (assuming

no color-blindness); stereo sound; smells, tastes◦ Psychologists have not discovered a limit to LTM◦ Not all experiences stored permanently—amount

of attention we pay to things varies (what interests us, distractions)

Long-term memory

Memory as Reconstructive◦ Not played back like videos or movies◦ Memories are reconstructed from bits and pieces

of our experience; we shape them according to our own views of the world

◦ Me and my sister have different childhood memories; what about you?

◦ We interpret information differently◦ Our memories are not perfect◦ eyewitness memory part 2

Long-term memory

Eyewitness testimony is described as highly reliable or unreliable?

Recognition memory is practically instantaneous; the longer we linger with the line-up, the more likely we are to make a wrong choice

Eyewitness memory

Mental representations that we form of the world by organizing bits of information into knowledge◦ Helpful in allowing us to make mental shortcuts◦ However, sometimes they mislead us….

Pull out the sheet of paper on which you wrote the names of the objects you looked at when we first started this unit

Find the names of the items, and draw those items

Turn to page 166 in your textbook

Schemas

Your drawings—like group one or group two? You reconstructed from a schema

◦ Schemas help you mentally represent the objects; you did not recall them exactly, but to fit the schemas

◦ Reconstructed from memory

Schemas

Hi-ya, horse!

Memories of car accident influenced by phrasing of questions◦ Cars “hit” each other versus cars “smashed” into

each other◦ Which group do you think said the cars were

moving at a faster rate of speed?

Memories can be mislead and are malleable lost in a mall elizabeth loftus

Loftus and Palmer research

Warm-up

Forgetting information happens at any of the three stages of memory:◦ Sensory (less than a second or no more than a

few seconds)◦ Short-term (after 10-12 seconds without

rehearsal)◦ Long-term

Recall errors Old learning interferes with new learning

Forgetting & Memory Improvement

Forgetting & Memory Improvement

French Spanish Italian

Zero Cero Zero

Un Uno Uno

Deux Dos Due

Trois Tres tre

Example

Remember Ebbinghaus?

• Ebbinghaus’ research revealed how quickly memory degrades without rehearsal

• Remembering “nonsense syllables” depends on acoustic coding and mechanical repetition.

Forgetting curve

Acoustic coding and mechanical repetition play a part in recognition, recall, & relearning

RECOGNITION: identifying objects/events encountered before◦ Easiest of memory tasks◦ Mechanical repetition is an example of:

A) Operant conditioning B) Maintenance rehearsal C) Positive reinforcement D) Elaborative rehearsal

Recognition, recall, and relearning

Dr. Harry BahrickResearch on recognition

Used high school yearbook photos mixed in with photos of strangers

Recent graduates able to identify former classmates 90% of the time

Graduates out of school 40 years recognized former classmates less often—about 75% of the time

Much more difficult to associate NAMES with the FACE

Time for a “forgetting” check

Are You A Good Eyewitness?

RECALL: bring something back to mind; reconstruct it in your mind.◦ Paired associates—recall one list of nonsense

syllables by associated with a second set (or number) (text page 169)

◦ Similar to the peg word pneumonic

Recognition, recall, & relearning

RELEARNING: what we once knew and thought we had forgotten we can relearn with relative ease◦ High school math formulae

Recognition, recall, & relearning

Time for a forgetting check We forget because of:

◦ Encoding failure or ◦ Storage decay or◦ Retrieval failure

Forgetting

Extreme ForgettingFreud: we sometimes forget things on purpose without knowing we are doing it!

Painful memories are repressed, pushed out of our consciousness

Forgetting to go to the dentist

Theory remains controversial

Severe memory loss caused by brain injury, shock, fatigue, illness, or repression◦ Dissociative amnesia: caused by psychological

trauma◦ Infantile amnesia: forgetting early life events

College freshman—recall events from age 6+ Older adults (70-80) can recall events from between

ages 6-10 Repression (Freud) or just a “brain-dump” of useless

info?

Amnesia

Infantile amnesia, cont.◦ Infants not interested in remembering past year!◦ Infants don’t weave memories into meaningful

stories◦ Infants don’t use language, can’t encode info well◦ NOTE: this is EPISODIC MEMORY; we learn as

infants using semantic and implicit memory

Amnesia

Anterograde amnesia: brain trauma (injury, surgery)

Retrograde amnesia: events leading up to traumatic event

concussion and sports

Amnesia

Drill and Practice (maintenance rehearsal)◦ Review information over and over again◦ Fairly effective in transferring information from

sensory to STM to LTM◦ Flash cards—paired information, then drill◦ Meet someone new—use their name immediately

Relate to Prior Knowledge (elaborative rehearsal)

Form Unusual Associations◦ Body parts grocery list

Improving memory

Construct links (elaborative rehearsal) Mnemonic Devices

◦ Systems for remembering information◦ Acronym, phrase, jingle◦ Roy G. Biv—red, orange, yellow, green, blue,

indigo, violet—colors of the spectrum

Improving memory

Playing games with memory

Playing games with memory

the woman who couldn't forgetThink of all the different stimuli you experience in any given day—sights, smells, sounds

Some stimuli are welcome—the smile of a friend—others are not (unkind comments, cruelty, the unpleasant smell of __________); imagine what life would be like if everything were recorded in memory in vivid detail.

Would this be a help or hindrance to normal, daily life? Why?

The importance of forgetting

Groups:

Improving MemoryONE TWO THREE FOUR FIVENELLIE AUSTIN

CAIRNSJERROD JOSH CARRINGTON

NIKKI DELANEY DONOVAN CHRIS NATHANAUSTIN CROCKETT

ROYCE COREY RAMON SAM

HENRY LEXI KAYLA ZARIA ADRIANBROOKE CLAIRE DANNY JON KRISTINANELSON TONY D’ARCY EMMA MARCDANIELLE BRIAN MICHAEL

1) BREAK INTO YOUR GROUPS 2) READ AS FOLLOWS:

◦ GROUP ONE: DRILL & PRACTICE (P. 170-171)◦ GROUP TWO: RELATE TO THINGS… (172-173)◦ GROUP THREE: FORM UNUSUAL ASSOCIATIONS (173)◦ GROUP FOUR: CONSTRUCT LINKS (173)◦ GROUP FIVE: USE MNEMONIC DEVICES (173)

3) WHEN YOU FINISH READING, IN YOUR GROUPS SUMMARIZE YOUR SECTION AND ON POSTER BOARD WRITE THE NAME OF YOUR MEMORY DEVICE AT TOP AND THE IMPORTANT POINTS ON THE POSTER BOARD (NAME OF PSYCHOLOGIST, WHAT IT DOES, HOW IT WORKS)

4) WHEN ALL GROUPS FINISH, GO ON GALLERY WALK WITH YOUR NOTEBOOK AND TAKE NOTES

ACTIVITY

Clive Wearing

Write in your notebooks in response to this statement: life is “Hell on earth…it’s like being dead…all the bloody time.”

The case of Clive Wearing