PSY307_FINAL_PAPER

Running head: POSTURE AND TIME ON TESTING 1

The Effects of Posture and Time on Test Taking

Thomas J. O’Neill

Carroll University

2POSTURE AND TIME ON TESTING

Abstract

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects that time-limit and posture have

on academic test taking. This study involved participants completing a nine question multiple

choice critical thinking test. A total of 43 participants participated in the study. Participants were

randomly assigned to one of four conditions. All participants scored similarly. No significant

results were found. These results show that there are no changes that need to be made in the

academic test taking setting involving student posture and testing time-limits.

Keywords: critical-thinking, testing, posture, sitting, standing, time-limit


The Effects of Posture and Time on Test Taking

The American educational system is constantly changing, for the time being, pencil and

paper tests are standard practice. Like all forms of testing, distractions and other such obstacles

stand in the way of test takers performing at their best. Time limits of various stringency exist in

test taking. Addressing any negative effects these time constraints have on performance is

necessary in order to help students succeed in school. Classrooms are typically furnished with

student desks. Student desks are typically one solid piece; a chair attached to a desktop. The

design of the typical student desk is not very ergonomic. Any effect that posture has on testing

would not only be useful, it would be very easy to correct negative effects because of the similar

design seen in most student desks.

Whether a student has 3 hours to answer 3 essay questions, or 1 hour to take a 100

question multiple choice test, time limits exist in the world of academic test taking. When it

comes to test taking time constraints have numerous negative effects on the test takers ability to

perform at their best. Plass and Hill (1986) compared the test results of grade school children

when they were tested with a time limit, and when the students had no time limit. Students were

then tested on math problems. They found that without a time limit all the male students with

mild to high test anxiety performed significantly better than males with mild to high test anxiety

who were presented with a time limit. Interestingly, males with low test anxiety and females with

high test anxiety performed better when presented with a time limit. This research shows that the

presence or absence of a time limit can have significant effects on a student’s ability to perform

on a test.


Time limits have both positive and negative effects on test taking. The problem is “test

taking” is extremely vague. Referring to academic test taking begs the question of the type of

test. Goldhammer, Naumann, Stelter, Toth, Rolke, and Klieme (2014) found that the type of

questions that are asked on a test affects whether time will have a negative or positive effect.

Goldhammer et al., (2014) found that increased time spent on a reading task was negatively

correlated with scores on the task. It was also found that more time spent on a problem solving

task was positively correlated with scores. While both reading and problem solving tasks are

present in the American educational system this research shows that it is important to match

appropriate time limit with the type of test. The present study will be focusing on problem

solving type tasks; specifically critical thinking tasks. Yanchar, Slife, and Warne (2008) describe

the reasons why psychologists are constantly debating the concrete definition of critical thinking.

They came to the conclusion that critical thinking cannot be described in a simple or concrete

way.

Besides pencil and paper tests there are other typical features in the American educational

system that are just as common, but often over looked as having any effect on student

performance. Classroom furnishings are not always similar. However, there is one common

feature seen in American classrooms; student desks. Student desks are typically rigid and un-

adjustable. The design of student desks can have an effect on the posture of the user. Arpaci

(2013) took the anthropometric measurements of 240 University students and proposed that the

measurements be used to design University furniture. Not surprisingly, few similarities were

seen in anthropometric measurements across genders. The only notable similar measurement

being hip width. Designing an entire Universities' furniture based off the average anthropometric


measurements of it’s students would improve the ergonomics of the classrooms. The problem

with this type of intervention aside from practicality is that it does not address individual

students’ postural issues.

The only feasible way for an institution to provide individualized ergonomics in the

classroom is to allow students to control the height of their desks and chairs. Saarni, Nygard,

Rimpela, Nummi, and Kaukiainen (2007) took this simplified approach to address ergonomics in

the classroom. They supplied the students with adjustable height desk tops, and adjustable height

saddle style chairs. They compared the neck and back straightness of students using the

adjustable furniture with students in the same grade using traditional student desks. At the same

time researchers measured the height of the students’ desks after the students had adjusted them

themselves. It was discovered that the adjustable furniture increased neck and back straightness.

It was also discovered that students tended to raise the height of the adjustable desks higher than

that of the traditional desks.

Addressing student posture goes beyond the comfort aspect of ergonomic furniture.

While student comfort is important, body position has been shown to significantly affect

cognition. Kerr, Condon, and McDonald (1985) tested the effects of posture on spatial and non-

spatial memory. All subjects performed either a spatial or non-spatial memory task while seated.

Subjects then practiced the balancing task which required then to stand one foot in front of the

other. Subjects then performed the same type of memory task. Researchers found that

performance in the spatial memory task improved while balancing. These findings show that

body orientation can significantly affect cognition. Other studies show that body orientation can

have significant effects on Divergent and convergent thinking. Oppezzo and Schwartz (2014)


found that creativity, divergent thinking, and convergent thinking can all be significantly

improved by walking rather than siting. Three different experiments were described in this study.

The methodology in the first two experiments was essentially the same. Participants took a test

of creativity and convergent thinking in the first experiment, and a test of creativity and

divergent thinking in the second experiment. Subjects took these tests first while seated, and

again after walking on a treadmill. The third experiment had the subjects take a creativity test

while seated, and while walking. The researchers then compared the results from when they were

seated vs. walking. The only difference between this experiment and the first two experiments

was that all the walking conditions took place outside on a path. These two studies show that

body position can have significant effects on our memory and the way we think.

I hypothesize a main effect of time on the ability to think critically; having a greater

amount of time on a critical thinking test will result in higher test scores compared to the scores

when a smaller amount of time was allotted. A greater amount of time taken on a problem

solving test was positively correlated with test scores (Goldhammer et al., 2014). Time limits

have also been shown to be inversely correlated with results if the test taker has mild to severe

test anxiety (Plass & Hill, 1986). I also hypothesize a main effect of posture on the ability to

think critically; taking a critical thinking test while in a standing position will result in higher test

scores compared to sitting at a desk. There is no shortage of effects that posture has on cognition.

Standing in a balancing position has been shown to improve spatial memory (Kerr et al., 1985),

and walking rather than sitting has been shown to enhance convergent and divergent thinking

(Oppezzo & Schwartz, 2014). I believe there will be an interaction between posture and time on

critical thinking. I hypothesize that participants with a long amount of time will score highest,


while standing will improve test scores significantly in the short amount of time condition

compared to scores of participants that sat and took the test in a short amount of time.

Method

Participants

Most participants were recruited through an online research participation sign-up

program. A total of 43 participants participated in the study. Participants were randomly assigned

to one of four conditions. Twelve participants sat, and had a 10 minute time limit. Eleven

participants stood, and had a 10 minute time limit. Ten Participants sat, and had a 20 minute time

limit. Ten participants stood, and had a 20 minute time limit. The age range of the participants

was 11 years, from ages 18 to 29, with a mean age of 19. Sixteen participants were male

(37.2%), and 27 participants were female (62.8%). Participants were mostly Caucasian

39(90.7%). Most participants were single 42(97.7%). All participants were University students,

the primary year of the participants was freshman 30 (69.8%).

Materials

A nine question multiple choice critical thinking test was developed. Some questions

required participants to pay close attention to the way a sentence was worded and reach an

answer. For example “How many 2 cent stamps are in a dozen?” While other questions required

participants to read a paragraph and reach an answer based on the information in the paragraph

(see Appendix A). The amount of time that each participant spent on their test was manipulated.

Half of the participants were allotted 10 minutes, and the other half 20 minutes (see Appendix

B).


Procedure

A 2x2 between-subjects factorial design was used. Participants were randomly assigned

to one of four conditions. Sitting with a 10 minute time limit, sitting with a 20 minute time limit,

standing with a 10 minute time limit, or standing with a 20 minute time limit. Participants filled

out an informed consent and demographics document. Participants were then told to either stand

at the counter, or to sit at a desk. The participants were informed of their allotted time. When the

participants were handed the exam they were told their time had started. Once participants

completed their exam the experiment was over.

Results

A 2x2 between subjects ANOVA was used to analyze the data. There was not a

significant main effect of time limit, F (1, 39) = .55, p =.46. Participants given a 10 minute time

limit (M = 5.52, SD = 1.44) and participants given a 20 minute time limit (M = 5.85, SD = 1.53)

scored similarly. There was not a significant main effect of posture, F (1, 39) =.67, p =.42. Test

scores of participants in the standing condition (M = 5.48, S = 1.60) were not significantly

different from the test scores of participants in the sitting condition (M = 5.86, SD = 1.35). There

was no significant interaction between time and posture, F (1, 39) = .36, p =.55. Standing

participants scored similarly whether they were given 10 minutes (M = 5.18, SD = 1.47) or 20

minutes (M = 5.80, SD = 1.75). Similarly sitting participants scored similarly whether they were

given 10 minutes (M = 5.83, SD = 1.40) or 20 minutes (M = 5.90, SD = 1.37).

Discussion


The results of this study were not significant. The hypothesis was not supported by the

results. All subjects, regardless of condition scored similarly on the multiple-choice critical

thinking test. These results show that there is no significant effect of posture, or time, on a

person’s ability to take a critical thinking test. There was also no interaction between posture and

allotted time. Based on this data an extended amount of time allotted for a critical thinking test

does not cause an increase in scores. Likewise, standing rather than sitting while taking a critical

thinking test does not cause an increase in in scores

The results of this study are inconsistent with findings of other studies on the same topic.

Posture has been shown to have significant effects on different types of cognition such as the

ability to think creatively (Oppezzo & Schwartz, 2014). Posture has also been shown to have

significant effects on spatial memory (Kerr et al., 1985). When it comes to the effect posture has

on critical thinking the results of this study show that no such relationship exists. The current

study tested the effects of posture more one dimensionally that the two above mentioned studies

by assigning subjects to only sitting and standing conditions. However, while trying to reach

results that could be translated to a classroom setting having subjects sit or stand would be the

only relevant body positions to look at.

There was no significant effect of time found in this study. This is inconsistent with

previous research on time limits and the effects they have on academic testing. Plass et al. (1986)

found significant effects of time on testing. Specifically, they found that having a time limit will

result in lower test scores in children with mild to high test anxiety. Another study looked at time

taken on a problem solving test and found that the more time taken to do the test the better the

results were (Goldhammer et al., 2014). These two studies involved testing without a time limit.


Due to the nature of the current study offering participants unlimited time to complete the test

was impossible. Research on student working posture has shown that students prefer a higher

desktop (Saarni et al., 2007). However this research involved adjustable height furniture. The

current study involved a high top counter, but the counter was at a fixed height, which may have

improved the working posture of some participants, but not all.

The current study shows that there is no effect of posture on the ability to think critically.

Posture, in this case, means sitting or standing. This adds to the current literature on the effects of

posture on cognition by showing that there is no significant difference in one’s ability to think

critically while in a seated or standing position. Research on the effects that body position has on

cognition could benefit from this research because of this lack of significant results. When

developing theories in the future researchers should be able to see that critical thinking is not

effected by standing or sitting. These results cannot be applied to the class room setting because

the results of this study do not show signs that there needs to be changes in the way students are

tested. This adds to the current literature on academic test taking by showing that difference in

time limit does not matter if the difference is small, and the time limit is short to begin with. In

the broad field of research surrounding academic testing the main lesson of this study is that

consistency in the way tests are given is important. However, slight changes and

accommodations such as allowing a student to have an increased time limit, or allowing students

to stand rather than sit do not cause significant changes in test scores, and do not give

accommodated students an unfair advantage over the rest of the test takers.

Practical implications of the results of this study can be applied outside a classroom

setting. A professional setting that may require thinking critically could benefit from these


results. Office jobs are similar to academic classes, in that they both have fairly consistently

furnished facilities. Another similarity is that both office and classroom settings require

individuals to operate within deadlines. Employees may want more time to complete a project in

order to be sure they produce work of the highest quality. Likewise, employers may want to

allow employees more time to complete a project for the same quality related reasons. The issue

is that there is always work to be done, and efficiency is important. The results of this study

would show that if an employee is expected to complete a project that involves critical thinking,

small changes in deadlines may not have a significant effect on the quality of work.

There were some notable limitations to this study. Time limit in the current study was

shown to have no effect. This is most likely due to the relatively small difference in the amount

of time given to each group. The amount of questions may have affected the results of this study.

Nine questions is likely a relatively small amount of questions compared to most college level

exams. This small amount of questions may have affected the way in which the participants

approached the test. Another limitation involving time limit is the fact that in both conditions a

time limit was presented. Participants were not told to take all the time that they need.

Limitations were also present in sampling. The age range for the participants was very small.

The sample size itself was also small.

There are still questions that need to be answered involving the effects of posture on the

way we think. Sitting and standing are two very common body positions so it is not surprising

that there is no difference in the ability to think critically while seated or standing. Other body

positions or body movements like laying down or walking would be worth investigating.

Academic test taking is something that needs to continue to be studied to ensure quality


education. Student’s posture in a classroom may not have any effects on critical thinking test

scores, but there are other factors present in academic testing that may be affecting results.

Another, more drastically varying element in academic test taking is temperature. If there is an

ideal testing temperature it would be worth researching so that schools could make the effort to

ensure consistent ideal testing conditions.


References

Arpaci, F. (2013). THE INVESTIGATION OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC DIMENSIONS OF

THE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN DESK DESIGN FOR THE CLASSROOMS.

International Journal Of Academic Research, 5(2), 217-221. doi:10.7813/2075-

4124.2013/5-2/B.33

Goldhammer, F., Naumann, J., Stelter, A., Tóth, K., Rölke, H., & Klieme, E. (2014). The time on

task effect in reading and problem solving is moderated by task difficulty and skill:

Insights from a computer-based large-scale assessment. Journal of Educational

Psychology, 106(3), 608-626. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0034716

Kerr, B., Condon, S. M., & McDonald, L. A. (1985). Cognitive spatial processing and the

regulation of posture. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and

Performance, 11(5), 617-622. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.11.5.617

Oppezzo, M., & Schwartz, D. L. (2014). Give your ideas some legs: The positive effect of

walking on creative thinking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory,

and Cognition, 40(4), 1142-1152. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036577

Plass, J. A., & Hill, K. T. (1986). Children's achievement strategies and test performance: The

role of time pressure, evaluation anxiety, and sex. Developmental Psychology, 22(1), 31-

36. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.22.1.31


Saarni, L., Nygård, C., Rimpelä, A., Nummi, T., & Kaukiainen, A. (2007). The working

postures among schoolchildren—a controlled intervention study on the effects of newly

designed workstations. Journal Of School Health, 77(5), 240-247. doi:10.1111/j.1746-

1561.2007.00199.x

Yanchar, S. C., Slife, B. D., & Warne, R. (2008). Critical thinking as disciplinary practice.

Review of General Psychology, 12(3), 265-281. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1089-

2680.12.3.265


Appendix A

Test Questions

Circle the best answer for each question.

1. Sue: Commercial flights currently contribute more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere in one year than does the whole of Africa. If we want to reduce global warming we need to restrict the number of flights we take.

Dave: Did you know that by taking one inter-continental flight you cause more pollution than you would in twelve months of car travel?

Dave’s response to Sue’s comment serves to

A. reinforce Sue’s contention that flights are a major contributor to increased carbon dioxide levels B. add more weight to her contention that we should reduce the number of flights we take C. mitigate the force of her argument by suggesting that there is an alternative approach D. suggest an alternative that will reduce the effect of pollution E. question whether she really understands the severity of global warming

2. Is it legal for a man in California to marry his widow's sister? A. Yes, as long as she is alive. B. Yes, if the man is from California. C. You can't marry like this in California. D. No, the man would be dead.

3. How many 2 cent stamps are in a dozen? A. Six B. Twelve C. Eighteen D. Twenty-four


4. Why can't a man living in the USA be buried in Canada? A. The Canadian Government does not allow Americans to be buried in Canada. B. The man is not dead yet. C. It is a trick question and the man is a Canadian living in America. D. The man is living between the border.

5. It is not unusual to see the ball fall into a black slot on a roulette wheel four times in a row. But for it to fall five or six times in a row into the same color is very unusual. Therefore you can win money by waiting for a run of five of the same color and then betting against that color.

If the roulette wheel in question is a fair wheel, which of the following observations or facts, if it were true, would best reveal a fallacy in the logic?

A. If there were a reliable way to win at roulette it would be well-known by now. B. It is hard for a player to keep track of what went before for the time required. C. The probability of getting a particular color decreases with the number of times the color has appeared. D. The probability of getting a particular color is always the same no matter what has gone before. E. A person who makes money this way once or twice, will carry on to lose that money after a few more times.

6.

Josh has twenty years of typing experience behind him; therefore, if you are looking for an efficient typist to enter your data into the new system, you need look no further.

The speaker assumes that

A. Twenty years of practice ensures typing efficiency B. The type of typing required for the new system is identical to what Josh has been doing C. Josh’s job profile is the best that the new employer is going to get D. Josh is an outstandingly fast and accurate typist E. Josh will fit well into the new office

7. A woman gives a beggar 50 cents, the woman is the beggar's sister, but the beggar is not the woman's brother. How come? A. The beggar is the woman's sister


B. Not possible. C. The beggar is an in-law. D. The woman is the beggar.

8.

Recent studies have highlighted the harmful effects of additives in food (colors, preservatives, flavor enhancers etc.). There are no synthetic substances in the foods we produce at Munchon Foods – we use only natural ingredients. Hence you can be sure you are safeguarding your family’s health when you buy our products.

Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the contention of Munchon Foods?

A. Some synthetic substances are not harmful B. Some natural substances found in foods can be harmful C. Food without additives is unlikely to taste good D. Munchon Foods produces only breakfast cereals E. Without preservatives some foods could cause harm

9. It is strange that in Senta city there are so many corner shops selling food items. After all there are many supermarkets in the city which sell food at cheaper prices, and many of these supermarkets are open 24-hours.

Which of the following, if true, would be of least help in explaining the paradoxical observation?

A. The corner shops are selling specialist food items not available in the supermarkets. B. The supermarkets are mostly located on the outskirts of the city and require residents to use cars or public transport to reach them. C. The main business of the local shops is newspaper distribution and food items represent a small part of their turnover. D. The corner shops are mainly family-owned businesses and have been there for much longer than the supermarkets and are perceived as an important feature of the community. E. The corner shops are willing to make home deliveries.

Questions derived from:

Critical Thinking Quiz. (n.d.). Retrieved February 5, 2015, from http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/teach/for442/quizzes/q1003.htm

GMAT Critical Reasoning. (n.d.). Retrieved February 5, 2015, from http://www.majortests.com/gmat/critical_reasoning.php

http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/teach/for442/quizzes/q1003.htm


Appendix B

Test Instructions

Instructions 10 minute time-limit

You will have 10 minutes to complete this nine question multiple choice test. Do not guess, go through and answer every question to the best of your ability. You can go back and change your answers as you wish. You will be informed when you time has expired.

Instructions 20 minute time-limit

You will have 20 minutes to complete this nine question multiple choice test. Do not guess, go through and answer every question to the best of your ability. You can go back and change your answers as you wish. You will be informed when you time has expired.


Table 1

Critical thinking test scores for sitting and standing groups

______________________________________________________________________

Sitting Standing_____

Time Limit n M(SD) n M(SD)_________

10 Minutes 12 5.83(1.40) 11 5.18(1.47)

20 Minutes 10 5.90(1.37) 10 5.80(1.75)________


10 minutes 20 minutes4.8

5

5.2

5.4

5.6

5.8

6sit stand

Time Condition

Mea

n T

est S

core

Figure 1: Mean scores of all conditions with error lines

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