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Ethical issues and non-human animals

Learning Outcomes for this Topic

You must...

0 Describe the issues raised by the use of animals in psychological research0 Illustrate the issues by using a range of psychological research studies0 Describe the current constraints, ethics on the use of animals in psychological research

You should...

0 Outline general arguments for and against the use of animals in psychological research0 Discuss the pros and cons of specific examples of animal research

You could...

0 Evaluate arguments for and against the use of animals in psychological research0 Construct and defend an argument based around your own point of view0

General Background

Before the 1970s, very little thought was given to the use of animals in psychological research. It was assumed by many psychologists (especially those from a biological perspective) that animal research was both useful and moral. However, since the early 70s, this has changed markedly. Objections to the use of animals in psychological research fall into two categories (although there is some crossover):

• Practical arguments, which state that we learn nothing of value from such studies• Ethical arguments, which state that regardless of what is learned, such studies are morally wrong

Each argument against the use of animals has a corresponding argument in favour. Over the next couple of sessions, we will be looking at these arguments and their strengths and weaknesses.

The use of non-human animals in psychological research

NOTE!!! Before discussing the use of non-human animals in psychological research a couple of notes of caution need to be sounded.• There is a tendency amongst those who oppose the use of animals in any research to equate the 'use' of animals with the 'suffering' of animals. Many animals have been studied as part of research into their behaviour in ways thathaven't interfered with them significantly, and which haven't involved them in any suffering. We have all seen the marvelous Attenborough programmes that reveal insights into animal behaviour based on studies of them through powerfultelephoto and close-up lenses, infra-red cameras and sensitive recording technology. Another point is that a number of animals, such as those monkeys who live in colonies in compounds attached to university research centres at theWisconsin Primate Research Centre, have their physical, dietary, medical and social needs, fully met. Their keepers would argue that they have a much betterquality of life here than they would in the wild.• We are interested here in the use psychologists have made of non-human animals, not the commercial use made by researchers testing the effects of being exposed to prototype shampoos, hairsprays or toothpastes, or even medical researchers seeking a chemical compound to help in the treatment ofParkinson's, Alzheimer's, or other crippling human diseases.Exam tip! In any discussion of the use of animals in psychological research, don't attack ordefend other uses of animals in research, and don't imply that research automatically means suffering.

Evolutionary ContinuitySince the ideas of Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution became accepted, psychologistshave used animals in their research (1859). Darwin proposed a line of unbroken continuity between the higher mammals and humans. Any differences are one of quantity not quality. Therefore it is valid to study behaviour using non-human animals. This idea is known as evolutionary continuity. We can study simple organisms to learn about complex ones.

Using Animals in PsychologyDuring the first half ofthe twentieth century animals were used increasingly in PSYCHOLOGY. Especially by:-The Behaviourist who conducted lab expts using small mammalsThe Ethologists who conducted field expts and naturalistic observations

A significant number of expts on animals during this period would not be allowed today. Many involved severe deprivation- some even death! However, at the time, this research was considered acceptable and important.

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Broadbent advocates the use of animals and cites 3 justifications1. EVOLUTIONARY CONTINUITY- i.e. humans are highly evolved animals - they differ

quantitatively (are more complex) but not qualitatively to other animals. We can extrapolate (transfer) our findings from animal to humans. (This treats all animals the same! Differences between species are ignored). There are many similarities between the human and animal brain, particularly once you've dug below the cortex. This may lead us to believe there is continuity of function also. This is known as COMPARITIVE PSYCHOLOGY -'the similarity principle'

2. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS- They allow experiments to be carried out (for example on deprivation as in Harlow) that could not be done with humans. Having tested an idea on another species and gained insight, then more tightly controlled and ethical studies can be conducted on humans.

3. APPLYING OCCAMS RAZOR - A means of scientifically studying SIMPLE systems to understand complex ones. (NB we assume here a continuity between all animal species (1). This is considered a 'good' science. Using animals allows us to have more control and replicate studies increasing reliability and validity of results.

4. CONVENIENCE AS PARTICIPANTS- a) they reproduce and go through the life cycle quickly so certain topics e.g. nature/nurture effects of age on learning etc can be explored. b) greater objectivity is obtained because no subjectivity- no risk of experimenter involvement, demand characteristics etc.

5. GENERATING HYPOTHESIS/TESTING HYPOTHESIS - a) useful early in research to get us to test later on humans. b) Useful to test ideas experimentally after doing correlations e.g. stress and illness (Brady)

SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS OF ANIMAL RESEARCH (Miller, 1985)1. Benefits to animals: by increasing our understanding of animal behaviour we have helped some

endangered species, improved animal care on farms and been able to cure some of their contagious diseases.

2. Benefits to humans; techniques derived from studies such as Pavlov and his classicalconditioning as well as Skinnerian operant conditioning have helped humans with conditions such as Phobias, OCD and even bed wetting! - aversion therapy. These techniques also help greatly when working with animals in zoos and vetinarian situations.

3. Animal helpers: Guide dogs and police dogs are trained using ethological principles.

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Scientific grounds against animal research (Antiextrapolationists)

Animals instead of humans? Often we do not need to use animals instead of humanse.g. no need for Harlow.Issue of generalisation: How much can research on Non-human animals tell us about humans. Drug studies often obtain conflicting results from different species. Cancer research for example is sensitive to physiological differences across species: Vitamin cis believed to help the human body ward off cancer. However. rats and mice synthesis 100 times the recommended daily dose of this vitamin, so how can cancer research on rodents tell us about human disease.

Ecological Validity Animals behave differently (like humans) in lab situations- so little ecological validity. However trying to obtain validity in the field can have serious consequences: e.g. Cuthill (1991) shows how manipulations to the animals environment can have an impact on the animals community/life after the study. E.g. Anderson (1982)-(phenotype manipulation-change the physical characteristics of the animal for the purposes of the study) can reduce the mating opportunities for the birds with docked tails and increase the vulnerability to predators of birds with artificially lengthened tails.

Confounding Variables: the stress induced by being in an unnatural environment, eg being isolated, confmed, handled etc can have significant effects on Non-human animals. Such stress can reduce immune levels, causing increased susceptibility to infections and even tumours. Stress also influences hormone and antibody levels.

Cost benefit analysis: How easy is ti to judge NHA suffering?? What level of suffering constitutes questionable research? How can we judge animal suffering across species, as there are differences in the way animals express discomfort etc. The introduction of legislation and restrictions has helped but How can we truly judge an others suffering???

Manipulation of Scientific information: Scientist biased and driven by results will publish only the positive and not the negative. Again the question of validity and reliability of research comes into doubt if the issues above are true.

Anthropomorphism:- (i.e. the projection and attribution of human qualities onto animals). It is a mistake to think that animals are like us- we tend to think of animals with feelings, thoughts and behaviour which we have:- but there is no evidence of this happening - it is very subjective.

Antiextrapolation:- This is the belief that each species is unique, therefore, it is invalid to use the data gathered for one species and infer it is relevant for all species. This is a REJECTION of the evolutionary continuity argument. Evidence for this comes from areas such as study of language/potential for learning/ complexity of behaviour.

10HarlowOutline of study:

Apply 3 R's and Bateson's cube how would they have to change to become more Ethical. Alternative ways to find information?

Aim:

Findings and contribution to Psychology: ARUGMENTS FOR STUY ON MONKEYS.

Context:

Evaluation: (strengths, weaknesses, scientific method used)

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Outline of study:Apply 3 R's and Bateson's cube how would they have to change to become more Ethical. Alternative ways to find information?

Aim:

Findings and contribution to Psychology :ARUGMENTS FOR STUDY

Context:

Evaluation: (strengths, weaknesses, scientific method used)

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Outline of study:Apply 3 R's and Bateson's cube how would they have to change to become more Ethical. Alternative ways to find information?

Aim:

Findings and contribution to Psychology: Arguments forStudy

Context:

Evaluation: (strengths, weaknesses, scientific method used)

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Outline of study:Apply 3 R's and Bateson's cube howwould they have to change to become more Ethical. Alternative ways to find information?

Aim:

Findings and contribution to Psychology: Arguments for study

Context:

Evaluation: (strengths, weaknesses, scientific method used)

10HarlowOutline of study:

Apply 3 R's and Bateson's cube how would they have to change to become more Ethical. Alternative ways to find information?

Aim:

Findings and contribution to Psychology: ARUGMENTS FOR STUY ON MONKEYS.

Context:

Evaluation: (strengths, weaknesses, scientific method used)

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BradyOutline of study:

Apply 3 R's and Bateson's cube how would they have to change to become more Ethical. Alternative ways to find information?

Aim:

Findings and contribution to Psychology: ARGUMENTS FOR STUDY

Context:

Evaluation: (strengths, weaknesses. sci entif ic "'ethod used)

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Outline of study:Apply 3 R's and Bateson's cube how would they have to change to become more Ethical. Alternative ways to find information?

Aim:

Findings and contribution to Psychology :ARUGMENTS FOR STUDY

Context:

Evaluation: (strengths, weaknesses, scientific method used)

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Outline of study:Apply 3 R's and Bateson's cube how would they have to change to become more Ethical. Alternative ways to find information?

Aim:

Findings and contribution to Psychology: ARGUMENTS FOR STUDY

Context:

Evaluation: (strengths, weaknesses, scientific method used)

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ETHICAL CONSTRAINTS: The British Psychological Society produces ethical guidelines fo use of animals in psychological investigations. The guidance covers issues such as legislation, choice of sp number of animals, procedures, housing and animal care, final disposal of animals and use of animals for therapeutic purposes.

Selected aspects of the guidelines are as follows:Ethical consideration s : If the research necessitates that animals should be confined, constrained or

stressed in any way, the experimenter must make sure the ends justify the means. If the knowledge to be gained is trivial, alternatives should be favoured.

Number of animals : Experimenters should have a sound knowledge of experimental design such that the minimum number of animals can be used to maximum effect. Statisticians may be able to advise ontechniques of analysis which can give meaningful results from the least number of subjects.

Motivation: In some experiments, animals may be motivated to behave be being deprived of food. The needs of individual species should be understood. What amounts to a short period of deprivation for one species could be intolerable for another. In addition, unchecked food intake is harmful to some animals.

LEGAL CONSTRAINTS: In the UK the use of animals in research is governed by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act (1986). The act enforced by a team of inspectors (qualified vets or doctors). They visit each establishment an average of 8 times a year, often without prior notice.

1. The Law : Failure to comply to laws of the UK on protecting the rights of animals will lead to prosecution.2.Ethical consideration : Do the ends justify the means.3. Species: Investigators must have a good knowledge of the species being used, and if the research is likely tocause pain or discomfort they should do the research on those species that are likely to suffer the least.4. Number of animals: Studies should use the smallest number of animals possible.5. Endangered species: These should not be used in research unless as an attempt at conservation.6. Caging and social development: This should take into account the social behaviour of the species so as to avoid overcrowding and isolation if this is not the norm.7. Motivation : The experimenter should consider the animal's normal eating and drinking habits and its metabolicrequirements. Research involving deprivation should take into account that what constitutes deprivation will differ depending on the species8. Aversive stimuli and stressful purposes . Procedures that cause pain or distress to animals are illegal in the UKunless the experimenter holds a Home Office Licence and the relevant certificates. Alternative ways of conducting the experiment should be considered; if not, possible suffering should be kept to a minimum and the ends (scientific contribution) must outweigh the costs (animal suffering).

METHODOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS: The three 'R's originated in a proposal made in 1954 by Charles Hume, founder of the Universities Federation of Animal Welfare (UFAW), that UFAW should undertake a scientific study of human technique in lab 1animal expts. The use of the three R's has proved very fruitful. In the Netherlands, 500monkeys a year were used in the 1970s to produce polio vaccines, during the 1990s this dropped to 10 monkeys.

Using the leaflet complete the following.

REDUCTION: The reduction alternative involves using methods that obtain the amount of information from animals or information from the number. Improved designs and a better understanding of techniques would help to reduce the number of animals used.

REPLACEMENT: This is the area that has probably advanced the least. It involves, for example, the increased use of and procedures (MRI and PET scans) in humans, and the use of and mathematical models of human behaviour totake the place of research involving animals. In the UK, Lord Dowding Fund for Humane Research specifically better methods that the use of animals.

REFINEMEN T : This involves using experimental procedures that stress and animal . Some lab animals are to take part in tests in their

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People are very divided about the ethics of using animals. Eysenck identifies 2 basic approaches:1.Moral Absolutism -this is the extreme position which can go either way i.e. using animals isalways or never acceptable.2.Moral Relativism- (can be acceptable but the cost/benefits must be weighed up first (accepted by BPS and ethical committee)Developing criteria for assessing research on animalsBateson (1986) developed a system to help researchers decide whether or not planned research during non-human animals should go ahead. It includes three criteria for cosUbenefit analysis: -1) Quality of the research: Although determining the quality of research may appear to be subjective, there is actually a great deal of agreement among psychologists about what constitutes high-quality research. This can be assessed by the funding agency.2) Degree of animal sufferingIt is difficult to put oneself inside the mind of an animal andassess the degree to which a particular animal is or is not suffering as a result to the procedure we expose to it. Someanimals when faced with danger remain rigid and silent because that is the safest thing to do. We may not recognise such behaviour as being a sign of stress.3) Certainty of Benefit : It is difficult to predict exactly what the benefits of the research might be to the lives of humans and

Quality ofResearch

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animals but it is important to consider whether the expt isjustifiable.

The solid spaces indicate when research should NOT go aheadThe 4 clear spaces indicate when research SHOULD go head

Tasks: 1) Using Bateson's model describe the 4 conditions which allow research to proceed. 2)Read the following example of research conducted on Alzheimer's disease and then note down your arguments of whether or not you think the ends really can justify the means....... Be prepared to share your views with the class. Extension: Comment on the studies on page 3 in terms of Bateson's system and the ethical guidelines on page 4.One of the major problems of the 21st Century will be the increasing numbers of old people. A proportion of these will suffer from senile dementia, the commonest form of which is Alzheimer's Disease. In its severest form, Alzheimer's produces severe memory loss, confusion, loss of the sense of self-identity, and double incontinence. Caring for sufferers is usually a family affair, 24 hours a day every day of the year and involves watching the sufferer degenerate in front of you.There is as yet no cure for Alzheimer's disease. We know from post mortem brain studies that there is a pattern of damage to brain circuits and we know from animal studies that these circuits are also involved in memory in rats and monkeys...this model is being used to develop possible treatments, e.g. drugs to restore brain function, use of grafts of brain cells to replace cells that have died, animal research is also helping to reveal the biochemical abnormalities responsible for producing the brain damage. There are encouraging signs that a treatment for Alzheimer's disease may emerge, which will depend totally on the use of animal testing for its development. If successful, it would have a dramatic impact, improving the quality of life for both the sufferers and others who would sacrifice their lives in caring for them. Is this potential benefit sufficient to justify the means of using animals in psychologicalresearch? (Green (1994))

Evaluation of Bateson's model: (A02)Benefits of the model : This model provides an indication of when animal research may be tolerated and when it can not. Also certain levels of animals suffering cannot be tolerated regardless of quality of research and probability of benefits. Value Judgements : The effectiveness of Bateson's decision cube depends on the accuracy of the assessments of quality, suffering and benefit. These may be biased and subjective.CosUBenefit: often cost benefits can only be sorted out AFTER the research has taken place. Quantification is difficult : It may be difficult to quantify the quality, suffering and benefit.Era dependent and context-bound: Assessments may change over time and vary across cultures and individuals, and so the cube is neither universal nor objective.Measuring animal suffering : Different species react differently to stress and it is hard to define what animal suffering is. Dawkins (1985) suggests that three factors can be used to measure animal suffering: an animal's state of physical health, signs of stress and the animal's behaviour.Speciesism: By calculating the benefits to humankind but the costs to animals, we might be committing speciesism.

Th,e Reaso,ns for th,e, decline i.n th,e s

se of non-human animals. in psychological: researcDuring the 1970s up to today the use of animals has declined. Some reasons are:

ETHICAL GROUNDS: Animals are sentient and (feeling pain and emotion) should be protected from harm. A growing number of animal rights groups have publicised the harm done on animals. The use of animals in research has become increasingly controlled and/or forbidden as a result of the publicity

ACADEMIC/SCIENTIFIC GROUNDS:a) Cognitive psychology has become more influential than behaviourism - so less use of animals.b) Humanistic Psychology rejects evolutionary continuityc)Students are less interested in animal research (Thomas and Blackburn) In1991 only 29 Psychology departments used animals and 98'i'o of these were rats and pigeons.

LEGAL CONSTRAINTS (tightening of rules):All potential animal research must first obtain a licence from the 'Home Office'. This requires that the psychologist shows that he/she is competent to look after animals and has all the facilities needed.The B.P.S. have revised their guidelines on the use ofanimals and these are now very rigorous and demanding on the Psychologist. The latest were formulated in 1993

SUPPORTERS of animal research in psychology mostly take a relativist view and seek ways to increase the acceptability of this research either by:-1) Publicising its benefits for all animals2) making the research itself more acceptable- e.g. Morton (1992) suggests that reports should be written up to include the observed effects on the animals -thus steps can be taken to minimise the suffering.

CRITICS of animal research in psychology take an absolutist view and seek to abolish all animal experimentation in research by.....1) Publicising the pain and suffering of the animals used2) Making the research unacceptable be showing animals are sentient beings with emotions and consciousness, e.g. Dwarkins (1994) are working to close the gap between humans and other animals. One idea is the GREAT APE PROJECT where a large group of writers and academics are attempting to have experiments using Great Apes banned! .

Scientific grounds against animal research (Antiextrapolationists)

Task: Conduct some research on the Great Ape Project using the internet and Essential A2 Psychology pg 333. Be prepared to feedback to the class