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i
EVALUATION OF SALTBUSH (Atriplex amnicola) AS
A DIETARY FORAGE FOR NILI-RAVI BUFFALO
HEIFERS AND KAJLI LAMBS
By
JALEES AHMAD BHATTI
M.Sc. (Hons.) LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
A
dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
Livestock Management
DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE
FAISALABAD, PAKISTAN
2009
ii
EVALUATION OF SALTBUSH (Atriplex amnicola) AS
A DIETARY FORAGE FOR NILI-RAVI BUFFALO
HEIFERS AND KAJLI LAMBS
By
JALEES AHMAD BHATTI
M.Sc. (Hons.) LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
Livestock Management
DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE
FAISALABAD, PAKISTAN
2009
iii
Dedications
I dedicate this humble effort to
my mother,
Elder brother NAFEES BHATTI,
wife, son (IBRAHIM) and
daughter (FATIMAH)
who inspired and encouraged
me to higher ideals of life
iv
To
The Controller of Examinations
University of Agriculture
Faisalabad
The members of the Supervisory Committee find the dissertation submitted by Mr. Jalees
Ahmad Bhatti, Regd. No. 81-ag-619 satisfactory and recommend that it be processed for
the award of the degree.
SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE:
1. CHAIRMAN _________________________________ (DR MUHAMMAD YOUNAS)
2. MEMBER _________________________________ (DR MUHAMMAD RIAZ)
3. MEMBER _________________________________ (DR HAQ NAWAZ)
v
LIST OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
# T I T L E
PAGE
#
Title i
Subtitle ii
Dedications iii
Supervisory Committee iv
List of Contents v
Acknowledgements viii
List of Tables ix
List of Figures xiii
List of Pictures xiv
Abbreviations used xv
Abstract
xvii
1 Introduction 1
2 Review of Literature 5
2.1 Feed Composition 5
2.1.1 Saltbush Levels 5
2.1.2 Feeds and Forages 7
2.2 Dry Matter Intake 8
2.2.1 Saltbush levels 8
2.2.2 Season 10
2.2.3 Feeds and Forages 11
2.3 Water Intake 14
2.3.1 Saltbush Levels 14
2.3.2 Season 16
2.4 Weight Gain 18
2.4.1 Saltbush Levels 18
2.4.2 Season 20
2.4.3 Feeds and Forages 20
2.5 Digestibility 25
2.5.1 Saltbush Levels 25
2.5.2 Feeds and Forages 27
vi
2.6 Blood Hematology 31
2.6.1 Saltbush Levels 31
2.6.2 Feeds and Forages 32
2.6.3 Season 33
3 Materials and Methods 34
3.1 Propagation of Forage Biomass 34
3.1.1 Mott Grass 34
3.1.2 Berseem 35
3.1.3 Lucerne 35
3.1.4 Saltbush Hay 36
3.1..5 Urea Treated Straw 37
3.2 Feed Analyses 37
3.3 Digestibility 39
3.4 Blood Hematology 40
3.5 Data Analyses 41
4 EXPERIMENT 1
Evaluation of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a
substitute of conventional fodders during
various seasons in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers
42
Abstract 42
4.1 Introduction 43
4.2 Materials and Methods 45
4.3 Results and Discussion 48
4.3.1 Meteorological Data 48
4.3.2 Feed Composition 49
4.3.3 Dry Matter Intake 61
4.3.4 Water Intake 67
4.3.5 Weight Gain 70
4.3.6 Digestibility 75
4.3.7 Blood Hematology 81
4.4 Conclusions 88
5 EXPERIMENT 2 90
vii
Evaluation of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a
substitute of Lucerne hay nitrogen with different
levels of saltbush nitrogen in comparison with
urea nitrogen in Kajli lambs.
Abstract 90
5.1 Introduction 91
5.2 Materials and Methods 93
5.3 Results and Discussion 95
5.3.1 Feed Composition 95
5.3.2 Dry Matter Intake 100
5.3.3 Water Intake 104
5.3.4 Weight Gain 105
5.3.5 Dry Matter and Organic Matter Digestibility 108
5.3.6 Blood Hematology 111
5.4 Conclusions 114
6 EXPERIMENT 3
Evaluation of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) in
Kajli lambs as a substitute of Lucerne hay based
Total Mixed Ration
116
Abstract 116
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Materials and Methods 119
6.3 Results and Discussion 122
6.3.1 Feed Composition 122
6.3.2 Dry Matter Intake 126
6.3.3 Water Intake 128
6.3.4 Weight Gain 129
6.3.5 Digestibility 131
6.3.6 Blood Hematology 134
6.4 Conclusions 137
7 Summary 138
8 Recommendations & Implications 143
9 Literature Cited 145
A Brief CV 158
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am thankful to almighty Allah, the Compassionate and the Merciful, who bestowed
upon me the patience, stamina and ability to conduct this research project.
I am greatly indebted and feel deep sense of gratitude to my Supervisor, Professor Dr
Muhammad Younas, Dean, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, for his keen interest in the execution and completion of this research work.
I am grateful to my committee members Dr Muhammad Riaz, Assistant Professor,
Department of Livestock Management and Dr Haq Nawaz, Associate Professor, Institute
of Animal Nutrition & Feed Technology, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, for their help, constructive criticism in the completion of this
work and review of this manuscript.
I am grateful to Dr(s) Muhammad Sajjad Khan and Safdar Ali, Department of Animal
Breeding and Genetics, for their sincere help in data handling and analysis of this study.
Thanks are extended to Professor Dr Muhammad Abdullah, Dean, Faculty of Animal
Production and Technology and Professor Dr Masroor Ellahi Babar, Chairman,
Department of Livestock Production, University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences,
Lahore for great help in the preparation of this project and review of the thesis.
Thanks are also extended to Mr Shamshad Ahmad and Mr Nadeem, for their help in
typing of this dissertation. Last but not the least I am thankful to my mother, wife and
other members of my family for their moral support.
JALEES AHMAD BHATTI
Regd No 81-ag-619
ix
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
#
T I T L E PAGE
#
4.1 Distribution of Nili-Ravi Buffalo heifers in conventional
fodders substituted with Saltbush diets experiment.
46
4.2 Metrological data during experiment in buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
48
4.3 Dry matter contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted
with saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
49
4.4 ANOVA of Dry Matter contents in conventional fodders
substituted with Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo
heifers.
51
4.5 Crude Protein contents of conventional fodders substituted
with Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
51
4.6 Crude Protein ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted
with Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
52
4.7 Crude Fiber contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted
with Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
53
4.8 Crude Fiber ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted with
Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
54
4.9 Ether Extract (%) of conventional fodders substituted with
Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
54
4.10 Ether Extract ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted
with Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
55
4.11 Ash contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted with
Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
56
4.12 ANOVA of Ash contents in conventional fodders substituted
with Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
57
4.13 NFE contents (%) in conventional fodders substituted with
Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
57
4.14 ANOVA of NFE in conventional fodders substituted with
Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
58
4.15 Mean daily DMI (kg) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
61
4.16 ANOVA of DMI in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional
fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
63
4.17 Daily water intake (liter) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
67
4.18 ANOVA of daily water intake in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
68
4.19 Daily weight gain (kg) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
71
x
4.20 ANOVA of daily weight gain in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
73
4.21 Dry Matter Digestibility (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
76
4.22 ANOVA of Dry Matter Digestibility in Nili-Ravi buffalo
heifers on conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush
diets.
77
4.23 Organic Matter Digestibility (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers
on conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
77
4.24 ANOVA of Organic Matter Digestibility in Nili-Ravi buffalo
heifers on conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush
diets.
78
4.25 Red Blood Cells count (106
μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets
82
4.26 ANOVA of RBCs (106
μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
83
4.27 WBCs count (103 μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
83
4.28 ANOVA of WBCs (103 μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
84
4.29 Hemoglobin (g/dl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
85
4.30 ANOVA of Hemoglobin (g/dl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
86
4.31 PCV count (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional
fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
86
4.32 ANOVA of PCV in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional
fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
87
5.1 Distribution of Kajli lambs to treatments in Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with Saltbush and urea nitrogen trial.
93
5.2 Dry Matter contents (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
96
5.3 Crude Protein contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
97
5.4 Crude Fiber contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
99
5.5 Ether Extract contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
99
5.6 Ash contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
100
5.7 NFE contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
101
5.8 DMI (kg) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
101
5.9 Daily water Intake (Lit) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on
Lucerne hay nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea
104
xi
nitrogen diets.
5.10 Weight gain (Kg) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne
hay nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen
diets.
105
5.11 DMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
108
5.12 OMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
109
5.13 RBCs (106
μl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne
hay nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen
diets.
112
5.14 WBCs (103 μl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
112
5.15 Hemoglobin (g/dl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on
Lucerne hay nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea
nitrogen diets.
113
5.16 PCV (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
113
6.1 Distribution of Kajli lambs to different treatments of Lucerne
hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with Saltbush.
120
6.2 DM contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total
Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.
122
6.3 CP contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total
Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.
123
6.4 Crude Fiber (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total
Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.
123
6.5 Ether Extract (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total
Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.
124
6.6 ASH contents (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total
Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.
124
6.7 NFE (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total Mixed
Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.
125
6.8 DMI and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based Total
Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.
127
6.9 Water intake (Lit) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne
hay based TMR substituted with different levels of saltbush.
128
6.10 Weight gain and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay
based TMR substituted with different levels of saltbush.
130
6.11 DMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based
TMR substituted with different levels of saltbush.
132
6.12 Organic Matter Digestibility (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs
fed on Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with
different levels of saltbush.
132
6.13 Red Blood Cells (106
μl) count and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on
Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with
134
xii
different levels of saltbush.
6.14 White Blood Cells (103 μl) count and ANOVA in Kajli lambs
fed on Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with
different levels of saltbush.
135
6.15 Hemoglobin (g/dl) values and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on
Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with
different levels of saltbush.
135
6.16 Packed Cell Volume (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on
Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with
different levels of saltbush
136
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
#
T I T L E PAGE
#
4.1 Overall mean Temperature and Relative Humidity
changes during different feeding periods
49
4.2 Overall means of Dry Matter (%) of feeds in different
treatments and during different periods
50
4.3 Overall means of Crude Protein (%) in different
treatments and during different periods.
52
4.4 Overall means of Crude Fiber (%) of feeds in different
treatments and during different periods.
53
4.5 Overall means of Ether Extract (%) of feeds in
different treatments and during different periods
55
4.6 Overall means of Ash contents (%) in feeds on
different treatments and during different periods.
56
4.7 Overall means of NFE (%) in feeds on different
treatments and during different periods.
58
4.8 Overall means of daily DMI (kg) in buffalo heifers on
different treatments and during different periods.
63
4.9 Overall means of daily water intake (liter) in Nili-Ravi
buffalo heifers on different treatments and during
different periods
68
4.10 Overall means of daily weight gain (Kg) in Nili-Ravi
buffalo heifers on different treatments and during
different periods
72
4.11 Daily weight gain (Kg) of heifers on different
treatments and during different periods
72
4.12 Overall means of DMD (%) of feeds in buffalo heifers
on different treatments and during different periods.
76
4.13 Overall means of Organic Matter Digestibility (%) of
feeds in buffalo heifers on different treatments and
during different periods
78
4.14 Overall means of RBCs (106
μl) in buffalo heifers on
different treatments and during different periods.
82
4.15 Overall means of WBCs (103 μl) in buffalo heifers on
different treatments and during different periods.
84
4.16 Overall means of Hemoglobin (g/dl) in buffalo heifers
on different treatments and during different periods.
85
4.17 Overall means of PCV (%) in buffalo heifers on
different treatments and during different periods.
87
xiv
LIST OF PICTURES
PICTURE
# T I T L E
PAGE
#
3.1 Mott Napier plantation and production for heifer feeding 35
3.2 Berseem cultivation and cutting for heifer feeding 35
3.3 Sun cured Lucerne hay prepared for lambs feeding 36
3.4 Biomass production of transplanted Atriplex amnicola
shrub for heifers and lambs feeding.
36
3.5 Urea treatment of wheat straw for lambs feeding 37
4.1 Distribution of groups and tail to tail housing of heifers
for saltbush feeding experiment
46
5.1 Lucerne and Saltbush hay making under shade for
feeding to Kajli Lambs
94
5.2 Metabolic cages for lambs with separate feed and water
for each lamb
94
6.1 Distribution of lambs to different treatments with
individual feed and water arrangements
120
6.2 Prepared TMR diet having Lucerne hay substituted with
different levels of Saltbush designated as T1, T2 and T3
for feeding to Lambs.
121
6.3 Fecal collection bags adjustment for digestibility
estimations
121
xv
ABBREVIATIONS USED
ADF Acid-detergent fiber
ADG Average daily live weight gain
ADL Acid detergent lignin
Agric. Agricultural
Anim. Animal
ANOVA Analysis of variance
Aust. Australian
Bio. Biology
Bio-chem. Biochemistry
CF Crude Fiber
CP Crude Protein
CRD Completely Randomized Design
d day
DCP Digestible Crude Protein
DDM Digestible Dry Matter
DM Dry Matter
DMI Dry Matter Intake
DMD Dry Matter Digestibility
DOMI Digestible Organic Matter Intake
DOMIV Digestibility of organic matter in vitro
EE Ether Extract
Exp. Experimental
g gm, gram
GDP Gross Domestic Product
Husb. Husbandry
Ind. Indian
IVOMD In-Vitro Organic Matter Digestibility
IVDMD In-Vitro Dry Matter Digestibility
J Journal
kg kilogram
kg0.75
Per kg metabolic body weight
kg-1 Per kg
LSD Latin Square Design, Least Significant Difference
Med. Medical, Medicine
Mgt. Management
NDF Neutral Detergent Fiber
NFE Nitrogen-Free Extract
NRC National Research Council
Nutr. Nutrition
OM Organic Matter
OMD Organic Matter Digestibility
xvi
Pak Pakistan
Parasit. Parasitology
Proc. Proceedings
Prod. Production
Reprod. Reproduction
Res Research
Rum. Ruminant
Sci. Science. or Sciences
SGOT Serum Glutamic OxaloaceticTtransaminase
SGPT Serum Glutamic Pyruvate Transaminase
TDN Total Digestible Nutrients
Tech. Technology
Uni. University
Vet. Veterinary
xvii
Evaluation of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a dietary forage
for Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers and Kajli lambs
ABSTRACT
Livestock production in Pakistan is contributing almost 50 % to the value addition in the
agriculture sector and 11 % to GDP, which is higher than the contribution made by the
crop sector. Animal production is badly affected by shortage of feed resources. Forages
are an important source of animal feed and constitute nearly 70 % of the total cost of
livestock production. The area under fodder production (14 %) is hardly able to produce
58 million tones of fodder which is not sufficient even to meet the maintenance of the
existing livestock. The salinity and water logging are the major factors in deteriorating
the soil and further dwindling resources. Atriplex species are tolerant to cold and heat
stress and have great potential to increase the productivity of salt-affected land. Saltbush
can be used as an alternate feed for large and small ruminants in the salinity affected
areas. To exploit the potential feeding value of Saltbush, three experiments were
conducted to use Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as dietary forage for Nili-Ravi buffalo
heifers and Kajli lambs at Livestock Experiment Station, University of Agriculture
Faisalabad, Pakistan. Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers feeding management trial (Experiment 1)
was conducted to determine the effect of conventional fodder substitution with saltbush
during different seasons. Fifteen buffalo heifers (120±2 kg) were divided into five
groups, three each according to Latin Square Design fed on different treatments (T)
designated as T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 having Mott (Pennisetum purpurium), Berseem
(Trifolium alexandrinum), Mott+Saltbush, Berseem+Saltbush and
Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, respectively. Mean maximum temperature during different
periods (P) designated as P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 20.76±1.75, 22.62±1.75, 24.51±1.75,
37.67±1.75 and 40.98±1.75˚C, respectively. Crude protein contents were higher in
Berseem followed by T4 and T5. Lowest crude protein was during summer and higher
during mild season and winter. Ether Extract was higher in diets having Berseem and
Berseem+Saltbush than other treatments and also higher during mild season than severe
summer and winter. Ash contents were higher in saltbush substituted diets and also
during summer season. DMI was higher during mild season and was highest in heifers on
Berseem and Berseem+Saltbush diet. Daily water intake was comparatively higher in
heifers on saltbush substituted diets and also increased during summer season. Highest
daily weight gain was observed on Berseem alone and heifers on Saltbush combination
diets also gained more than on Mott grass. Weight gain was lower during winter as
compared to spring and summer. Statistically significant difference in DM (P<0.05), CP,
CF, EE, Ash and NFE (P<0.01), DMI, water intake and weight gain (P<0.01), DMD and
OMD (P<0.05), RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin and PCV (P<0.05) was observed between
treatments and periods. Saltbush substituted diets showed better DMD and OMD and also
changes were observed in RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin and PCV between treatments and
periods. The Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers showed comparable intake and gain on diets
having inclusion of Saltbush with conventional fodders especially performed better on
Berseem+Saltbush diets during winter season. Performance of heifers was also better on
xviii
saltbush combination diets having Mott+Saltbush and Berseem+Mott+Saltbush in the
diets during summer season. Therefore, the growth performance of Nili-Ravi buffalo
heifers can be improved by using Saltbush leaves and twigs in fresh form as part of
conventional fodders up to 50 % during different seasons. Saltbush can be incorporated in
the conventional diets of heifers to maintain daily intake and growth performance during
feed gaps. Saltbush can be used as an alternate forage source when conventional fodders
are short and their nutrient contents are less during severe winter and summer seasons.
The continuous supply of better feed to such neglected animals raised in saline areas can
be maintained to achieve early growth and sexual maturity.
Lucerne hay nitrogen replacement trial (Experiment 2) was conducted to substitute the
Lucerne hay nitrogen with different levels of saltbush and urea nitrogen on 30 Kajli
lambs divided into five groups of six lambs each using CRD (5x6) fed for ten (10) weeks
on 70% Lucerne hay and 30% wheat straw (T1), urea nitrogen replaced 20% T1 nitrogen,
urea nitrogen replaced 30% T1 nitrogen, Saltbush nitrogen replaced 20% T1 nitrogen and
saltbush nitrogen replaced 30% T1 nitrogen designated as T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5,
respectively. Crude protein contents were higher in saltbush diets as compared to T1
(15.50±.214 %) and T2 and T3, respectively. Crude fiber contents were 26.25±0.55,
31.00±0.55, 32.75±0.55, 27.00±0.55 and 27.50±0.55 % on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, and
EE contents were 2.75±.194, 3.00±.194, 2.75±.194, 3.00±.194 and 3.25±.194,
respectively. Ash contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 8.50±.295, 11.00±.295,
11.75±.295, 11.25±.295 and 14.25±.295 % and Differences in dry matter (P<0.01) Crude
fiber (P<0.01) Ash (P<0.01) and NFE (P<0.09) contents were significant and crude
protein (P<0.290) and Ether Extract (P<0.364) were non-significant between treatments.
DMI was 0.97±0.05, 0.91±0.05, 0.87±0.05, 1.02±0.05 and 0.92±0.05 kg on T1, T2, T3,
T4 and T5, respectively. Daily water intake was comparatively higher (2.47±1.07 and
2.60±1.07 liters) on saltbush diets than control and urea nitrogen diets. Higher
(0.049±0.01 kg) daily weight gain on T4 than T1 (0.044±0.01 kg) was observed.
Significant difference in DMI (P<0.05), water intake (P<0.01) and weight gain (P<0.05)
was observed between treatments. DMD and OMD was higher on saltbush included diets
than control and urea substituted diets and significant OMD (P<0.01). Significant
(P<0.01) difference in RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin and PCV was observed between
treatments. The findings of the experiment indicated that the lambs fed on saltbush
included diets and urea nitrogen diets showed comparatively better intake, gained more
and also the digestibility values were comparable to control fed on Lucerne hay based
diets. The blood hematology values also indicated significant differences between
treatments. Dried saltbush leaves and twigs can suitably incorporated upto 30 % of the
diet nitrogen in the conventional hay based diets to increase the nutrient level of the diet
especially during drought and feed shortage periods when no alternate feeds are available
in the saline areas.
Lucerne hay based TMR trial (Experiment 3) was conducted to substitute the Lucerne
hay based TMR with different levels of saltbush on 12 Kajli lambs divided into three
groups of four lambs each using CRD (3x4). The lambs were fed for 35 days on TMR
diet designated as T1 (CGM 20.5, Lucerne hay 60, Molasses 18 and mineral mixture 1.5
%), T2 (Saltbush hay replaced 30 % Lucerne hay of T1) and T3 (Saltbush hay replaced
xix
45 % Lucerne hay of T1), respectively. CP was 16.25±.144, 16.00±.144 and 15.00±.144
%, respectively. Significant DM (P<0.019), CP (P<0.01) differences were observed
between treatments. CF was highest (16.75±.417 %) in T3 diet having 45 % saltbush
included ration followed by T2 (15.25±.417 %) and T1 (14.25±.417 %). Highly
significant CF (P<0.01) and non significant EE (P<0.311) difference was noted between
treatments. Ash contents were highest (13.75±.264 %) in T3 followed by T2 (12.75±.264
%) and T1 (10.50±.264 %). Significant Ash (P<0.01) and non significant NFE (P<0.43)
difference was observed among treatments. Daily DMI in Kajli lambs was 0.930±0.025,
0.842±.025 and 0.902±.025 kg in T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Daily water intake was
3.434±0.148, 3.135±0.148, 4.009±0.148 on T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Highest
(72.6±18.2 g) daily weight gain was recorded on T3 followed by T1 (46.4±18.2 g) and
T2 (36.3±18.2 g), respectively. Significant DMI (P<0.045) water intake (P<0.01) and
weight gain (P<0.34) was non-significant between treatments. DMD and OMD in lambs
was lower on T3 having 45 % saltbush than control (T1) and DMD (P<0.34) and OMD
(P<0.06) differences were among treatments. Differences between treatments in blood
hematology were non significant. The results indicated that the DM and CP contents were
similar in saltbush diets and Lucerne hay based TMR. The lambs on saltbush included
diets also showed similar DMD and OMD digestibility. It is concluded that Kajli lambs
on TMR diets performed equally good on saltbush substituted diets and can be fed on
TMR in the form of complete diet pellets or mash having upto 45 % saltbush inclusion as
leaf meal protein.
Buffalo heifers and small ruminant needs special attention in the saline areas during
drought spells to maintain their performance. This is only possible if alternate feed
resources like saltbush is given due importance while propagation, harvesting/lopping,
procurement and utilization in different combinations and forms with conventional feeds
and forages. The best way to use this potential shrub (saltbush) is only to dry the leaves
and soft twigs and use upto 45 % in the conventional diets on dry matter basis. It will be
more appropriate to have complete formulated diets (TMR) in the form of pellets or
thoroughly mixed mash diets.
It was also observed that saltbush value can be further improved if some soaking or
processing is devised to minimize the salt contents from the leaves and twigs before
feeding to the animals, this will improve the nutrients and palatability. So the dried
saltbush leaves are having greater scope to be used as part of conventional browse, stall
diets and Total Mixed Rations in the saline areas especially along with other grain or
energy sources. It can also be produced and used as an emergency feed to be used during
severe seasons and drought spells to maintain the livestock condition score. It was further
observed that more precise investigations are needed on improved agronomic practices to
increase the quality and production of forage bio-mass per unit area, possibility of
involving commercial entrepreneurs for formula feed production and utilization, studies
on economic feasibility of saltbush feed production through farmer cooperatives,
production and feeding management economics under different farming conditions and
screening of blood metabolites including mineral profile in different species of animals
and on different feeding levels.
xx
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Livestock production is an important sector of agriculture in Pakistan and contributing
almost 50 % to the value addition in the agriculture sector and 11 % to GDP, which is
higher than the contribution made by the crop sector. Certain species of livestock has
been undergoing gradual changes during the last about three to four decades and at
present possesses 23.8, 25.5, 24.7 and 54.7 million cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats,
respectively (Economic Survey, 2006).
The economic significance of livestock is evident from the fact that this sector actually
engaged 30-35 million rural masses generating 30-40 % of their income by keeping 2-3
cattle/buffaloes and 5-6 sheep/goats per family. Despite decades of neglect, milk is the
largest and the single most important commodity and Pakistan is ranked fifth largest milk
producer in the world. The total value of milk produced is higher than the value of two
major crops that is wheat and cotton (Economic Survey, 2006).
Forages are an important source of animal feed and constitute nearly 70 % of the total
costs of livestock production. The farmers are giving more concentration to produce cash
crops and attach low priority to growing fodder for the animals. The area under fodder
production is about 2.7 million hectare which is only 14 % to the total cultivated land in
the country which produces 58 million tones of fodder which is not sufficient even to
meet the maintenance requirements of the existing livestock.
In terms of roughage’s our animals are getting about 40 % less green fodder including the
pastures and roughage’s situation shows a deficiency of about 19 % (Sial and Alam,
1988). The feeding of animals even at the present level of their population is highly
inadequate, resulting into very low yields of milk and meat. A projected expanding
animal population will further worsen the feed resources situation in the country and will
require a more than 50 % increase in the feed supply.
xxi
Animals rely mostly on pastures, cereal straws, crop residues and other wastes and
farmers mostly rely on expensive feed supplements to maintain their animals. Good
animal production requires fodders that contain high concentrations of metabolisable
energy, moderate to high concentrations of crude protein.
The salinity and water logging are the major factors in deteriorating the soil and further
dwindling resources. Pakistan has about 6.3 million hectares of salt affected land. The
yields of wheat, rice, cotton and sugarcane had declined by 64, 68, 59 and 62 %,
respectively due to recently developed mildly salt affected regions (Qureshi et al., 1993).
Halophytes are plant species growing naturally on saline lands and have potential for land
rehabilitation (Squires and Ayoub, 1994). The halophytes occupy an important niche in
salt affected waste lands due to their high degree of salt tolerance. Atriplex species are
halophyte shrubs that have considerable forage potential in the arid and semiarid
rangelands of West Asia (Le Houerou, 1992, 1995) and also grown in the Middle East
(Nefzaoui ,1997).
Saltbushes are the major salt tolerant fodder species for productive use of salt land having
medium to high concentration of protein, low concentration of metabolisable energy and
relatively low to high concentrations of salt (Barrett-Lennard et al., 2003, Barrett-
Lennard et al., 2004, Norman, et al.,2002).
Saltbush leaves are apparently high in nitrogen concentration (1.5 to 3%). However,
some nutritional factors like high level of salt can limit their feeding value and their
acceptability by animals. Shrubs also influence the chemical and physical properties of
soil on which they grow the surface soil beneath plants of Atriplex vesicaria has twice the
capacity to supply mineral nitrogen compared to the areas between shrubs. Removal of
shrubs reduced the rate of mineralization and nutrient cycling in the soil (Grice and Muir,
1988). Understory grasses and herbs in stands of halophytic shrubs can be the major
xxii
component of the forage available. Under these conditions, diet quality and quantity will
be affected by the composition and amounts of the substory.
However, these lands can be reclaimed and utilized for livestock production and
wastelands may be the alternative for the fodder area. Preliminary work in Pakistan
focused on adaptation of Atriplex species grown in saline areas produced promising
results of biomass production (15-20 tons/ha) on wastelands proved them a strong
candidate for alternate vegetation. Fortunately, in different saline environments
throughout Pakistan, Atriplex species (A. lentiformis and A. amnicola) outperformed and
generally proved the most productive (Abdullah et al., 1993; Ahmad and Ismail, 1995;
Rashid et al., 1993, Aslam et al., 1993). Atriplex species in particular have great potential
to increase the productivity of salt-affected land.
It is a valuable source of energy and crude protein, and it tolerates drought and heavy
grazing (Vallance, 1989; Nefzaoui, 1997). Morcombe et al. (1996) found that saltbush
plantations can be used to provide a feed source which could partly fill the autumn feed-
gap for sheep and more productive stands of saltbush, grown together with winter active
plant species, are needed to improve the economic viability of this grazing resource. The
waste and salt affected lands could only be used for livestock production. A. halimus and
A. nummularia are the most important species used for rangeland reclamation in the
Mediterranean desert shrublands (Vallance, 1989; Le Houerou, 1996). Barrett-Lennard et
al. (2004) also indicated increased farm profits only if the moderately productive saline
land (2.5 % of the total) was revegetated and used to fill the autumn feed gap.
Livestock farmers under such conditions are only making special arrangements only to
feed the buffaloes and cows in lactation and mature stock to market them appropriately
and ignoring the replacement heifers and growing small ruminants especially during
drought season in the saline areas. However, there is an urgent need to develop forage
production strategy for stress areas by inducting alternate forage sources to incorporate
practically in the existing conventional fodder production and feeding management
system. Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) has been found promising for introduction into
xxiii
degraded range lands to produce fair amount of biomass for livestock. If Saltbushes are
used for animals feeding, will help meet the deficits of our livestock and in turn will
increase the farmer’s income, availability of animal products and improve soil conditions.
The present studies were conducted to explore potential of Atriplex amnicola as a
substitute for conventional fodders in the diet of Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers and Kajli lambs
in the saline areas. The objectives of the investigations were as under:
1. To study the effect of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) forage as a substitute of
conventional fodders (Mott and Berseem) during various seasons in Nili-Ravi
buffalo heifers.
2. To evaluate the potential of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) nitrogen to replace
different levels of feed nitrogen in comparison to urea, in Lucerne hay based
Kajli lambs ration.
3. To determine the potential of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a substitute of
Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration in Kajli lambs.
xxiv
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Several research workers have done appreciable work on various aspects of saltbush
(Atriplex amnicola) as sole feed and in combination with conventional feeds and
investigated its effect on feed composition, dry matter intake, water intake, weight gain,
digestibility and blood hematology in different species of small and large ruminants in
different arid and semi-arid regions of the world in particular Pakistan, India, Nepal,
Saudi Arabia, Australia and USA. Some of the pertinent reviews on the related topics are
presented in the ensuing paragraphs.
2.1 FEED COMPOSITION
2.1.1 Saltbush Levels
Pichard et al. (1988) reported high (35-55 %) dry matter content of green leaves of 13
species of trees and shrubs and CP conent was lower than expected (<12 %). The CP
content of whole dried plants ranged from 6.6 % in A. Amnicola to 9.2 % in A. Vesicaria
(Malcolm et al. 1988). Diets with shrub pasture containd more CP than those on grass
pastures, A canescens (10 % CP), K. Prostrata (12 % CP) and C. Lanata (12 % CP) were
recommended for rangeland improvement by Otsyina and Mckell (1986). Guevara et al.
(2005) compared saltbush and alfalfa hay and reported mean values of ash 25.3 % and CP
13.6 %. Bhattacharya (1989) reported CP and CF contents on a DM basis were 15 and 31
% for M. Sativa, 13 and 30 % for Acacia Cyanophylla and 10 and 37 % for Haloxylon
persicum, respectively. A. Halimus cuttings contained 18 % CP and 24 % CF on DM
basis. The low OM content of 760 g/kg together with its digestibility of 0.56 % resulted
in Atriplex having a low metabolizable energy of 6.28 MJ/kg DM and mean nitrogen
concentration of atriplex DM was 16.6 g/kg when offered leaves, fruits and twigs of
Atriplex barclayana alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d. (Benjamin et al.,
1992).
xxv
Malcolm et al. (1988) reported higher chloride contents in leaves than twigs of 5 Atriplex
species sown in saline soil in Western Australia and was highest for A. Vesicaria and
lowest for A. amnicola. Wilson (1966) concluded that the high ash content of saltbush (20
to 38 %), which is principally NaC1, may nutritionally be a disadvantage to animals.
Gihad (1993) reported up to 10 % NaCl in saltbush. Grice and Muir (1988) reported that
A.vesicaria contains around 6 % sodium and CP content of saltbush leaf is either
comparable to or higher than other annual and perennial grasses, but it is quite likely that
some saltbush species show variation in chemical composition as a result of change in
season and the soil on which the shrubs are growing. Bhatia et al. (1994) reported higher
(P<0.01) digestion of nutrients from low grade roughage in buffaloes than in cattle and
concluded that eating pattern is governed by ruminant species and fibrous components of
the diet.
Jacobs and Smith (1977) reported significant differences in chemical composition
between (Atriplex nummularia, A. Canescens, A. Brewerii and A. Lentiformis) species
and between seasons. Kandil and El-Shaer (1989) reported that Atriplex nummularia had
higher nutritive value in spring and winter than in summer and autumn and found
satisfactory alongwith barley (150 g) for sheep and goats during wet season, but they
would need more energy in dry season. Correal et al. (1986) averaged over spring,
summer, autumn and winter for all 4 species of atriplex, DM and protein contents were
31.7 and 16.7 %, respectively and protein content was only slightly reduced in the
summer (14.5 %), consistent protein and energy levels make these atriplex species a
useful alternative forage source in arid zones. Ueckert et al. (1990) reported that spring
Atriplex canescens growth having 16 % CP.
Gupta et al. (1994) conducted an experiment on male growing buffaloes fed pelleted feed
mixture containing 35 % dried leucaena leaves, 16 % wheat, 5 % rice bran, 12 % de-oiled
rice bran, 5 % de-oiled mustard cake, 15 % wheat straw, 10 % molasses, 1 % mineral
mixture and 1 % NaCl had 16 % CP, 17 % CF, 3.5 % EE, 5.5 % total ash, 42 % NFE.
Quirk et al. (1992) reported that the diets of native pasture hay (0.44 % N) was of
relatively poor quality (1.10 % N, 70 % stem) having 0, 10, 25, 50, or 80 % C.
xxvi
Rotundifolia hay and medicago sativa hay (2.42 % N) treatments were also fed with
native pasture hay at the same dietary legume proportions. Ohgi et al. (2006) reported CP
as 22.3 % in timothy pasture and those of total diet were 18.9 %, respectively in grazing
Holstein cows.
2.1.2 Feeds and Forages
Napier and Other Fodder: Nandra et al. (1985) reported DM 27.05 and 27.20 % in
Berseem at the time of ensiling and silage had DM 27.43 %, CP 11.5 %, EE 3.83 %, CF
34.70 % and ash 9.00 %. Grings et al. (1992) reported CP 13.9, 16.0, 18.1, and 20.3 % in
the diets containing 0, 10.1, 20.8 or 31.5 % distillers dried grains and observed little
additional benefit by feeding greater than 18.1 % dietary CP.
Chauhan (1983) reported increased CF and CP contents decreased in hay with increase in
the height of Napier grass hybrid NB-21 (Pennisetum purpureum X P. Americanum)
plants from 45 to 120 cm. Devasena et al. (1994) reported that Panicum maximum grown
in India showed decreased EE (3.7 and 2.0 %) and ash (15.8 and 12.7 %) and CF (25.3
and 33.7 %) increased as the stage of growth progressed CP (15.8 and 7.9 % at 15 and 75
ds of harvest, respectively), NFE reached a maximum at 45 ds of harvest (44.0 %
compared to 39.4 % at 15 ds' harvest). Karnezos et al. (1994) reported that herbage CP
were highest for lucerne (253 g/kg) and lowest for wheatgrass (159 g/kg).
Urea Treated Straw: Chauhan and Dahiya (1993) reported increased CP with urea
treatment from 8.14 % in untreated silage to 11.10 and 13.05 % in maize silage without
or with 1 or 1.5 % urea, respectively and concluded that nutritive value of maize silage
can be greatly improved with urea treatment. Khan et al. (1992) found DM, CP and
ammonia content of the silage mixture (50 % sugarcane bagasse supplemented with 5 %
urea, 10 % fresh cattle manure and 35 % water) were increased (47.6 to 54.4 %, 18.4 to
22.2 % and 0 to 2.2 %, respectively) after 60 ds. Virk et al. (1993) reported that CP
content improved (P<0.05) by treatment when wheat straw was impregnated with animal
urine (N 4.3 g/litre, 0.7 litre/kg straw) or treated with 4 % urea solution. Wilson et al.
(1975) found that goat diets nitrogen content ranged from 1.6 to 3.0 % generally greater
than sheep.
xxvii
2.2 DRY MATTER INTAKE (DMI)
DMI was thought to be affected by many factors such as type of ruminant species, soil
and water conditions, type and maturity stage of forage, stage of animal, choice of feeds
available, mineral matter of forages, season, environmental conditions, management
conditions, grazing system and drinking water facilities.
2.2.1 Saltbush Levels
In Pakistan researchers found that dwarf goats can be maintained on 100 % Atriplex
amnicola diet and suggested supplements of good quality local fodders or concentrates
for growth (Nawaz et al., 1994). Many researchers found fourwing saltbush useful plant
for rangeland in Balochistan province and could serve as a forage reserve species to
supplement natural vegetation (Rehman et al., 1988). The earlier study (Leigh, 1972)
revealed that Atriplex vesicaria provides maintenance rather than production
requirements in sheep and may make up 25 % of the diet in summer and 90 % during a
drought and contributes very little to diet when alternative feed is available. Where high
and low salt feeds are available together, ruminants will endeavor to select a diet that
optimizes the overall feeding value of the ingested diet (Masters et al., 2006).
Forage type had a significant (P<0.001) effect on DMI in Awassi lambs given chopped
alfalfa hay, dried foliage of Atriplex nummularia or Atriplex halimus, lambs receiving
the alfalfa hay diet showed high DMI compared to those fed the diets containing saltbush
and found that inclusion of Atriplex nummularia in the diet up to 50 % had no significant
effect on DMI, whereas the inclusion of Atriplex halimus above 25 % reduced DMI as
reported by Abu-Zanat (2005) and found that it is possible to replace up to 50 % of
alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without negative effects on intake of dry matter. Kennedy
(1995) observed similar intake in swamp buffaloes (Bos Bubalus bubalis) and crossbred
cattle (Bos indicus x B. taurus) offered lablab (Lablab purpureus), verano (Stylosanthes
hamata cv. verano), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor x S. sudanense) and pangola grass
xxviii
(Digitaria eriantha) but were higher in those given sorghum than those given the other
forages.
Atriplex numularia bushes were able to sustain stock an extra one to two months into a
drought compared to the grass land (Danthonia stipa) as reported by Leigh and Wilson
(1970). Pasternak et al. (1985) reported that low feed intake of Atriplex nummularia was
the main limiting factor in the development of sea water irrigated fodder and an intake of
400 g per head daily was found effective only with the addition of 400 g corn meal per
head.
Some researchers (Waghorn et al., 1994) reported that addition of salt to the sheep diet
had no effect on DMI, but they found increased DMI in the diet with bentonite plus salt
compared with controls (P<0.01). Masters et al. (2005) reported that increasing sodium in
the diet significantly decreased feed intake in weaner wethers either as a main effect or
through an interaction with potassium and it was also found that organic matter intake
was reduced from 1.35 kg at the lowest levels of sodium and potassium to 0.67 kg at the
highest levels. The response surfaces indicated that production was depressed even at the
lower levels of sodium, whereas high potassium depressed intake at high levels of sodium
only. In another study Masters et al. (2006) reported depressed feed intake and
production at high salt intakes by grazing ruminants. Feed intake was erratic and
decreased by about 20 to 30 % at high intakes of salt and also there was an adverse effect
on animal health and rumen microorganisms, leading to decreased digestion (Gihad,
1993). Reduced feed intake in sheep, some became very emaciated, by those receiving 2
% NaCl (Peirce, 1957).
Clarke (1982) concluded that saltbush can be compared favorably with normal pastures
while examining grazing trial on the saltbushes, in terms of the number of grazing days
possible. During water deprivation DMI reduced at 27.7 % in lambs and 19.7 % in kids
(P<0.05) fed on dry Abu-70 forage (Sorghum vulgaris) and this reduction in DMI was
compensated by a significant improvement in DM digestibility (Mousa and Elkalifa,
1992). Grice and Muir (1988) reported that high concentration of salt in saltbush diets
xxix
increase the demand for fresh water for drinking, particularly in summer and limited
water supply can lead to a decrease in feed intake and result in a loss of live weight.
Wilson (1975) reported that wethers halved their feed intake when maintained only on
saltbush while studying as to how a common arid zone saltbush can strongly affect water
needs when sheep maintained on 1 % drinking salt solution. Riaz et al. (1994) also
reported significant decrease in feed intake with the increase in level of Atriplex in the
rations as a result of Atriplex amnicola feeding alone or in combination with the
conventional forage (Sudex) in Teddy goats. Benjamin et al. (1992) observed that sheep
only maintained liveweight, despite daily intakes of Atriplex up to 1200 g DM and
tapioca up to 300 g on diets of atriplex alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/day.
2.2.2 Season
The results of the studies on Harnai lambs in highland Balochistan, Pakistan has been
reported by Rehman et al. (1990) who reported that lambs can be maintained on fourwing
saltbush during winter with a little of extra protein supplementation (cotton seed cake) as
a result of studies on nutritive value of fourwing saltbush in growth and digestibility trials
when compared with some of the conventional rations. Improving pasture nutrition for
sheep in different grazing seasons on a characteristic wheatgrass saltbush mixed range
pasture, sheep preferences for grass and shrub in spring and winter were similar,
averaging 84 % grass and 16 % shrub and summer dietary preferences ranged from 69 to
93 % grass and 7 to 31 % shrub. Preference for fourwing saltbush was consistently lower
than crested wheatgrass in all seasons. Sufficient amounts of the mixed pasture were
grazed to reduce the need for supplemental feed, when compared to crested wheatgrass
monoculture (Royer et al., 2005).
Hadjipanayiotou (1995) found no difference in DMI in Chios sheep and Damascus goats
fed on a diet of 50 % concentrate and 50 % barley hay (8 % CP) over 3 seasons (spring,
summer and winter) in Cyprus having mean maximum temperature 13.5 °C in winter,
26.1 °C in spring and 36.5 °C in summer, respectively. Heat stress reduced (P<0.01) feed
intake in 24 crossbred pregnant ewes subjected to thermo neutral (20°C) and heat (35°C)
conditions for 3-5 wk pre partum and 6 wk post partum to evaluate the trend of
xxx
physiological responses and productivity of pregnant and lactating ewes under such
conditions (Abdella et al., 1993). Goats adjust their feed intake in accordance with the air
temperature, the intake decreasing as the temperature rises above 20oC and eat more in
cold weather, although intake is inhibited by extreme cold (French, 1970).
Ueckert et al. (1990) found that A. Canescens appeared to be unpalatable to Angora kids
during Sept-Oct when more grasses and forbs were available, but was readily eaten by
yearling ewes during winter when annual forbs were unavailable. Average daily DMI as
reported by Fulsoundar and Radadia (1993) was 13.86 and 14.76 kg/d (P<0.01) in 6
Mehsana buffaloes and 6 Kankrej cows at 39°C provided with shelter alone (control) or
shelter and also splashed with water at 10 min intervals between 12.30 and 14.20 h, daily
for 13 weeks. Akram et al. (1991) also reported no difference in fodder consumption in
male and female Nili Ravi buffalo calves in Pakistan kept under shade (in a shed)+fan
assisted ventilation; shade+fan assisted ventilation+sprinkling/wetting; shade+sprinkling;
tree shade+sprinkling.
2.2.3 Feeds and Forages
Napier Elephant Grass (Pennisetum purpureum) Intake: DMI were not different
between treatments in Murrah buffaloes (120-125 kg) given diets based on pearl millet
silage and concentrates, without and with rye grass (Lolium perenne) hay at amounts
providing roughage: concentrate ratios of 50:50, and 75:25 or 85:15, respectively
(Chauhan et al. 1994b). DMI in male buffalo calves as observed by Chauhan et al. (1984)
ranged from 2.34 to 3.05 kg/100 kg body weight fed daily on hybrid strains of pearl
millet Napier or a standard NB-21 variety. The male buffalo calves received 75 %
Elephant grass with berseem + 25 % concentrate as produced in the findings of El-Shamy
and El-Kossy (1987) had the best results in terms of feed cost and feed conversion
efficiency compared with different types of roughage (clover, or Napier grass) on
different roughage to concentrate ratios. Reddy and Reddy (1982) found significantly
higher DMI in crossbred Murrah buffaloes with the complete diets, which also had higher
protein digestibility than the control given pelleted or loose complete diets containing
dried grass 47.5 %, wheat bran 20 %, groundnut oilcake and molasses each at 10 %,
xxxi
minerals and vitamins, or cut Napier grass to appetite with concentrates at 1 kg/2.5 kg
milk (control). Poudal et al. (1994) also observed no significant difference among groups
and fortnightly periods in DMI in buffalo heifers fed on a concentrate plus rice straw and
maize silage, ipil-ipil (Leucaena sp.) or khanyu (Ficus semicordata).
Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) and Lucerne (Medicago sativa) Intake: Gupta et al.
(1983) reported higher intake in lactating Murrah buffaloes when given choice to have
more than one feeds and observed average DMI of 2.39, 2.51, 2.74, 2.53 and 2.62 kg,
/100 kg body weight fed a concentrate roughage diet, concentrate and wheat straw to
meet the maintenance requirement and berseem and lucerne to meet the production
requirements, berseem or lucerne only to provide maintenance and production
requirements, respectively. Rao et al. (1983) also reported highly significant difference in
DMI in lactating Murrah buffaloes fed a 1:2 mixture of green berseem and green oats
given at 45, 30, 15 and 0 kg daily and the ration balanced for protein by adding
concentrate and then for energy with rice straw and DMI from dry fodder on the 4
respective diets was 23.3, 42.3, 62.0 and 83.5 kg and total concentrate was 8.9, 17.2, 26.3
and 35.2 kg per week. Chawla et al. (1994) indicated that berseem and lucerne straw
were of similar in nutritive value to buffaloes fed on diets containing wheat straw,
berseem straw or lucerne straw ad libitum, respectively plus a mineral/vitamin
supplement and DMI was similar on berseem straw and lucerne straw which was higher
(P<0.01) than wheat straw.
Urea Treated Wheat Straw: According to Akbar et al. (1990) the DMI of 2.69, 2.50
and 2.48 kg in young male buffaloes on diets including rice straw chopped and mixed
with 4, 7 or 10 % molasses and then ensiled with 5 % urea and it was noted that silage
crude protein content increased slightly with the increase in the molasses level. Coskun et
al. (1992) noted decreased straw intake in Merino rams with aqueous ammonia (25 %
NH3) treatment but there were no differences in liveweight gain between groups.
Chaudhary and Srivastava (1995) reported no difference in DMI and feed conversion in
Murrah male buffalo calves fed on a diet of wheat straw and concentrate mix.
xxxii
Ghosh and Amitava (1993) reported that DMI of Black Bengal goats among different
treatments did not differ significantly fed on 3 complete diets containing dried rumen
contents (DRC), urea and molasses (88:2:10), DRC, dried poultry droppings and
molasses (73:17:10) and DRC, berseem hay and molasses (62:20:10).
Sajjan and Yadav (1994) reported similar DMI in growing buffalo calves on diets
containing concentrate and wheat straw (control), or urea treated waste litter replacing 20
and 30 % of diet. Studies conducted at NARC, Islamabad revealed an increased dry
matter, CP and ammonia content of the silage mixture (47.6 to 54.4 %, 18.4 to 22.2 %
and 0 to 2.2 %, respectively) were observed after 60 ds supplemented a basal diet
containing 50 % sugarcane bagasse with 5 % urea, 10 % fresh cattle manure and 35 %
water and mean DMI was 3.70 kg /100 kg liveweight (Khan et al., 1992). Urea
supplements increased intake of Rhodes grass by 12 % in buffaloes and 22 % in cattle,
and of spear grass by 34 % in buffaloes and 41 % in cattle fed on mature Rhodes grass
hay (Chloris gayana) with a mineral supplement or with a supplement of minerals and
urea (17.6 g N/d) and on mature spear grass hay (Heteropogon contortus) with mineral
supplementation at intervals of 3 h and urea (0, 5, 21 and 97 g/d) and it was also observed
that Rhodes grass was eaten in greater amounts by cattle, whereas buffaloes ate more
spear grass (Kennedy et al., 1992a).
Virk et al. (1993) impregnated wheat straw with animal urine (N 4.3 g/litre, 0.7 litre/kg)
or treated with urea solution (65 litre/100 kg, urea 4 kg) and found increased DMI with
straw treatment. Ammonia and urea treatment (3 %) increased intake in Barbari lambs by
60 and 30 %, respectively as studied by Rokbani and Nefzaoui (1993) and intake of
ammonia treated and chopped straw was twice that for untreated straw. Dahiya et al.
(1992) found highest DMI in lactating buffaloes on treatment 2, where diet containing 4
% urea treated and ensiled wheat straw, green fodder (Trifolium alexandrinum) 20,
concentrate mixture 2 kg or that diet with the concentrate replaced by cottonseed cake 1.5
or 3.0 kg (treatments 1 and 2). Whereas no difference in feed intake between growing
buffalo groups was reported by Shah et al. (1990) on diets containing wheat straw
untreated or treated with 10 % calcium hydroxide solution and concentrate.
xxxiii
The digestible DMI was higher (P<0.05) in male growing buffalo calves fed diet plus
urea molasses supplement including fish meal and diet plus urea molasses supplement
including mustard seed meal than on oil extracted rice bran 1.5 kg and wheat straw ad
libitum diet and they concluded that buffalo calves can be successfully reared with diets
containing urea and molasses, deoiled rice bran and low quality crop residues without
adversely affecting growth as reported by Sahoo et al. (1992).
2.3 WATER INTAKE
Water intake by any species of animals may depend on the moisture level of feed, salt
contents of feed, enviromantal conditions, tolerance level of ruminant species and feeding
and management conditions under which animals are being maintained. Studies are
numerated in the following paragraphs.
2.3.1 Saltbush Levels
In the arid areas of Australia, high moisture content is often associated with a high salt
content; selectivity of a low salt diet may differ from that of a high moisture diet, non
pregnant, non lactating sheep tolerate 1.3 to 1.5 % NaCl in drinking water without serious
decrease in feed intake. Addition of salt to the diet had increased water intake relative to
controls (P<0.01) with the addition of salt (0.51 % Na) and 3.0 % bentonite without or
with Na (0.49 %) to hay based pelleted diets and recommended that salt should not be
added to diets used for live sheep shipments (Waghorn et al., 1994). Squires (1993) also
reported greater tolerance in sheep than cattle; therefore, sheep are commonly grazed in
those areas where almost total reliance is on underground waters of high salinity and
tolerance to saline diets depends on chemical composition of the salt (in feed and water),
physiological state and previous experience. Non pregnant, non lactating sheep tolerate
1.3 to 1.5 % NaCl in drinking water without serious decrease in feed intake. Primary
results of feeding Atriplex halimus as a sole feed to camels, sheep and goats showed an
increase in water intake as a general reaction to increasing salt concentration compared
with clover hay; camels, sheep and goats (in descending order) were able to tolerate
xxxiv
saltbush fodder and Gihad (1993) concluded that concentrated supplementary feeds
should be offered to livestock given Atriplex together with a reliable water source to
maintain a balanced nutritional state.
In another study Peirce (1959) examined the tolerance of sheep for mixtures of sodium
chloride and magnesium chloride in the drinking water and found that many of the
animals refused to drink satisfactorily when saline waters were first offered and intake of
water increased with increasing level of salt mixtures in drinking water, respectively.
Peirce (1960) concluded that intake of water increases with the increasing level of
mixtures in water, respectively fed sheep on chaffed lucerne and wheaten hays and
offered rain water to drink; other groups were offered different levels of mixture of
sodium chloride and sodium sulphate in drinking water. He conducted further experiment
(Peirce, 1966) and reported that a concentration of solution having 0.2 % salts had higher
water intake than that of rain water. Meintjes and Olivier (1992) also found significantly
changed water intake, fractional turnover of body water from control values while
investigating the effect of dosing identical amounts of sodium chloride, via 2 different
routes, on feed intake and water and electrolyte balance in sheep. Hemsley (1975)
reported increased water intake by two litres per d while studying the effects of the
ingestion of large amounts of sodium chloride (150 g/d) on digestion and absorption in
sheep offered a diet consisting of 89 % linseed meal.
Studies done by Alim (1991) in Egypt in the hottest months of the year (July and August)
revealed that water intake of buffaloes and cattle kept in a feedlot was 33.4 and 21.1
litres/d and for hay and silage diets were 87 and 77 litres for buffaloes and 67 and 54
litres for cows given ad libitum berseem hay or mixed silage comprising berseem and
barley forage 2:1, plus a concentrate to buffaloes and Friesian x native cows. Garg and
Nangia (1993) reported increased voluntary water intake in salt-fed (200 g/d) buffaloes.
Riaz et al. (1994) observed significant (P<0.01) difference in water intake while studying
the effect of Atriplex amnicola alone and in combination with the sudex on performance
of Teddy goats. Gihad (1993) reported that the general reaction of sheep to increasing salt
concentration was to increase the volume of drinking water and when sheep drank water
xxxv
containing 1.0 % sodium chloride they suffered no ill effects, 1.5 % was detrimental to
some and 2 % was detrimental to all sheep and concluded that concentrated
supplementary feeds should be offered to livestock given atriplex together with a reliable
water source to maintain a balanced nutritional state. Sheep having high concentration of
salt in saltbush diets increased the demand for fresh water for drinking, particularly in
summer and limited water supply can lead to a decrease in feed intake and result in a loss
of live weight and also found that sheep on a diet of A. vesicaria would consume up to
240 g salt per d and in summer would require some 12 litres of water compared to 3 litres
of water on grassland (Grice and Muir, 1988).
Water intake of Awassi wethers was 2.9 times higher as investigated by Arieli et al.
(1989) sheep fed at maintenance and given diets containing saltbush (Atriplex
barclayana) 477 g, 347 g of pellets containing barley grains and sodium chloride (3:1) or
a control diet fed the high salt diets. Benjamin et al. (1992) reported apparent water
intake of 14 litre/d for an atriplex DMI of about 1300 g/d in sheep fed on leaves, fruits
and twigs of Atriplex barclayana and diets offered were Atriplex alone or with tapioca
meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d.
2.3.2 Season
El-Nasr et al. (1994) found reduced need for drinking water in Barki sheep when
supplements were given in the morning while studying the effects of type of supplement
in relation to the quality of pasture, grazing period, forage intake and utilization, and
sheep performance under simulated drought conditions. Bharadwaj et al. (1992) housed
16 lactating Murrah buffaloes during June and July (from 29.1 °C to 43.3 °C ) in a
covered shed, without (group 1) or with showers (group 2) given at 11.00 and 15.00 h,
given tree shade (group 3) or kept in the sun and given showers at 11.00 and 15.00 h
(group 4) for 60 days and reported mean values for water intake in June and July were
84.8 and 86.3 litre/day and and for groups 1, 2, 3 and 4 was 83.6, 83.4, 85.8 and 89.5
litres/day. Fulsoundar and Radadia (1993) provided shelter alone (control) or shelter and
also splashed with water at 10-min intervals between 12.30 and 14.20 h, daily (treated) to
groups each with 6 Meshana buffaloes and 6 Kankrej cows, all lactating. The trial lasted
xxxvi
13 weeks and began in the second week in March (39°C). For control and treated
buffaloes average daily water intake was 54.99 and 52.35 litre/d (P<0.05), 3.99 and 3.56
litre/kg feed and 9.71 and 8.85 litre/kg milk. For cows corresponding values were 36.91
and 33.23 litre/d (P<0.01), 36.91 and 33.23, 4.01 and 3.39 litre/kg feed, and 6.71 and
6.03 litre/kg milk.
Shafie et al. (1994) housed singly five adult Rahmani x Ossimi rams, with rumen
cannulae in climatic chambers at 18°C or 35°C. Rams were fed to appetite on barley
grain and berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) hay. Rams kept at 35°C reduced their
concentrate intake by about 13 % without altering roughage consumption, but heat stress
increased water intake by about 50 % and decreased faecal and urinary water loss by 25
and 40 %, respectively. Insensible water loss at 35°C was twice that at 18°C.
Hadjipanayiotou (1995) In a 2nd experiment, 4 rumen fistulated Chios sheep and 4
Damascus goats were fed on a diet of 50 % concentrate and 50 % barley hay over 3
seasons (spring, summer and winter) in Cyprus. Mean maximum temperature was 13.5°C
in winter, 26.1°C in spring and 36.5°C in summer, respectively, daily water consumption
was greater (P<0.001) in summer (3.4 and 2.2 litres for sheep and goats, respectively)
than in winter and spring (1.6 and 1.3 litres, respectively). Schoeman and Visser (1995)
recorded cumulative feed and water intake and body weight of 30 growing ewe lambs of
3 different breeds weekly for 34 weeks. Weekly water intake increased two-fold per 1°C
increase in ambient temperature in Dorper and Mutton Merino lambs than in Blackhead
Persians. These results suggest that sheep of the Blackhead Persian, and probably also
other indigenous breeds balance their water requirements at a more economical level and
would be a more appropriate choice than those breeds currently being managed in
sustainable sheep production systems in areas where water availability is limited.
Muna and Abdelatif (1992) fed Desert rams about 18 months old and 40 to 45 kg on
concentrates or lucerne hay in shade or exposed to direct solar radiation (in July-August)
in a 2 x 2 factorial design with periods of 28 ds. Minimum and maximum temperatures
were 24.3°C and 39.8°C. DMI was higher (P<0.05) with the concentrate diet, while the
ratio of water consumption to DMI was higher (P<0.01) with lucerne hay. Ahmed and
xxxvii
Abdelatif (1994) used adult desert rams to evaluate the effects of water restriction (46 %
ad libitum) and feed restriction (32 % ad libitum). Water restriction decreased DMI
(g/kg0.75
) and feed restriction decreased water intake (ml/kg).
2.4 WEIGHT GAIN
2.4.1 Saltbush Levels
The high concentration of salt in saltbush (A. vesicaria) diets increase the demand for
fresh water for drinking, particularly in summer, and limited water supply can result in a
loss of live weight (Grice and Muir, 1988). Sheep on 1 % drinking salt solution lost
weight rapidly when maintained only on saltbush (Wilson, 1975). Significant (P<0.01)
decrease in weight gain with the increase in level of Atriplex in the rations and Teddy
goats showed slight decrease of body weight offered 100 % Atriplex amnicola diets but
they may be in a more normal situation by reducing the mineral contents of saltbush by
mixing of some other fodders locally available such as Sudex (Riaz et al., 1994).
Sheep only maintained liveweight, despite daily intakes of Atriplex barclayana upto 1200
g DM and tapioca upto 300 g fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of atriplex alone or with
tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d in a proportion roughly equivalent to that eaten by
sheep grazing freely in atriplex plantations as reported by Benjamin et al. (1992). Sheep
will remain healthy, produce wool and even lamb on an exclusive Atriplex vesicaria diet
as reported by Knowles and Candon (1951), although it may be difficult to fatten sheep
on it. Harnai lambs in highland Balochistan can be maintained on fourwing saltbush
during winter with a little of extra protein supplementation of cottonseed cake (Rehman
et al., 1989, 1990) and maintained lambs on fourwing saltbush as winter maintenance
browse in comparison with native range grazing with or without protein and energy
supplementation and reported a gain of 0.95 kg in 10 weeks period.
Abu-Zanat (2005) also reported significant (P<0.001) effect of forage type on growth rate
of Awassi lambs, receiving the alfalfa hay diet showed high growth rate compared to
those fed the diets containing different proportions (25, 50 and 75 %) of Atriplex
xxxviii
nummularia or Atriplex halimus mixed with alfalfa hay, treatments had significant
(P<0.05) effect on live weight changes of lambs, except for the diet containing 25 % of
Atriplex nummularia browse, all lambs fed diets containing the saltbushes exhibited loss
in body weight. Leigh and Wilson (1970) noticed significant increase in weight of sheep
grazing on Atriplex nummularia due to the volume of extra feed produced compared to
Danthonia-Stipa grassland and the bushes were able to sustain stock an extra one to two
months into a drought compared to the grassland. Murrah buffaloes showed higher body
weight gain than Haryana or Jersey heifers as a result of feeding according to NRC
(1971) standards fodder to concentrate ratio of 1:0.5 and 1:0.3 and feed to gain ratio was
8.03 and 10.18 in buffaloes and cattle, respectively (Chaudhary et al. 1987, Bhaskar et al.
1988).
Gihad (1993) observed adverse effect on sheep health due to high intake of salts. At 1.0
% NaCl in water they suffered no ill effects, 1.5 % was detrimental to some and 2 % was
detrimental to all sheep. But Peirce (1957) reported a decline in body weight of the
affected animals and at 2.0 % NaCl became very emaciated and even two died. Masters
et al. (2005) observed significantly decreased liveweight gain and wool growth in weaner
wethers with increasing sodium in the diet either as a main effect or through an
interaction with potassium given 3 levels of added potassium (0, 0.38, and 0.77 mol/kg
DM equivalent to 0, 15, and 30 g/kg DM) and 4 levels of added sodium (0, 0.87, 2.18,
and 3.48 mol/kg DM, equivalent to 0, 20, 50, and 80 g/kg DM) as the chloride salts and
response surfaces indicate that production was depressed even at the lower levels of
sodium, whereas high potassium depressed liveweight gain at high levels of sodium only.
Daily weight gain in Murrah buffaloes on Brachiaria humidicola pasture in a region of
Brazil given autoclaved bone meal and dicalcium phosphate was 779 and 650 g (P<0.05),
respectively and intake of mineral mixture was 66 and 30 g (P<0.01) and Nascimento et
al. (1993) found no significant difference in performance between the buffalo groups as
to forage.
2.4.2 Season
Feeding grass alone did not affect the Teddy goats health in three seasons (Summer,
Autumn and Winter) as indicated by Khanum et al. (1987), but in late season loss in body
xxxix
weight was observed due to lignification process of Kallar grass under sodic soil
conditions and brackish water. Rambouillet x Suffolk wether lambs weight gains from
wheatgrass sainfoin (Agropyron and Thinopyron) mixtures suggest (Karnezos et al.,
1994) that grazing sainfoin monocultures offers advantages over mixtures and across
years, cumulative weight gain ranged between 7.9 kg for wheatgrass and 16.4 kg per
head for lucerne, concluded that lucerne or sainfoin offer greater opportunities for spring
lamb production than wheatgrass or wheatgrass-sainfoin pastures.
Lactating buffaloes and Friesian x native cows daily milk yield increased by about 5 % in
those housed in the winter months and spring milk yields tended to be higher in buffaloes
and cows kept out in the open than in those kept under shade given ad libitum berseem
hay or mixed silage comprising berseem and barley forage 2:1, plus a concentrate during
the hottest months (July and August) in Egypt (Alim, 1991). Akram et al. (1991) reported
significant improved body weight gain by shade and ventilation in male and female Nili-
Ravi buffalo calves allotted to 4 treatments: kept under shade (in a shed) + fan-assisted
ventilation; shade + fan-assisted ventilation + sprinkling/wetting; shade +
sprinkling/wetting; tree shade + sprinkling/wetting and calves kept outdoors served as
controls.
2.4.3 Feeds and Forages
Napier Grass: Kozyr (1980) reported daily weight gain of 178.9, 179.3, 168.5 and 181.4
g in 3 months old precocious lambs on diet containing 60 % concentrate without or with
10, 20 or 30 % hay and with 40, 30, 20 or 10 % silage, respectivley. Houria and Omar
(1994) found average daily body weight gain of 0, 60.0, 166.7, 175.6, 221.7 and 181.3 g,
in Ossimi ewes finished for 15, 30, 45, 60 or 75 days before slaughter, respectively and
feed conversion efficiency was 0, 9.96, 7.00, 7.40, 6.53 and 7.52 kg.
Blednov (1995) fed wethers on a diet of green feed, grass meal and concentrates, plus
zeolite at 3, 5 or 0 % DM and reported a daily body weight gain of 107, 93 and 91 g,
respectively. Sivaiah and Mudgal (1984) observed a daily growth rate of 443-569 g and
reported least gain in the group given 100 % energy and protein and greatest in the group
xl
given 120 % energy and 100 % protein in Murrah buffaloes given feeds based on
berseem, sorghum and wheat straw to supply 80, 100 or 110 % protein and 100 or 120 %
energy according to NRC (1971) standards. Patel et al. (1984) reported higher milk yield
in buffaloes given combination of feeds and found 4 % fat corrected daily yield of 6.4,
6.4, 5.9 and 5.5 kg given a concentrate mixture (21.3 % CP), dry fodder to appetite with
or without 5 kg fresh Napier grass daily or similarly cottonseed (19.1 % CP) as
concentrate.
Naidu and Raghavan (1985) found that feed required/kg liveweight gain was least in
Murrah buffaloes given roughage 75 and concentrate 25 % fed on forage 100 (grass and
berseem hay in equal proportions), forage 85 and concentrate 15, or forage 75 and
concentrate 25 %. Average daily gain were not different in male Murrah buffaloes, 8 to
12 months old and weighing 120 to 125 kg diets based on pearl millet silage and
concentrates, without and with rye grass (Lolium perenne) hay at amounts providing
roughage:concentrate ratios of 50:50, and 75:25 or 85:15, respectively (Chauhan et al.
1994b). El-Shamy and El-Kossy (1987) also reported best results in male buffalo calves
in terms body weight, daily gain and feed conversion efficiency in the group on 75 %
Elephant grass with berseem + 25 % concentrate fed on different types of roughage
(clover, or Napier grass) on different roughage to concentrate ratios.
Langer et al. (1985a) reported no difference in daily weight gain in Murrah buffalo calves
given diets with wheat straw to appetite, daily 5 kg green fodder and 1.5 kg concentrate
with maize 10 and 10, groundnut cake 25 and 12, rice bran 30.0 and 31.7, wheat 23 and
32, rice 12 and 12 and urea 0 and 2.3 %, respectively. Rajnish and Singh (1992) found
non significant difference in weight gain and reported daily body weight gain of
425±39.85, 407±38.89, 379±38.22 and 378±39.53 g in male Murrah buffalo calves fed
diets containing 100 % of CP and TDN requirements (NRC, 1981) in a mixed ration or
feeds given separately, or 80 % of CP and 100 % of TDN in a mixed ration or feeds given
separately.
xli
Average daily body weight gain was observed as 625 and 825 g fed male buffalo calves a
standard feed mixture and an experimental feed mixture, respectively containing 60 %
experimental feed mixture plus 40 % chopped rice straw as reported by Ragheb et al.
(1989). Dien et al. (1990) reported increasing weight gain in male Murrah buffaloes with
the increasing concentrate level in the diet and reported a daily weight gain of
390.2+38.7, 479.1+56.7 and 504.2+84.6 g fed on diets with a concentrate to roughage
ratio 22:78, 32:68 or 34:66, respectively. Male buffaloes 8 months old produced a daily
gain of 896, 887 and 936 g and average daily feed intake of 7.412, 7.487 and 7.131 kg/kg
weight gain on diets containing 10.1, 12.8 and 15.1 % protein, respectively (Aksoy,
1991). Parthasarathy et al. (1983) reported significantly stimulated daily liveweight
gains in supplementary feeding with forages and indicated the highest margin of profits
followed by concentrate.
Other Forages: James (1978) reported daily weight gain of 26.2 g in 6 Saanen x Malabar
goats given soft twigs of Leucaena with 18.2 % CP and 2.2 % calcium. Leucaena
supplementation increased weight gain in Blackhead Persian lambs fed on Chloris
gayana hay only ad libitum, hay plus leucaena 100 g, hay plus leucaena 200 g and hay
plus leucaena ad libitum and showed a gain of 13.70, 15.92 and 20.00 g/d more than on
Chloris gayana hay only (Mtenga and Shoo, 1990). Premaratne (1990) reported that
feeding fodder legumes increased weight gain compared with grazing alone in female
buffalo calves.
Quirk et al. (1992) reported increased ADG in yearling steers linearly with the proportion
of C. Rotundifolia in the diet and ADG were increased when 50 % C. Rotundifolia was
fed (to 5.24 kg/head day and 0.210 kg/head, respectively), while only 25 % M. Sativa was
needed to obtain significant increases in both parameters (to 5.69 kg/head day and 0.310
kg/head day) and they suggested that C. Rotundifolia successfully introduced into native
pasture will improve the performance of grazing cattle. Liveweight gain in Holstein
steers was 0.47, 0.84, 0.80, 0.68, 0.81 and 0.51 kg/d given Bermuda grass (Cynodon
dactylon) hay and diets supplemented with ground maize, whole maize, barley, sorghum
and wheat, respectively and they (Galloway et al., 1993) concluded that liveweight gain
xlii
is greater with supplements slowly degraded in the rumen (ground maize, whole maize
and sorghum) than with supplements that degraded rapidly (barley and wheat).
Shenkoru and Mekonnen (1994) found increased body weight gain from 59 to 87 g/d
with increasing leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) leaf supplementation at 0, 100, 200
and 300 g/d with chickpea haulms and further suggested that split feeding of leucaena
leaf hay 200 and 300 g might lead to more efficient utilization of chickpea haulm, or
additional energy supplements may be required for higher leucaena supplementation.
Average daily body weight gain as reported by Gupta et al. (1994) in male growing
buffaloes was about 400 g fed to appetite for 42 ds on a pelleted feed mixture containing
16 % CP, 17 % CF, 3.5 % EE, 5.5 % total ash and 42 % NFE.
Poudal et al. (1994) fed buffalo heifers for 12 weeks on a concentrate plus rice straw and
maize silage, ipil-ipil or khanyu (Ficus semicordata) and reported daily gain of 461, 408
and 420 g, respectively. Hossain et al. (1995) reported average daily liveweight gain in
indigenous sheep as 41 g fed on wheat bran, 167 g Leucaena leucocephala leaves and
rice straw ad libitum and 70 g on wheat bran, 167 g Leucaena leucocephala leaves and
rice straw ad libitum plus free access to lick blocks and found that supplementation of
straw with lick blocks thus facilitates much faster meat production. Raicu et al. (1960)
also found better weight gains in wethers and rams at medium level than the lowest and
was more economical than the highest while studying the effect of different levels of
concentrates (viz., 75 to 100, 275 to 294 and 555 to 614 g per day) on growth and carcass
yield.
Urea Treatment: Buffalo heifer calves given 2 kg green fodder daily mixed with wheat
straw and a concentrate containing maize 35, 15 and 35, groundnut cake 12, 17 and 25,
wheat bran 38.7, 38.7 and 30.0, urea 2.3, 2.3 and 0, molasses 12, 12 and 10, and straw 0,
15 and 0 %, respectively and found non significant differences in weight gain (Langar et
al., 1985b) and concluded that buffaloes can be maintained on a diet containing urea and
straw.
xliii
Ahuja et al. (1982) reported total weight gain of 52, 51 and 44 kg for the 3 groups given a
concentrate based on maize, wheat, rice polishings and wheat bran with RBU, WBU or
DRBU, and wheat straw and green berseem. Akbar et al. (1990) reported a daily body
weight gain of 100, 90 and 80 g in young male buffaloes fed chopped rice straw mixed
with 4, 7 or 10 % molasses and ensiled with 5 % urea for 2 weeks. Shah et al. (1990)
found improvement (P<0.10) in weight gain of buffaloes fed on diets containing wheat
straw untreated or treated with 10 % calcium hydroxide solution and concentrate
containing 49 % wheat bran, 50 % cottonseed cake and 0.5 % salt.
Average daily gain in Barbari lambs was significantly increased by ammonia and urea
treatment (3 % ammonia or urea) and daily gain was increased by 60 % with ammonia
treated chopped straw given straw ad libitum and barley grain 400 g was offered to 20
lambs for 100 days and Rokbani and Nefzaoui (1993) observed that urea treatment had
little effect on weight gain; when straw was chopped, daily gain increased by 38 % and
they suggested that diets based on treated or untreated straw were more suitable for
feeding to sheep with a low performance potential or fed at maintenance level.
Urea treatment and fish meal supplementation increased (P<0.001) average daily gain in
growing dairy goats from 3.3±1.5 (urea sprayed rice straw) to 36.9±1.5 g/d (urea treated
rice straw) and from 13.0±1.5 (urea sprayed rice straw + fish meal) to 49.1±1.5 g/d (urea
treated rice straw + fish meal) fed on diets containing urea treated rice straw or urea
sprayed rice straw supplemented with rice bran without or with fish meal and Mgheni et
al. (1993) concluded that urea treatment promoted DMI with corresponding increased
growth due to increased rate and extent of degradation of urea treated rice straw
compared with urea sprayed rice straw and when a small amount of fish meal was
supplemented weight gain and feed conversion efficiency improved for straws.
Virk et al. (1993) reported improved palatability and increased DM intake by straw
treatment when wheat straw was impregnated with animal urine (nitrogen 4.3 g/litre, 0.7
litre/kg straw) or treated with urea solution (65 litre/100 kg straw, urea 4 kg) and stacked
for 3 weeks and daily body weight gain was similar in all groups. Feeding Aragonese
and Salz ewes with the complete milled feeds including ammonia treated straw and
xliv
lucerne hay during maintenance, pregnancy and lactation increased weight gain and
improved body condition as compared with a traditional diet during different phases of
the productive and reproductive cycles (Sierra, 1994). Kowalczyk (1994) reported that
wethers fed on ammoniated barley straw to appetite had a weight gain of about 60 g/d
whereas animals fed untreated and urea treated straw, offered to appetite or rationed
ammoniated straw lost weight at about 100 g/d. Barbary lambs given to appetite diets of
whole or chopped triticale straw untreated or treated with 3 % ammonia or urea 40 g in
water 250 ml/kg straw and supplemented with barley 400 g daily and mean daily gain
which was 50 and 52 g for untreated whole and chopped straw, was increased
significantly by ammonia treatment to 80 and 78 g and by urea treatment to 56 and 69 g
(Rokbani and Nefzaoui, 1994).
Sarwar et al. (1994) fed buffalo calves on diets containing wheat straw treated with urea
(4 %) without or with 1 % crushed cowpeas or crushed soyabeans and reported daily
body weight gain of 107, 363, 442 and 383 g, respectively. The daily body weight gain
(g/day) buffalo calves was greater (P<0.01) in urea treated straw plus germinated barley
24 % (640.15) followed by urea treated straw plus acid (556.80), urea (7.5 %) treated
straw (499.99) and untreated wheat straw plus concentrate mixture, 20 % CP (458.32)
and Yadav and Virk (1994) reported urea treated straw with 24 % germinated barley
containing 13.9 % CP and 58.54 % TDN an economical complete ration for growing
buffalo calves replacing native protein completely.
2.5 DIGESTIBILITY
2.5.1 Saltbush Levels
Mean apparent digestibilities of Atriplex DM and OM were 0.59 and 0.56, respectively
fed sheep on leaves, fruits and twigs of Atriplex barclayana in a proportion roughly
equivalent to that eaten by sheep grazing freely in Atriplex plantations alone or with
tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/day and reported that addition of tapioca to Atriplex did
not improve the digestibility (Benjamin et al., 1992). Bhattacharya (1989) reported OM
digestibility in desert sheep in Northern Saudi Arabia of 66, 56 and 53 % for M. Sativa,
xlv
H. Persicum and A. Cynanophylla diets, respectively and also reported that the respective
digestibility values being 61, 79 and 39 %, even though the digestibility of A. Halimus
groups was markedly higher than those in M. Sativa.
The halophyte species differed consisderably in IVOMD, which ranged from 50.1 to 87.2
% (70.8±8.5 %) and the control alfalfa IVOMD was only 64.3 %, reported that
halophytes as a group compared favorably to alfalfa, and ten Atriplex species appeared to
be far superior to alfalfa in IVOMD (Moore et al. 1982). Otsyina and Mckell (1986)
reported 51 % IVDMD in diets containing shrubs compared with 44 % for diets without
shrubs and recommended A canescens (10 % CP), K. Prostrata (12 % CP) and C. Lanata
(12 % CP) for rangeland improvement. Arieli et al. (1989) fed Awassi wethers at
maintanance and given diets containing saltbush (Atriplex barclayana) 477 g, 347 g of
pellets containing barley grains and NaCl (3:1) or a control diet and reported that digested
energy was proportionately 0.616 of dietary gross energy in the saltbush treatment, and
0.700 and 0.70 in the salt and control treatments, respectively and metabolizable energy
was proportionately 0.795, 0.786 and 0.815 of digested energy, respectively and
suggested low energetic utilization of saltbush related to its low digestibility and increase
in energy expenditure apparently related to mineral metabolism in the rumen.
Abu-Zanat (2005) reported that dietary treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on
DMD (P<0.01) and OMD (P<0.01) while comparing digestibility of Atriplex halimus and
Atriplex nummularia and determine the proper proportion of saltbushes for partial
replacement of alfalfa hay in the diets of Awassi sheep and reported that inclusion of
Atriplex nummularia in the diet up to 50 % had no significant effect on DMD, whereas
the inclusion of A. halimus above 25 % reduced DMD and OMD and it is possible to
replace up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without negative effects on intake
and digestibility of dry matter. Guevara et al. (2005) reported IVOMD of 47.0 % while
assessing some relevant nutritional parameters for saltbush vs. alfalfa hay. Saltbush
proved to be a highly productive species in areas that are marginal or unsuited for
conventional crops such as alfalfa.
xlvi
High levels of available N, acceptable OMD and consistent protein and energy levels
make these Atriplex species a useful alternative forage source in arid zones as reported by
Correal et al. (1986) while analyzing samples for 4 species of Atriplex during spring,
summer, autumn and winter. Ueckert et al. (1990) reported that spring A. Canescens
growth having 62 % DMD was readily eaten by yearling Angora goats, however, total
feed intake was less in goats fed. A. Cnescens alone compared with those given a 35 %
CP concentrate in addition to A. Canescens while evaluating Atriplex canescens as forage
for Angora goats and sheep. Bhaskar et al. (1988) reported higher CP digestibility and
nitrogen balance in buffaloes than cattle given fodder to concentrate ratio of 1:0.5 and
and concluded that buffaloes utilize nutrients better than cattle.
Morcombe et al. (1996) grazed Merino wethers at stocking densities 15, 20, 25 and 30
sheep/ha in 3 consecutive autumns on saltbush forage and reported about 50 % of edible
material was leaf having 70 % DDM and 50 % was small stems having 40 % DDM.
Masters et al. (2005) reported that increasing sodium in the diet significantly decreased
digestibility (OMD 59.1 to 57.3 %) either as a main effect or through an interaction with
potassium in weaner wethers given 3 levels of added potassium and 4 levels of added
sodium as the chloride salts.
2.5.2 Feeds and Forages
Abdelhamid (1993) reported that the diet having urea 15 g gave the highest nutrient
digestibility in Rahmani rams given dried Egyptian sugarbeet pulp 350 + molasses 250 g;
that diet+urea 15 g; dried sugarbeet pulp 250+berseem hay 350 g and berseem hay 600 g.
DCP was 5.25, 5.16 and 5.67 %, TDN 67.94, 66.95 and 67.92 %, and nitrogen balance
27.8, 16.6 and 27.9 g daily in male buffalo calves given to appetite as sole ration of green
fodder PBN-83, -87, -20 and -71 hybrid strains of pearl millet Napier or a standard NB-
21 variety, respectively (Chauhan et al., 1984).
Chauhan and Chopra (1984) reported DMD during feeding with maize silage as 69.8,
72.0 and 71.9 % and with oat silage 67.3, 69.7 and 72.1 % in maize silage then oat silage
group, control, berseem hay 33 % and 66 %, respectively. Costantini et al. (1994)
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reported that combination of lucerne hay and fibrous byproducts did not influence OM
CP and GE digestibility and CF digestibility, byproducts showed a negative effect chiefly
on lucerne and to a lesser extent on them selves.
Digestibility of DM 57.1, CP 55.9, EE 60.7, CF 49.0 and NFE 68.8 % in male growing
buffaloes fed to appetite on a pelleted feed mixture contained 16 % CP, 17 % CF, 3.5 %
EE, 5.5 % ash, 42 % NFE (Gupta et al.,1994). Hart et al. (1990) reported that IVOMD of
stem and leaf were similar early in the season, but digestibility of stems declined
(P<0.05) more rapidly than that of leaves throughout the season in Rambouillet ewe and
wether lambs on wheat forage grazing treatments and supplemented with a 72 %
concentrate pellet at 0, 0.75 and 1.5 % of body weight per day.
Kirillova et al. (1992) reported that increasing the amounts of energy and protein in the
diet of young cattle by 20 to 25 % above the standard resulted in increases of 4.9 to 14.8
% in digestibility of nutrients and, in turn, in greater intake of roughage.
Morris and McCormick (1994) concluded that average IVDMD was similar for both
sorghums at 60.2 %, but of sweet sorghum tended to be higher than forage sorghum at the
hard dough stage (61.4 vs. 55.1 %). Mudgal and Sivaiah (1982) concluded that
digestibilities of most major nutrients were unaffected by diet given protein at 80, 100 or
110 % and energy at 100 or 120 % of NRC standards and roughage was wheat straw and
5 kg green bersweem to murrah buffalo calves, though 5 kg green berseem group
digestibility of CF and NFE tended to increase with increasing protein and energy.
Digestibility of EE increased significantly in buffaloes given roughage 75 and
concentrate 25 % as reported by Naidu and Raghavan (1985). Nandra et al. (1985)
reported digestibility of NFE 72.67 and of OM 68.29 % in adult male bufflaoes given the
silage (DM 27.43 % and DMD 66.58 %) for 25 ds and concluded that berseem (Trifolium
alexandrinum) makes good and nutritious silage when wilted 24 h and ensiled with an
equal quantity of oat fodder at milk stage.
xlviii
Nandra et al. (1989) reported that DMD was similar and CP digestibility was quite high,
76.7 and 79.6 %, CF digestibility was the same for both 60 % with oat ensiled and
berseem and oat forage in 1:1 ratio were ensiled then given alongwith concentrates to 5
lactating buffaloes, respectively.
Shafie et al. (1994) reported that adult Rahmani x Ossimi rams with rumen cannulae
digested slightly more DM, OM, CP, CF and NFE housed singly in climatic chambers at
18°C or 35°C fed to appetite on barley grain and berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) hay.
Verma et al. (1990) reported digestibility of DM, CP, CF, NFE and N balance in Murrah
buffaloes higher (P<0.01) in groups fed on wheat straw and concentrate diet were
splashed for 15 min and 30 min than were not splashed lactating fed on wheat straw and
concentrate diet were not splashed on the body with water or splashed for 15 or 30 min
before milking to overcome summer heat stress.
Urea Treated Straw: Akbar et al. (1990) reported OMD of 56.6, 53.6 and 49.5 % in
young male buffaloes given rice straw mixed with 4, 7 or 10 % molasses and then ensiled
with 5 % urea for 2 weeks and silage CP content increased slightly with the increase in
the molasses level. DMD and OMD were higher with 6 % urea than with 4 % urea when
measured in sacco and only slightly higher and there was a small, but non significant
improvement in DMD and OMD in buffaloes fed on urea treated straw and further
suggested that small improvement in digestibility of the treated straw can be accounted
for by the increased transit rate of the feed and reduced time for microbial fermentation
(Ali et al., 1993).
Coskun et al. (1992) reported that digestibility in Merino rams for DM, CP, CF, OM was
47.74, 58.80, 58.83 and 49.22 % for untreated straw and 49.59, 73.42, 63.35 and 52.92 %
for aqueous ammonia (2.5 % NH3) treated straw, respectively.
Dahiya et al. (1992) reported that digestibilities of all nutrients except CF were highest in
the control group but only significant for OM (P<0.05) and NFE (P<0.01) in lactating
buffaloes on a control diet containing 4 % urea treated and ensiled wheat straw, green
xlix
fodder (Trifolium alexandrinum) 20, concentrate mixture 2 kg and minerals. Ghosh and
Amitava (1993) reported that digestibility of DM, OM and CF was higher (P<0.01) in
female Black Bengal goats fed urea and molasses (88:2:10) diets as compared to dried
rumen contents, molasses, berseem hay and dried poultry droppings diets. Hassen and
Chenost (1992) reported increased OMD by 15.8, 7.5 and 2.1 points, found by NH3
treatment for wheat straw, cocksfoot/ryegrass hay and maize stalk, respectively. Kandil
and El-Shaer (1989) found that digestibilities were significantly affected by advancing
maturity of Atriplex nummularia given ad libitum to sheep and goats supplemented with
barley 150 g/head daily and found satisfactory for sheep and goats during wet season, but
they would need more energy in dry season.
Kishan et al. (1994) reported digestibility in buffaloes increased from 47.1 to 53.0 %
given wheat straw treated with Coprinus fimetarius and Azotobacter chroococcum for 1
week followed by 4 % urea treatment for 1 month. Comparative index suggested that the
combination of fungus and nitrogen-fixing bacteria with later treatment with urea gave a
higher value compared with other treatments.
Mudgal et al. (1982) reported greater DMD with urea diets, though less in absolute terms
in Murrah buffalo calves offered diets with protein at 80, 100 or 120 % of NRC
recommendations, either from an ordinary diet of concentrate, berseem and wheat straw,
or with half the nitrogen provided by urea and the diet adjusted with starch and straw.
Premaratne (1990) found that straw digestibility were increased by urea treatment
compared with urea supplementation in rumen fishulated male buffaloes fed on diets
based on rice straw (urea treated or supplemented) and grass without or with supplements
of tree legumes (Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia maculata, Erythrina lithosperma,
Tithona diversifolia or Albizia). DMD of 54.71 %, CP 53.09 %, digestible CP was 4.65 %
and TDN was 55.19 % fed a diet based on ad libitum rice straw was supplemented with
wheat bran 1000 g, caged poultry manure 500 g, mineral mixture 30 g and salt 30 g and
given to Murrah buffaloes (Reddy, 1994).
l
Sarwar et al. (1994) reported DMD of 65.74, 69.30, 68.13 and 67.40 % in buffalo calves
fed on isoenergetic and isonitrogenous diets containing wheat straw treated with water at
100 litres/100 kg or treated with urea solution at 4 % without or with 1 % crushed
cowpeas or crushed soyabeans.
Shah et al. (1990) reported that DMD and OMD was higher (P<0.05) for treated straw
and indicated that the treatment had a positive effect on digestibility of CP, CF, EE and
NFE in growing buffaloes fed on diets containing wheat straw untreated or treated with
10 % calcium hydroxide solution and concentrate containing 49 % wheat bran, 50 %
cottonseed cake and 0.5 % salt. Virk et al. (1993) reported that digestibility of DM, CP,
CF, ADF and cellulose were improved by treatment of wheat straw in buffaloes. Ben-
Salem et al. (2002) reported that urea treatment of straw increased content of digestible
DM, OM, CP and NDF by 100, 100, 120 and 290 g/kg diet, respectively and further
increased when Atriplex nummularia was provided instead of urea treated straw and
concluded that cactus may be considered as an emergency feed and water source for
sheep in arid and semi-arid zones.
Boukila et al. (1995) reported that DMD was not affected by the treatments in wethers,
whereas organic matter and energy digestibilities were higher in sheep fed on ammonium
propionate diet (79.8 and 77.6 %, respectively) than in those fed on the ammonium
lactate diet (78.0 and 75.6 %, respectively).
2.6 HEMATOLOGY
2.6.1 Saltbush Levels
Gill et al. (1994) reported that mean values for haemoglobin, erythrocyte count and
packed cell volume were non significant statistically among five different feeding
regimes of Sudex and Atriplex alone and with different proportions.
2.6.2 Feeds and Forages
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Berseem and Lucerne: Diet had no influence on haematocrit, haemoglobin, or blood
protein, in ewes on diets containing grass hay or hay with grass silage and concentrate
0.60 kg containing 0 or 60 % faba bean meal (Matras et al., 1992). Mulei et al. (1993)
reported that white cell count and eosinophils were lower in cows with retained fetal
membrane than in 10 normal cows and about 17 % of the cows with retained fetal
membrane had systemic involvement and further noted that the retained fetal membrane
were easy to remove in 23 cows (60.5 %) and the ease of removal was related to white
cell count. Pankaj et al. (1992) reported that packed cell volume and haemoglobin
content decreased while clotting time increased slightly; these effects
Treated Straws: Blood profiles showed no significant diet effects on packed cell
volume, haemoglobin, Na, blood composition was best in diets 2 and 3 (Abdelhamid,
1993) in mature Rahmani rams given daily (1) dried Egyptian sugarbeet pulp
350+molasses 250 g; (2) that diet+urea 15 g; (3) dried sugarbeet pulp 250 + berseem hay
(Trifolium alexandrinum) 350 g; (4) berseem hay 600 g. Abdelhamid et al. (1993)
reported that vitamin A levels positively affected haemoglobin content, packed cell
volume, total protein in Rahmani ram lambs fed on a mixture of concentrates:rice
straw+urea 1:2 at NRC (1980) recommended levels plus vitamin A at 5x NRC. Mathur
et al. (1994) reported no treatment effects on Hb, PCV, RBC and WBC counts at both
stages and highly significant effects due to treatments as well as time after feeding were
observed on blood urea N and total serum proteins in male Magra lambs fed protein (T1),
by-pass protein (T2), by-pass protein supplemented with urea (T3) and protein
supplemented with urea (T4) for a period of 360 days.
Sahoo et al. (1992) reported higher serum ammonia and urea concentrations (P<0.01) in
groups on urea molasses supplement than group on rice bran and wheat straw and
concluded that buffalo calves can be successfully reared with diets containing urea and
molasses, deoiled rice bran and low quality crop residues in growing buffaloes without
adversely affecting growth.
2.6.3 Season
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Ezequiel et al. (1989) reported that erythrocyte count was significantly less with 80 %
maize silage and blood haematocrit significantly higher than with 40 % Napier or
molasses grass hay and blood values were lowest for Holsteins. Hill et al. (1992) reported
that packed cell volume, mean cell haemoglobin concentration and haemoglobin levels
were higher in December, while mean cell volume was lower while studying
haematological values both in March and December. Pradhan and Sastry (1989) reported
higher PCV, Hb and protein in buffaloes in Haryana, India given presoaked straw than
the other treatments given concentrate at 1% of body weight, fresh forage 1 kg DM/100
kg body weight and wheat straw ad libitum alone or presoaked 1:1, mixed with
concentates 1:1, or mixed with the forage 1:1, fresh forage was green sorghum, green
sorghum (mature) and rape berseem in the hot, hot humid and cold period, respectively.
Water-deprived ewes had higher values for Hb, packed cell volume and skin temp than
controls and pure breeds had lower values for Hb and PCV than the crossbreds,
indicating better adaptability of the purebreds (Khalil et al., 1990).
The present literature reviewed in the above mentioned paragraphs indicated different
aspects of saltbush use alone and in combination with conventional fodders and forages.
Mainly the researchers highlighted the influence of saltbush utilization in different
species of animals especially in sheep and goats. The following aspect were discussed in
detail,
1- Preference for different species and their eating behavior on different levels of
saltbush use in the diets.
2- It was also indicated that the forage type and stage during different seasons
definitely affecting the growth and production of plants and also in animals.
3- Many scientists indicated upto 50 % inclusion of saltbush in the diets and also
revealed that the saltbush forage produced comparable nutritional and
performance value.
4- It was also noted that increase in water intake by taking saltbush diet especially
during summer season was mainly due to more salt contents in the saltbush.
5- It was also clearly indicated that the Saltbush can be conveniently used as part of
diet and can replace Lucerne diets in the animals raised in saline areas.
6- Some workers also indicated the scope of saltbush during drought and inclement
weather conditions to maintain the animal condition.
liii
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The procedures and techniques used for the conduct of three saltbush feeding
experiments in Buffalo Heifers and Kajli lambs as described in proceeding chapters 4, 5
and 6 are given in the following paragraphs.
1- Evaluation of saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a substitute of conventional fodders
during various seasons in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
2- Evaluation of saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a substitute of Lucerne hay nitrogen
with different levels of saltbush nitrogen in comparison with urea nitrogen in
Kajli lambs.
3- Evaluation of saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) in Kajli lambs as a substitute of
Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration.
3.1 Propagation of Forage Biomass
Appropriate sowing and propagation program was adopted to ensure the availability of
required biomass having better nutrient quality of Mott grass, Berseem, Lucerne and
Saltbush fodder and forages for these three studies.
3.1.1 Mott grass (Pennisetum purpurium)
Mott grass cuttings were planted at a distance of 1 meter from plant to plant and row to
row (1x1 m) in an area of 3 acres. The plants were allowed to establish for about 5
months and then first cutting was taken for feeding. The subsequent cuttings were taken
at an interval of 35-40 days (Pic 3.1) to provide bio-mass of better nutrients to the
Buffalo heifers in the experiment-1. Mott grass was offered to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers
alone and in combination with saltbush (50:50) accordingly. Mott grass being multicut
vegetative fodder is able to produce a mean yield of 92 tones per acre in 4-5
cuttings/year.
liv
Pic 3.1 Mott Napier plantation and production for heifers feeding.
3.1.2 Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum)
Berseem seed was sown in 3 acres area and was allowed to grow for about two months
before cutting for the first time. The subsequent cuttings were taken at an interval of 40
days (Pic 3.2) used as fresh for feeding to Buffalo heifers in experiment-1 alone and also
in combination with Saltbush. Well managed Berseem crop during winter and spring
season produced quality fodder yield of 34 tones in 4-5 cuttings per acre.
Pic 3.2 Berseem cultivation and cutting for heifers feeding.
3.1.3 Lucerne (Medicago sativa) Hay Preparation
A proper propagation program was adopted to get sufficient bio-mass of Lucerne.
Perennial Lucerne sown in 2 acres area was used to produce the required amount of
fodder. Lucerne fodder was chopped and sun dried to convert it into hay (Pic 3.3).
Lucerne fodder produced from these areas was used for feeding of Kajli lambs in the
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experiment-2 to replace Lucerne hay based nitrogen with Saltbush and urea nitrogen and
Lucerne hay was also used for experiment 3 on Kajli lambs to replace Lucerne hay based
TMR with different levels (30 and 45 %) of Saltbush . Perennial Lucerne fodder is able to
produce a green biomass of 29 tones in 5-6 cuttings per acre per year.
Pic 3.3 Sun cured Lucerne hay prepared for lambs feeding.
3.1.4 Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) Production and Hay Making
Nursery plants of saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) were transplanted at a distance of 2 meters
from plant to plant and row to row (2x2) in 2 acres salinity affected area at Postgraduate
Animal Research Station Proka, Faisalabad. After one year of transplantation, the forage
was harvested by lopping of leaves, twigs and soft stems for the first time and subsequent
cuttings were taken at 50-60 days interval (Fig 3.4). Green leaves and twigs of saltbush
were offered fresh to buffalo heifers in combination with green conventional fodders
(Mott and Berseem) in experiment 1. For experiment 2 and 3 saltbush lopped leaves and
soft twigs were dried by spreading in thin layers under to make quality hay.
Pic 3.4 Biomass production of transplanted Atriplex amnicola shrub for heifers and
lambs feeding
lvi
3.1.5 Urea Treated Wheat Straw
Treated wheat straw was used in different quantities to substitute 20 and 30 percent feed
nitrogen (Pic 3.5). To replace Lucerne hay nitrogen with urea nitrogen urea treated wheat
straw was used. To replace 20 and 30 % feed nitrogen 1.20 and 1.75 kg of fertilizer grade
urea was dissolved in 40 liter water and sprinkled over 100 kg wheat straw spread in
thick layer, respectively. The process was repeated for each 100 kg wheat straw and total
1000 kg was treated, stacked and covered with polyethylene sheet for three weeks to
complete the process.
Pic 3.5 Urea treatment of wheat straw for lambs feeding
3.2 Feed Analyses
Feed samples were collected in the three feeding experiments at the start of trial and
subsequently at monthly basis or whenever required. The samples of feed were collected
for determination of dry matter, crude protein, crude fiber, ether extract, NFE and ash
using following laboratory procedure (AOAC., 1990).
Dry Matter: Sample of green fodders were usually dried at 60-70oC in the oven. The dry
matter content of the samples was calculated by weighing these before and after drying to
a constant weight in an oven at 103-105oC. After cooling the samples to room
temperature in the desicator the final weight was recorded. The dry matter contents were
calculated by the following formula:
DRY MATTER (%) = W2/W1x 100
W1= Weight of sample before drying (g)
lvii
W2= Weight of sample after drying (g)
Crude Protein: Crude protein was estimated by kjeldahl’s method. The sample was
digested with concentrated H2SO4 in the presence of catalyst mixture containing K2SO4
and HgSo4 (9:1). The digested sample was diluted to a definite volume with water. A
known aliquot of the diluted sample was mixed with 40 percent NaoH solution to an
excess alkaline reaction and mixture was distilled with steam in the macro-kjeldahl’s
apparatus. The ammonia so liberated was collected in 10 ml N/20 HCL having a few
drops of methyl red as an indicator. The excess of acid was measured by titrating against
standard N/20 NH4 OH solution. The amount of N/20 NH3 liberated was determined by
difference. Nitrogen content was worked out by multiplying N/20 NH3 with 0.0007 and
crude protein was calculated as N x 6.25.
Ether Extract: Dried sample of about 1 to 2 gram was transferred to asbestos thimble.
The mouth of the thimble was plugged with fat free absorbent cotton. The thimble was
placed in the glass jacket and 150 ml diethyl ether was taken in the receiving flask of
Soxhlet’s apparatus. The apparatus was placed in the heating assembly maintained at
60oC. The extraction continued for about 8 hours. The thimble was then removed and the
ether was collected in the glass jacket until the receiving flask contained about 20-30 ml
ether along-with fat. The ether in the receiving flask was transferred to a beaker. The
ether was allowed to evaporate under hood and the extract was completely dried in an
oven for thirty minutes at 105oC. The weight of the extract was recorded after cooling the
beaker in the desiccators. Percentage of the extract was calculated by the following
formula:
ETHER EXTRACT (%) = W2/W1x 100
Where: W1 = Weight of sample
W2 = Weight of extract
Crude Fiber: One gram of fat free sample was heated at simmering temperature (about
80oC) with 1.25 percent 200 ml sulphuric acid solution for half an hour. The volume of
boiling medium was kept constant by frequent addition of hot water. The beaker was
covered with a cooling device i.e. 500 ml round bottom flask having cold water. Boiling
lviii
was stopped by adding 500 ml cold water. The contents were filtered immediately under
vacuum. The residue was washed five times with 100 ml hot water and then digested with
200 ml 1.25 percent sodium hydroxide solution for 30 minutes similar to acid digestion.
The sample was filtered until the washing became neutral. The residue was washed with
acetone and transferred to an ashing crucible. It was dried to a constant weight in an oven
and weighed. The crucible was placed in the muffle furnace at 650oC for ignition. The
weight of ash was recorded. Crude fiber was calculated with the following formula:
CRUDE FIBRE (%) = a – b/w x 100
Where a = dry weight after digestion
b = weight of ash
w = weight of the sample
Ash: In a clean and tarred crucible two grams of sample was taken. The crucible was
placed on hot plate and heated gradually until the sample was carbonized. The crucible
was put into the muffle furnace at 650oC until white/light gray/reddish ash was obtained.
The crucible was placed in desiccators for cooling and weight was recorded immediately.
The ash percentage was calculated by the following formula:
TOTAL ASH (%) = Weight of ash/weight of sample x 100
Nitrogen Free Extract (NFE): The NFE was calculated by difference by the following
formula:
NFE (%) = 100 - (% CP + % CF + % EE + % ASH)
3.3 Digestibility
For the determination of Dry Matter and Organic Matter Digestibility, the data on
daily feed intake and total feces voided by each animal during last week (7 days) of each
feeding period and for each experiment were collected. The samples of feed offered, orts
and feces voided were dried in the oven accordingly to determine the dry matter and the
samples were burned to determine the Organic Matter by difference.
lix
Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD) was determined by using following equation.
DMD = W1-W2/W1 X 100
W1 = Weight of DMI
W2 = Weight of DM in feces
Organic Matter Digestibility (OMD) was determined by using following equation
OMD = W1-W2/W1 X 100
W1 = Weight of Organic Matter Intake
W2 = Weight of Organic Matter in feces
3.4 Blood Hematology
Blood samples from each animal were obtained during feeding trial. Samples were drawn
from the jugular vein with a sterile needle. The site was leaned and treated with
methylated spirit before drawing the blood. About 10 ml of blood was drawn from each
animal in a single prick used for hematological analysis. For hematological work blood
sample was mixed with dried E.D.T.A. (an anticoagulant) at the rate of one mg/ml of
blood. The following hematological test analyzed by hematological analyzer and also
used the laboratory procedures.
Hemoglobin (ICSH, 1967; Benjamin, 1985)
Erythrocyte count (Schalm et al., 1975)
Total Leukocyte count (Coles, 1974)
Packed cell volume (Bush, 1975)
The following hematological procedures were used for these studies.
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Leucocytes diluting pipette was filled with blood up to 0.5
scales. Normal saline solution was drawn up to 101 scales to obtain a 1: 200 dilution. The
contents were mixed thoroughly by holding the pipette horizontally. Few drops from the
pipette were discarded and counting chamber was filled with the diluted blood. Three
minutes time was allowed to settle the cells and RBCs were counted under the high
power objective in five squares of the central block of the chamber for each sample. The
lx
cells per cubic millimeter were calculated (Schalm et al., 1975) and expressed in 106
μl
(millions/cumm).
White Blood Cells (WBCs): Leukocyte diluting pipette was filled with blood up to 0.5
scales and diluted with 2 percent acetic acid colored with gentian violet (TLC solution)
up to 11 scales to obtain a 1:20 dilution. About one third of the contents were discarded
and counting chamber was filled with the dilution. Cells were allowed to settle for a
while. The numbers of cells in the four corner blocks of the chamber were counted. Total
leukocytes were calculated (Coles, 1974) and expressed in 103 μl (thousands/cumm).
Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin was estimated by the colorimetric method (ICSH, 1967 and
Benjamin, 1985) with the following test principle
Hemoglobin + Cyanide + Ferricyanide = Cyan-met-hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is treated with a dilute solution of potassium ferricyanide and potassium
cyanide at a slightly alkaline pH (Drab kin solution). The ferricyanide oxidizes iron in the
hemoglobin and converts the later to met-hemoglobin which is measured photo-
metrically. Concentration of hemoglobin percentage was noted from the tale of values
against the absorbance reading. Distilled water was used as blank.
Packed Cell Volume: Special capillary tubes, 75 mm long and one-mm diameters filled
with blood. The open end was sealed with the help of flame. Capillary tubes were
centrifuged at 10,000 revolution/ minute) for 10 minutes and the values was read with the
help of haematocrit scales in percentage as described by Bush (1975).
3.5 Data Analyses
The data collected was entered in the Excel Computer soft ware and was analyzed using
Mixed Model Least-Squares and Maximum Likelihood Computer Program (Harvey,
1990) to calculate analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means were separated by least
significant difference (LSD) test (Steel et al., 1997) and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test
(Duncan, 1955).
lxi
CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENT 1
EVALUATION OF SALTBUSH (Atriplex amnicola) AS
A SUBSTITUTE OF CONVENTIONAL FODDERS
DURING VARIOUS SEASONS IN NILI-RAVI
BUFFALO HEIFERS
Abstract
Feeding management experiment was conducted to determine the effect of conventional
fodder substitution with saltbush during different seasons on the performance of Nili-
Ravi buffalo heifers. Fifteen buffalo heifers of same weight (120±2 kg) were divided into
five groups, three each according to Switch back Latin Square Design (5x5x5) fed on T1,
T2, T3, T4 and T5 having Mott (Pennisetum purpurium), Berseem (Trifolium
alexandrinum), Mott+Saltbush, Berseem+Saltbush and Mott+Berseem+Saltbush,
respectively. Mean maximum temperature during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 20.76±1.75,
22.62+1.75, 24.51±1.75, 37.67±1.75 and 40.98±1.75˚C, respectively. Mean DM contents
of T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 19.10±.626, 18.40±.626, 22.50±.626, 22.40±.626 and
21.40±.626 %, and during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 20.80±.626, 19.70±.626,
18.70±.626, 20.70±.626 and 23.90±.626 %, respectively,. CP contents on overall basis in
T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 8.20±0.23, 16.80±0.23, 8.60±0.23, 13.80±0.23 and
11.50±0.23 % and during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 12.00±0.23, 12.20±0.23,
12.00±0.23, 12.00±0.23 and 10.7±0.23 %respectively. CF contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and
T5 were 29.50±0.26, 25.30±0.26, 32.30±0.26, 30.10±0.26 and 30.00±0.26 % and during
P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 30.20±0.26, 29.60±0.26, 28.60±0.26, 28.70±0.26 and
30.00±0.26 %, respectively. EE contents during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 3.80±0.11,
4.01±0.11, 3.90±0.11, 4.30±0.11and 4.00±0.11 and in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were
3.30±0.109, 5.00±0.109, 3.50±0.109, 4.20±0.109 and 4.00±0.109 %, respectively. Ash
contents during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 11.20±0.07, 11.00±0.07, 11.00±0.07,
11.60±0.07and 12.50±0.07 % and in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 09.60±0.07,
09.50±0.07, 13.20±0.07, 13.20±0.07and 11.75±0.07 %, respectively. NFE contents
during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 43.70±0.3, 44.00±0.2, 44.60±0.2, 44.20±0.2 and
45.50±0.2 % and in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 50.40±0.2, 39.90±0.2, 46.40±0.2,
41.00±0.2 and 44.30±0.2 % respectively. Mean daily DMI during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5
was 2.36±0.14, 2.78±0.14, 3.35±0.14, 3.60±0.14 and 2.66±0.14 kg, and on T1, T2, T3,
T4 and T5 was 3.03±0.12, 3.23±0.12, 2.65±0.12, 3.08±0.12 and 2.76±0.12 kg,
respectively. Daily water intake was comparatively higher in heifers on saltbush
substituted diets and also increased during summer season. Highest daily weight gain was
observed on Berseem alone and heifers on Saltbush combination diets also gained more
than on Mott grass. Weight gain was lower during winter as compered to spring and
lxii
summer. DMD of T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 59.90±0.19, 62.80±0.19, 64.00±0.19,
64.50±0.19 and 63.80±0.19 % and during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 62.40±0.19,
62.70±0.19, 64.90±0.19, 62.90±0.19 and 62.10±0.19 %, respectively. OMD during P1,
P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 60.10±0.002, 60.10±0.002, 62.60±0.002, 62.30±0.002 and
58.80±0.002 %, and on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 57.00±0.002, 61.50±0.002,
60.90±0.002, 63.50±0.002 and 61.00±0.002 %, respectively. RBCs count in heifers on
T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 5.32±0.05, 5.14±0.05, 5.28±0.05, 4.97±0.05 and 5.21±0.05
106
μl and during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 2.37±0.75, 4.55±0.75, 6.21±0.75, 6.43±0.75
and 6.38±0.75 106
μl, respectively. WBCs (103 μl) count in heifers on T1, T2, T3, T4 and
T5 were 9.19±0.75, 9.63±0.75, 9.34±0.75, 8.85±0.75 and 8.96±0.75 and during P1, P2,
P3, P4 and P5 was 12.12±0.04, 7.90±0.04, 8.62±0.04, 8.68±0.04 and 8.66±0.04 103 μl,
respectively. Hemoglobin (g/dl) contents in heifers on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were
8.49±0.05, 8.87±0.05, 8.69±0.05, 8.64±0.05 and 9.01±0.05, and during P1, P2, P3, P4
and P5 were 7.01±0.25, 9.09±0.25, 9.16±0.25, 9.26±0.25 and 9.18±0.25 g/dl,
respectively. PCV during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 34.33±0.05, 31.40±0.05,
26.07±0.05, 26.07±0.05 and 25.87±0.05 and on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 29.67±0.75,
26.93±0.75, 28.47±0.75, 28.60±0.75 and 30.07±0.75 %, respectively. Statistically
significant difference in DM (P<0.05), CP, CF, EE, ash and NFE (P<0.01), DMI, water
intake and weight gain (P<0.01), DMD and OMD (P<0.05), RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin
and PCV (P<0.05) was observed between treatments and period. Saltbush substituted
diets showed better DMD and OMD and also changes were observed in RBCs, WBCs,
Hemoglobin and PCV between treatments and period. It is concluded that saltbush can be
incorporated in the conventional diets of Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers upto 50 % to maintain
daily intake and growth performance and can be used as an alternate forage source when
conventional fodders are short and their nutrient contents are less during severe winter
and summer season.
_____________________________________________________________
Key Words: Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola), Mott (Pennisetum purpurium), Berseem
(Trifolium alexandrinum), buffalo heifer, digestibility, blood, season,
DMI, water intake, substitution.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Livestock sector has played a significant role in national economy and rural social system
over the years by providing quality food and export earnings. At present this sector
accounts for nearly 11 % of national GDP. Buffaloes are the major dairy animal in
Pakistan and are mainly raised in Punjab (60.8 %) and Sindh (31.8 %). Pakistan is the 5th
largest milk producing country but per head milk is less that half as compared to
production level of animals maintained in the developed countries. The present per capita
lxiii
consumption of milk and meat is at 68.6 litres and 14.5 kg per annum, which is far below
the recommended dietary allowance level for an individual (Economic Survey, 2006).
Animal production in Pakistan is mainly affected due to shortage of quality feed
resources especially during severe summer and winter season. Fodder crops are an
important resource to economise the production and its importance may be assessed from
the fact that it alone constitutes nearly 70 percent of the total cost of livestock production.
The area under fodder production is about 2.7 million hectare (14% cultivated land) in
the country which produces 58 million tones of fodder which is not sufficient even to
meet the maintenance requirements of the existing livestock. In our country, this resource
hardly contributes 24 % of the feed requirement.
Due to the increased growth rate of population both of human being and animals, there is
more pressure on our land resources. Over grazing denuded the soil and plain areas are
also becoming unfit for normal crop production due to salinity that is further aggravating
the situation. Due to cutting down of forests and intensive cropping, at present about 10%
of the worlds land surface is affected by salinity and sodicity (Sczaboliz, 1991). Pakistan
with approximately 6.3 m ha of salt-affected land is lying barren and is not producing any
crop of fodders. According to one estimate, in recently developed mildly salt affected
regions with in the country the yields of wheat, rice, cotton and sugarcane had declined
by 64, 68, 59 and 62 %, respectively (Qureshi et al., 1993).
A projected expanding animal population will further worsen the feed resources situation
in the country and will require a more than 50 percent increase in the feed supply.
Improvements in the utilization of fibrous feed resources in such countries, primarily the
natural vegetation might be a solution. Understory grasses and herbs in stands of
halophytic shrubs can be the major component of the forage available. Saltbush has the
ability to flourish on a wide range of soil types and climatic conditions and survive in
saline and waterlogged conditions (Le Houerou, 1986; Grice and Muir, 1988). Saltbushes
are the major salt tolerant fodder species for productive use of salt land. Saltbush leaves
are apparently high in nitrogen concentration (1.5 to 3%). However, some nutritional
lxiv
factors like high level of salt, can limit their feeding value and their acceptability by
animals. (Barrett-Lennard et al., 2003, Barrett-Lennard et al., 2004, Norman et al., 2002).
In the process of reclamation if certain fodder like Atriplex grown on such soils it will
help meet the deficits of our livestock and this in turn will increase the farmer’s income
and availability of animal products. However, these lands can be reclaimed and utilized
for livestock production.
Realizing the importance of this sector there is need to improve the animal production
practices through better feeding management of growing buffalo heifers which are
ignored by the farmers because they are paying more attention to lactating and market
buffaloes. Feeding management experiment was conducted to evaluate the substitution of
conventional fodders with saltbush during different seasons in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
4.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Feeding experiment was conducted at Livestock Experiment Station, University of
Agriculture Faisalabad, to determine the desirable level of conventional fodders (Mott
and Berseem) substitution with saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) during various seasons in
Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers. Fifteen Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers approximately of same age
and body weight (120±2 kg) were divided into five groups, three each fed for a period of
five weeks excluding one week for adjustment and for subsequent four periods of five
weeks each according to switch back Latin Square Design (5x5x5) arrangement so that to
test the effect of each treatment on each heifer (Table 4.1). The experiment was started in
winter (December) and continued up to summer (June) to cover three seasons (winter,
spring and summer).
Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers were fed on fresh fodders and forages alone and in different
proportions. The feed combinations were made and mixed on dry matter basis. The
heifers were fed on Mott grass (Pennisetum purpurium), Berseem (Trifolium
alexandrinum), Mott+Saltbush, Berseem+Saltbush and Mott+Berseem+Saltbush diets
lxv
designated as T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively in the feeding period one and
treatments were switched over in the subsequent feeding periods, i.e. 2, 3, 4 and 5 for five
weeks each accordingly (Table 4.1). All the heifers were kept in conventional tail to tail
system of housing in individual pens and were let loose for four hours for loafing in the
open katcha area near sheds (Pic 4.1).
Table 4.1 Distributin of Nili-Ravi Buffalo heifers in conventional fodders
substituted with Saltbush diets experiment.
Groups Heifers P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
A 3 T1 T5 T4 T3 T2
B 3 T2 T1 T5 T4 T3
C 3 T3 T2 T1 T5 T4
D 3 T4 T3 T2 T1 T5
E 3 T5 T4 T3 T2 T1
T1 = Mott T2= Berseem T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50 T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50
T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
Pic. 4.1 Distribution of groups and tail to tail housing of heifers for saltbush feeding
experiment
Data on climatic changes were recorded to determine the effect of environmental
variation (Temperature and Relative Humidity) on feed composition, feed intake, water
intake, weight changes, digestibility and blood hematology.
Fresh fodder and forage was offered ad libitum heifers on different treatments
accordingly. The data on daily feed and water intake were recorded. Fresh and clean
water was made available round the clock. All heifers were weighed at the start of
experiment and subsequently at weekly interval.
lxvi
Feed Analyses: Two representative samples (first at the start of experiment and
subsequently at monthly basis or whenever required) were taken from bulk of fresh
fodder used for feeding to heifers on different treatments during each period (5x5x2). The
samples thus collected were oven dried (Procedure given in Chapter 3) for the
determination of dry matter and retained for further use to analyse for crude protein,
crude fiber, ether extract, NFE and ash contents.
Digestibility: Digestibility was determined by total fecal collection method. Total daily
faeces voided by each heifer under different treatments were collected in the plastic
drums having lid to cover and weighed accordingly. Samples were taken from the
composite for dry matter determination and samples were retained for further analysis.
Dry Matter and Organic Matter digestibility was determined by analyzing two
representative samples of feed offered, refused and faeces taken from the composite dried
samples collected during the last week from each treatment diets during different periods
(5x5x2). Organic Matter was determined by ashing the samples of feed offered, refused
and faeces. Organic Matter digestibility was estimated by difference accordingly. The
detailed procedure is given in Chapter 3 (Materials and Methods).
Blood Hematology: The blood samples were taken from each heifer belonging to
different treatments three times during each period and averged per animal bases for
convenience in data analyses (5x5x3). The blood samples were collected in the 10 cc
disposable syringes having added EDTA and tested in the hematological analyzer for
Hemoglobin, Erythrocyte count, Total Leukocyte count and Packed Cell Volume
(Chapter 3).
Data Analyses: The data collected was analyzed by Mixed Model Least-Squares and
Maximum Likelihood Computer Program (Harvey, 1990) to calculate analysis of
variance and means were separated by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (Duncan, 1955).
lxvii
4.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.3.1 Meteorological Data
The buffalo heifers experiment was started in winter season and ends in the summer
seasons. Mean maximum temperature ranged from 20.76 to 40.98˚C from P1 to P5.
Highest temperature (40.98oC) was recorded in the P5 followed by the P4 (37.67˚C) P3
(24.51˚C), P2 (22.62˚C) and P1 (20.76˚C), respectively (Table 4.2). Mean minimum
temperature recorded during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 10.20±1.75, 8.56±1.75,
12.50±1.75, 22.62±1.75 and 27.92±1.75˚C and mean relative humidity during the
morning (8.00 am) and evening (5.00 p.m.) recorded was 84.69±2.5, 80.62±2.5,
75.19±2.5, 54.95±2.5 and 53.38±2.5; and 64.00±2.5, 51.55±2.5, 45.60±2.5, 41.95±2.5
and 42.93±2.5, respectively (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2 Metrological data during experiment in buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
Particulars P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
Temperature °C
(SE ±1.75) Maximum 20.76 22.62 24.51 37.67 40.98 Minimum 10.20 08.56 12.50 22.62 27.92
Relative Humidity (%) (SE ±2.5) 8.00 a.m. 84.69 80.62 75.19 54.95 53.38 5.00 p.m. 64.00 51.55 45.60 41.95 42.93
Overall mean relative humidity was 74.35±2.5 (highest), 66.09±2.5, 60.40±2.5,
48.45±2.5 and 48.16±2.5 (lowest), and mean temperature was 15.48±1.75, 15.59±1.75,
18.51±1.75, 30.15±1.75 and 34.45±1.75 oC during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5,
respectively. Mean relative humidity showed a decreasing trend with the increase in the
environmental temperature during different feeding periods (Fig 4.1).
lxviii
Similar environmental temperature (from 29.1 °C to 43.3 °C) changes reported in June
and July in India by Bharadwaj et al. (1992) as observed in this study during period 5
having mean maximum temperature of 40.98 °C and overall mean temperature of 34.45
°C.
4.3.2 Feed Composition
Dry Matter (DM): DM contents of T1, T2,T3, T4 and T5 diets fed to buffalo heifer
during period (P) P1 were 22.50±1.40, 13.50±1.40, 25.00±1.40, 21.50±1.40 and
21.50±1.40 %, during P2 were 19.50±1.40, 14.00±1.40, 23.50±1.40, 21.00±1.40and
20.50±1.40 %, during P3 feeds DM contents were 19.00±1.40, 15.50±1.40, 21.00±1.40,
18.50±1.40 and 19.50±1.40 % during the P4 was 17.50±1.40, 22.00±1.40, 20.00 ± 1.40,
23.00±1.40 and 21.00±1.40 % and during P5 the DM contents were 17.00±1.40,
27.00±1.40, 23.00±1.40, 28.00±1.40 and 24.50±1.40 %, respectively (Table 4.3).
Table 4.3 Dry matter contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted with
saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
% (SE ±1.40)
T1 22.50 19.50 19.00 17.50 17.00
T2 13.50 14.00 15.50 22.00 27.00
T3 25.00 23.50 21.00 20.00 23.00
T4 21.50 21.00 18.50 23.00 28.00
T5 21.50 20.50 19.50 21.00 24.50
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
15.48 15.5918.51
30.1534.45
74.3566.09 60.4
48.45 48.16
01020304050607080
05
10152025303540
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5RH %TEMP oC
PERIODS
Fig. 4.1 Overall mean Temperature and Relative Humidity changes during different
feeding periods
Temperature Relative Humidity
lxix
Dry matter contents in buffalo heifers on T1 during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were
22.50±1.40, 19.50±1.40, 19.00±1.40, 17.50±1.40 and 17.00±1.40 %, on T2 (Berseem)
diet were 13.50±1.40, 14.00±1.40, 15.50±1.40, 22.00±1.40 and 27.00±1.40 %, on T3
were 25.00±1.40, 23.50±1.40, 21.00±1.40, 20.00±1.40 and 23.00±1.40 %, on T4 diet
were 21.50±1.40, 21.00±1.40, 18.50±1.40, 23.00±1.40 and 28.00±1.40 %, and on T5
having combination of Mott+Berseem+Saltbush were 21.50±1.40, 20.50±1.40,
19.50±1.40, 21.00±1.40 and 24.50±1.40, respectively (Table 4.3).
On overall basis mean dry matter contents of T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 19.10±.626,
18.40±.626, 22.50±.626, 22.40±.626 and 21.40±.626 percent, respectively. Dry matter
contents were highest in T3 followed by T4, T5, T1 and T2, respectively. On overall
basis during various periods (1 to 5) dry matter contents were 20.80±.626, 19.70±.626,
18.70±.626, 20.70±.626 and 23.90±.626 percent, respectively (Fig 4.2).
Fig. 4.2 Overall means of Dry Matter (%) of feeds in different treatments and
during different periods
Significant (P<0.05) difference was recorded in dry matter percent between treatment and
between periods (Table 4.4).
Crude Protein Contents: During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 crude protein contents in T1 feed
was 8.00±.519, 8.00±.519, 8.50±.519, 8.50±.519 and 8.00±.519 %, respectively, and in
T2 was 17.50±.519, 16.00±.519, 18.00±.519, 18.00±.519 and 14.50±.519, respectively
(Table 4.5). Crude protein contents in T3 during the period 1 to 5 were 8.50±.519,
19.1
18.4
22.5 22.4
21.4
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%
20.8
19.7
18.7
20.7
23.9
17
19
21
23
25
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%
lxx
8.50±.519, 9.00±.519, 8.53±.519 and 8.67±.519, respectively. Crude protein contents in
T4 feed were 13.50±.519, 17.50±.519, 12.69±.519, 13.50±.519 and 12.00±.519 %,
respectively and on T5 (MBS) the values were 12.37±.519, 11.20±.519, 12.00±.519,
11.50±.519 and 10.50±.519, respectively (Table 4.5).
Table 4.4 ANOVA of Dry Matter contents in conventional fodders substituted
with Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
SOV Df S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatments 4 144.520 36.130 9.217 .0001
Periods 4 152.320 38.080 9.714 .0001
Trt. * Periods 16 322.280 20.142 5.138 .0001
Error 25 98.000 3.920
Total 49 717.120
Table 4.5 Crude Protein contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted with
Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
% (SE ±.519)
T1 08.00 08.00 08.50 08.50 08.00
T2 17.50 16.00 18.00 18.00 14.50
T3 08.50 08.50 09.00 08.53 08.67
T4 13.50 17.50 12.69 13.50 12.00
T5 12.37 11.20 12.00 11.50 10.50
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
Crude protein contents on overall basis of T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 8.20±0.23,
16.80±0.23, 8.60±0.23, 13.80±0.23 and 11.50±0.23 %, respectively (Fig 4.3). On overall
basis during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 crude protein contents were 12.00±0.23, 12.20±0.23,
12.00±0.23, 12.00±0.23 and 10.7±0.23 %, respectively (Fig 4.3).
lxxi
Fig. 4.3 Overall means of Crude Protein (%) in different treatments and during
different periods.
Statistically highly (P<0.01) significant difference was noticed between treatments,
periods and interaction of both (Table 4.6).
Table 4.6 Crude Protein ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush
diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatments 4 522.880 130.720 242.074 .0000
Periods 4 14.880 3.720 6.889 .0007
Trt. * Periods 16 47.320 2.957 5.477 .0001
Error 25 13.500 .540
Total 49 598.580
Crude Fiber (CF) Contents: During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 crude fiber contents in T1
feed were 34.56±.592, 30.50±.592, 27.50±.592, 28.00±.592 and 26.90±.592 %,
respectively, and in T2 feed was 23.75±.592, 24.50±.592, 25.00±.592, 25.50±.592 and
28.00±.592, respectively, on T3 (combination of MS) crude fiber was 34.00±.592,
33.00±.592, 31.50±.592, 31.17±.592 and 32.10±.592 %, respectively. Crude fiber
contents in T4 feed were 28.50±.592, 30.00±.592, 29.50±.592, 29.50±.592 and
33.00±.592 %, respectively and on T5 (MBS combination) the values were 30.50±.592,
30.00±.592, 29.50±.592, 29.50±.592and 30.50±.592 %, respectively (Table 4.7).
8.2
16.8
8.6
13.8
11.5
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%
1212.2
12 12
10.7
10
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%
lxxii
Table 4.7 Crude Fiber contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted with
Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
% (SE ±.592)
T1 34.56 30.50 27.50 28.00 26.90
T2 23.75 24.50 25.00 25.50 28.00
T3 34.00 33.00 31.50 31.17 32.10
T4 28.50 30.00 29.50 29.50 33.00
T5 30.50 30.00 29.50 29.50 30.50
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 crude fiber contents on overall basis were 30.20±0.26,
29.60±0.26, 28.60±0.26, 28.70±0.26 and 30.00±0.26 %, respectively (Fig 4.4). Crude
fiber contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 on overall basis were 29.50±0.26, 25.30±0.26,
32.30±0.26, 30.10±0.26 and 30.00±0.26 %, respectively (Fig 4.4).
Fig. 4.4 Overall means of Crude Fiber (%) of feeds in different treatments and
during different periods
Highly (P<0.01) significant difference in crude fibre was noticed statistically between
treatments, periods and interaction of both (Table 4.8).
During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 Ether Extract (EE) in T1diet was 3.00±.245, 3.34±.245,
3.00±.245, 4.00±.245 and 3.50±.245 %, respectively, and on T2 was 5.00±.245,
5.00±.245, 4.75±.245, 5.16±.245 and 5.00±.245 %, respectively, on T3 having
combination of MS Ether Extract during P1 to P5 was 3.00±.245, 3.50±.245, 3.50±.245,
29.4
25.3
32.330.1
30
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%
30.2 29.628.6 28.7
30
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%
lxxiii
4.00±.245 and 3.50±.245, respectively. Ether Extract contents in T4 (BS) feed were
4.10±.245, 4.50±.245, 4.00±.245, 4.50±.245 and 4.20±.245 %, respectively and on T5
(MBS combination) the values were 3.60±.245, 4.00±.245, 3.80±.245, 4.25±.245 and
4.00±.245 %, respectively (Table 4.9).
Table 4.8 Crude Fiber ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush
diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatments 4 260.680 65.170 93.100 .0000
Periods 4 21.680 5.420 7.743 .0003
Trt. * Periods 16 120.320 7.520 10.743 .0000
Error 25 17.500 .700
Total 49 420.180
Table 4.9 Ether Extract (%) of conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush
diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
% (SE ±.245)
T1 3.00 3.34 3.00 4.00 3.50
T2 5.00 5.00 4.75 5.16 5.00
T3 3.00 3.50 3.50 4.00 3.50
T4 4.10 4.50 4.00 4.50 4.20
T5 3.60 4.00 3.80 4.25 4.00
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
EE contents on overall basis during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 3.80±0.109,
4.01±0.109, 3.90±0.109, 4.30±0.109 and 4.00±0.109 %, respectively. On overall basis
EE contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 diets were 3.30±0.109, 5.00±0.109, 3.50±0.109,
4.20±0.109 and 4.00±0.109 %, respectively (Fig 4.5).
lxxiv
Fig. 4.5 Overall means of Ether Extract (%) of feeds in different treatments and
during different periods
Statistically significant difference was noticed between treatments (P<0.01), periods
(P<0.04) and non significant between interaction (P<0.54) of both (Table 4.10).
Table 4.10 Ether Extract ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted with
Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatments 4 17.800 4.450 37.083 .0000
Periods 4 1.400 .350 2.917 .0415
Trt. * Periods 16 1.800 .112 .938 .5426
Error 25 3.000 .120
Total 49 24.000
During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 ash contents of T1feed was 11.00±.17, 10.00±.17,
09.00±.17, 09.20±.17 and 09.00±.17%, respectively, and on T2 feed was 08.50±.17,
09.00±.17, 09.30±.17, 09.25±.17and 12.00±.17, respectively, on T3 having combination
of MS ash contents were 13.00±.17, 12.60±.17, 12.50±.17, 13.50±.17and 13.50±.17,
respectively. Ash contents in T4 diet were 12.00±.17, 12.10±.17, 13.00±.17,
13.50±.17and 15.00±.17%, respectively and on T5 having MBS combination ash values
were 11.40±.17, 11.30±.17, 11.50±.17, 12.10±.17and 13.00±.17, respectively (Table
4.11).
3.3
5
3.5
4.2 4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%
3.8 4 3.94.3 4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%
lxxv
Table 4.11 Ash contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets
fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
% (SE ±.173)
T1 11.00 10.00 09.00 09.20 09.00
T2 08.50 09.00 09.30 09.25 12.00
T3 13.00 12.60 12.50 13.50 13.50
T4 12.00 12.10 13.00 13.50 15.00
T5 11.40 11.30 11.50 12.10 13.00
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
Ash contents of T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 on overall basis were 09.60±0.07, 09.50±0.07,
13.20±0.07, 13.20±0.07and 11.75±0.07 %, respectively. During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5
ash contents on overall basis were 11.20±0.07, 11.00±0.07, 11.00±0.07, 11.60±0.07and
12.50±0.07 %, respectively (Fig. 4.6).
Fig. 4.6 Overall means of Ash contents (%) in feeds on different treatments and
during different periods.
Statistically highly (P<0.01) significant difference was noticed regarding ash percent
values between treatments, periods and interaction of both (Table 4.12).
During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 Nitrogen Free Extract on T1 feed was 52.50±.447,
51.001±.447, 50.50±.447, 48.50±.447and 49.50±.447%, respectively, and on T2 was
39.00±.447, 39.50±.447, 39.50±.447, 39.50±.447and 42.00±.447, respectively, on T3
9.6 9.5
13.2 13.211.7
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%
11.2 11 11 11.6
12.5
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%
lxxvi
combination feed MS NFE during period 1 to 5 was 45.20±.447, 46.00±.447, 47.00±.447,
46.50±.447and 47.50±.447, respectively (Table 4.13). NFE contents in T4 were
38.50±.447, 40.00±.447, 41.50±.447, 42.00±.447and 43.40±.447%, respectively and on
T5 (MBS) the values were 43.50±.447, 43.50±.447, 44.50±.447, 44.50±.447and
45.50±.447, respectively (Table 4.13).
Table 4.12 ANOVA of Ash contents in conventional fodders substituted with
Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatments 4 130.320 32.580 543.000 .0000
Periods 4 15.920 3.980 66.333 .0000
Trt. * Periods 16 26.680 1.667 27.792 .0000
Error 25 1.500 .060
Total 49 174.420
Table 4.13 NFE contents (%) in conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush
diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
% (SE ±.447) T1 52.50 51.00 50.50 48.50 49.50
T2 39.00 39.50 39.50 39.50 42.00
T3 45.20 46.00 47.00 46.50 47.50
T4 38.50 40.00 41.50 42.00 43.40
T5 43.50 43.50 44.50 44.50 45.50
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 NFE contents on overall basis were 43.70±0.2, 44.00±0.2,
44.60±0.2, 44.20±0.2 and 45.50±0.2 %, respectively. NFE contents in heifers on T1, T2,
T3, T4 and T5 on overall basis were 50.40±0.2, 39.90±0.2, 46.40±0.2, 41.00±0.2 and
44.30±0.2 %, respectively (Fig 4.7).
lxxvii
Fig. 4.7 Overall means of NFE (%) in feeds on different treatments and during
different periods.
Highly (P<0.01) significant difference in NFE was noticed statistically between
treatments, periods and interaction of both (Table 4.14).
Table 4.14 ANOVA of NFE in conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets
fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatments 4 718.200 179.550 448.875 .0000
Periods 4 19.400 4.850 12.125 .0000
Trt. * Periods 16 48.400 3.025 7.562 .0000
Error 25 10.000 .400
Total 49 796.000
The results of feed composition on overall basis indicated significant difference in dry
matter, crude protein, crude fiber, ether extract, ash and nitrogen free extract in buffalo
heifers on different treatments and during different periods. These findings were also in
line with the results of Kandil and El-Shaer (1989) reported that Atriplex nummularia
had higher nutritive value in spring and winter than in summer and autumn and found
satisfactory alongwith barley (150 g) for sheep and goats during wet season, but they
would need more energy in dry season. Correal et al. (1986) averaged over spring,
summer, autumn and winter for all 4 species of atriplex, DM, OM and protein contents
were 31.7, 72.6 and 16.7 %, respectively with an energy content of 3.567 Cal/g and
50.4
39.9
46.4
41
44.3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%
43.7 44 44.6 44.245.5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%
lxxviii
protein content was only slightly reduced in the summer (14.5 %), consistent protein and
energy levels make these atriplex species a useful alternative forage source in arid zones.
Jacobs and Smith (1977) also supported the findings and reported significant differences
in chemical composition between Atriplex nummularia, A. Canescens, A. Brewerii and A.
Lentiformis species and between seasons, which might serve as some indication of
differences found in acceptability and feeding value and these Atriplex species have high
feeding value and would probably be utilized efficiently by ruminants as a crude protein
supplement.
Dry matter and crude protein contents were higher during summer season (P5) and lower
during winter season (T1) as observed in the study and were supported by Ashraf et al.
(1992) reported invariably higher DM and CF in berseem, lucerene and bajra at final
cuttings while lower at initial cuttings, CP, EE and Ash were greater at primary cuttings
while lower at late cuttings, CP decreased upto 3rd cutting while again increased at 4th
cutting, while DM and CF in sorghum and sadabahar were higher at final growth stages
as compared to initial growth stages but EE, Ash and CP were higher at initial stages
while lower at final growth stages, NFE showed inconsistent variations in all varieties of
these fodders with respect to maturity/cuttings.
Dry matter contents were comparatively high in the saltbush included diets as found in
the study were comfirmed by the Pichard et al. (1988) reported high (35-55 %) dry matter
content of green leaves of 13 species of trees and shrubs and CP conent was lower than
expected (<12 %). Nandra et al. (1985) reported DM 27.05 and 27.20 % in Berseem at
the time of ensiling had and silage had DM 27.43 %, CP 11.5 %, EE 3.83 %, CF 34.70 %
and ash 9.00 %.
The CP content of whole dried plants ranged from 6.6 % in A. Amnicola to 9.2 % in A.
Vesicaria grown in Western Australia as reported by Malcolm et al. (1988). Diets with
shrub pasture containd more CP than those on grass pastures. A canescens (10 % CP), K.
Prostrata (12 % CP) and C. Lanata (12 % CP) were recommended for rangeland
lxxix
improvement by Otsyina and Mckell (1986). Guevara et al. (2005) compared saltbush
and alfalfa hay and reported mean values of OM 74.7 %; ash 25.3 %; CP 13.6 %; Na 5.6
%; and Cl 7.7 %. Bhattacharya (1989) reported that A. Halimus cuttings contained 73 %
OM, 18 % CP and 24 % CF on DM basis.
The present study indicated higher ash contents in the saltbush included diets as
compared to conventional fodder diets especially Mott fodder and these findings were in
accordance with the results reported by other workers found a high ash content of
saltbush (20 to 38 %) and up to 10 % NaCl in saltbush (Wilson, 1966 and Gihad, 1993)
reported.
Grice and Muir (1988) reported that CP content of saltbush leaf is either comparable to or
higher than other annual and perennial grasses, but it is quite likely that some saltbush
species show variation in chemical composition as a result of change in season.
Morcombe et al. (1996) reported about 50 % of edible material was leaf (8.9 % CP).
Ueckert et al. (1990) reported that spring Atriplex canescens growth (16 % CP).
Chauhan (1983) reported increased CF and CP decreased in hay with increase in the
height of Napier grass hybrid NB-21 (Pennisetum purpureum X P. Americanum) plants
from 45 to 120 cm. Karnezos et al. (1994) reported that herbage CP were highest for
lucerne (253 g/kg) and lowest for wheatgrass (159 g/kg). Pichard et al. (1988) reported
high (35-55 %) dry matter content of green leaves of 13 species of trees and shrubs and
CP conent was lower than expected (<12 %). Diets with shrub pasture containd more CP
than those on grass pastures. A canescens (10 % CP), K. Prostrata (12 % CP) and C.
Lanata (12 % CP) were recommended for rangeland improvement by Otsyina and Mckell
(1986). Guevara et al. (2005) compared saltbush and alfalfa hay and reported mean
values of OM 74.7 %; ash 25.3 %; CP 13.6 %. Bhattacharya (1989) reported OM, CP and
CF contents on a DM basis were, respectively, 90, 15 and 31 % for M. Sativa. A. Halimus
cuttings contained 73 % OM, 18 % CP and 24 % CF on DM basis.
lxxx
4.3.3 Dry Matter Intake (DMI)
Mean daily DMI per heifer fed on T1 was 1.46±0.24, 2.41±0.24, 3.31±0.24, 4.56±0.24
and 3.38±0.24 kgs during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Table 4.15). The
heifers on T2 consumed 3.29±0.24, 3.16±0.24, 4.08±0.24, 3.43±0.24 and 2.18±0.24 kgs,
respectively and on T3 showed an intake of 1.59± 0.24, 2.86±0.24, 2.94 ±0.24, 3.64
±0.24 and 2.23± 0.24 during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively. Heifers showed
increased DMI when fed on T3 during the P1 to P4 and slight decrease in intake during
the P5, this decrease may be due to rise (40.98°C) in the environmental temperature and
quality of forage offered to heifers (Table 4.15).
Table 4.15 Mean daily DMI (kg) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders
substituted with Saltbush diets.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 (kg) (SE ±0.24) T1 1.46 2.41 3.31 4.56 3.38 T2 3.29 3.16 4.08 3.43 2.18 T3 1.59 2.86 2.94 3.64 2.23 T4 2.72 3.52 3.33 2.88 2.95 T5 2.71 1.95 3.09 3.47 2.56
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
The heifers fed on T4 and T5 showed an intake of 2.72±0.24 and 2.71± 0.24, 3.52±0.24
and 1.95±0.24, 3.33±0.24 and 3.09±0.24, 2.88± 0.24 and 3.47±0.24, and 2.95±0.24 and
2.56±0.24 kgs during the P1, P, P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Table 4.15).
The Nili-Ravi Buffalo heifers during P1 showed a daily DMI of 1.46±0.24, 3.29±0.24,
1.59±0.24, 2.72±0.24 and 2.71±0.24 Kg and during P2 intake was 2.41±0.24, 3.16±0.24,
2.86±0.24, 3.52±0.24 and 1.95±0.24 Kg fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively.
DMI on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 during P3 was 3.31±0.24, 4.08±0.24, 2.94±0.24,
3.33±0.24 and 3.09±0.24 Kg, respectively (Table 4.15). The DMI in buffalo heifer per
head per day during the P4 and P5 was 4.56±0.24 and 3.38±0.24, 3.43±0.24 and
2.18±0.24, and 3.64±0.24 and 2.23±0.24, 2.88±0.24 and 2.95±0.24, 3.47±0.24 and
lxxxi
2.56±0.24 Kg fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively (Table 4.15). The heifers
showed increasing trend in DMI offered Berseem alone or Berseem alongwith saltbush.
Highest DMI was recorded in T2 (Berseem alone) followed by T4 (B+S), T1 (Mott
alone), T5 (B+M+S) and T3 (M+S). Highest DMI (3.60±0.14 Kg) was observed during
the P4 (before summer), followed by P3, P2, P5 and P1, when mean maximum
temperature was 37.67±1.75, 24.51±1.75, 22.62±1.75, 40.98±1.75 and 20.76±1.75°C,
respectively. Increased DMI was observed during the P3 and P4 where the temperature
was ranging between 24.51 to 37.67°C. DMI looks reduced at below 24.51±0.14 and
above 37.67±0.14°C (Fig. 4.8).
DMI trend in the heifers fed on T4 showed an increase from P1 to P2 and then slightly
decreased in the P3 to P4 (3.33±0.24 to 2.88±0.24) but again showed little increase
during the P5 (2.95±0.24). This may be due to better choice for the heifers having
Berseem and saltbush. When heifers were fed on T5 (MBS) increasing trend was
observed in DMI from P1, P3 and P4 (2.71±0.24 to 3.47±0.24) with a slight decrease in
P2 (1.95±0.24) but again decreased in P5 (2.56±0.24). DMI was increased from P1 to P3
and decreased during P4 and P5. In all the treatments heifers showed an increased DMI
of feeds as the periods passes (1 to 5).
On overall basis, the buffalo heifers consumed 3.03±0.12, 3.23±0.12, 2.65±0.12,
3.08±0.12 and 2.76±0.12 kgs feed per day fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively
(Fig. 4.8). On overall basis DMI during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 on different feeds was
2.36±0.14, 2.78±0.14, 3.35±0.14, 3.60±0.14, and 2.66±0.14 kgs, respectively (Fig. 4.8).
lxxxii
Fig. 4.8 Overall means of daily DMI (kg) in buffalo heifers on different treatments
and during different periods
Highly significant (P<0.01) difference in DMI was observed between treatments, periods
and interaction of both (Table 4.16).
Table 4.16 ANOVA of DMI in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders
substituted with Saltbush diets.
SOV D.F. S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatments 4 1337.89 334.47 40.16 0.000
Periods 4 964.85 241.21 28.96 0.000
Trt. * Periods 16 1765.35 110.33 13.25 0.000
Error 100 832.95 8.33
Total 124 4901.05
The findings of the study regarding increased DMI in heifers on saltbush combination
with conventional fodder were supported by some researchers revealing that Atriplex
vesicaria provides maintenance rather than production requirements in sheep and may
make up 25 % of the diet in summer and 90 % during a drought (Leigh, 1972). Saltbush
can be compared favorably with that from normal pastures in terms of the number of
grazing ds possible (Clarke, 1982).
In Pakistan researchers found that dwarf goats can be maintained on 100 % Atriplex
amnicola diet and suggested supplements of good quality local fodders or concentrates
for growth (Nawaz et al. 1994). Atriplex numularia bushes were able to sustain stock an
extra one to two months into a drought compared to the grass land (Danthonia stipa) as
reported by Leigh and Wilson (1970).
3.033.23
2.65
3.082.76
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5Kg
2.36
2.78
3.353.6
2.66
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5Kg
lxxxiii
The findings regarding forage type and mixture has significant effect on DMI as observed
in the study are completely in agreement with the results reported (Abu-Zanat, 2005) a
significant (P<0.001) effect on DMI in Awassi lambs given chopped alfalfa hay, dried
foliage of Atriplex nummularia or foliage of Atriplex halimus, lambs receiving the alfalfa
hay diet showed high DMI compared to those fed the diets containing saltbush and
suggested possibility to replace up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without
negative effects on intake of dry matter.
Partially supportive findings reported by some researchers (Masters et al. 2005, 2006 and
Peirce, 1957) found significantly decreased feed intake in weaner wethers and grazing
ruminants with increasing sodium in the diet either as a main effect or through an
interaction with potassium, whereas high potassium depressed intake at high levels of
sodium only and at high salt intakes (NaCl).
Erratic and decreased feed intake (20 to 30 %) at high intakes of salt and also there was
an adverse effect on health and rumen microorganisms, leading to decreased digestion
(Gihad, 1993). Significant decrease in feed intake with the increase in level of Atriplex in
the rations as a result of Atriplex amnicola feeding alone or in combination with the
conventional forage (Sudex) in Teddy goats (Riaz et al. 1994) also in wethers when
maintained only on saltbush (Wilson, 1975).
Similar intake in swamp buffaloes (Bos Bubalus bubalis) and crossbred cattle (Bos
indicus x B. taurus) was observed offered lablab (Lablab purpureus), verano
(Stylosanthes hamata cv. verano), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor x S. sudanense) and
pangola grass (Digitaria eriantha) but were higher in those given sorghum than those
given the other forages (Kennedy, 1995).
The observation of Chauhan (1983) supported the findings of the study reagarding DMI
intake variation of Mott grass during winter and spring season and he reported that DMI
of animals fed Napier grass hybrid NB-21 (Pennisetum purpureum x P. Americanum) hay
lxxxiv
decreased with increasing plant height. DMI in male buffalo calves as noted by Chauhan
et al. (1984) ranged from 2.34 to 3.05 kg/100 kg body weight fed daily on hybrid strains
of pearl millet Napier or a standard NB-21 variety.
Decreasing trend in DMI was observed with the increase in the temperature this was
supported by French (1970) reported that goats adjust their feed intake in accordance
with the air temperature, the intake decreasing as the temperature rises above 20oC and
eat more in cold weather. Abdella, et al. (1993) also found reduced (P<0.01) feed intake
in 24 crossbred pregnant ewes subjected to thermo neutral (20°C) and heat (35°C)
conditions for 3-5 wk pre partum and 6 wk post partum.
During the flush season DMI was comparatively more as supported by Ueckert, et al.
(1990) found that A. Canescens appeared to be unpalatable to Angora kids during Sept-
Oct when more grasses and forbs were available, but was readily eaten by yearling ewes
during winter when annual forbs were unavailable.
The findings of Kandil and El-Shaer (1989) are also in agreement with the present results
and they reported that sheep and goats ate, digested and utilized A. nummularia at each
stage of growth with equal efficiency and DMI was significantly affected by advancing
maturity. Indian studies (Bharadwaj et al. 1992) also reported similar findings in Murrah
buffaloes kept in a covered shed during June (29.1 °C) and July (43.3 °C) showed mean
DMI of 12.14 and 17.76 kg/d. Fulsoundar and Radadia, (1993) also reported significant
(P<0.01) DMI of 13.86 and 14.76 kg/d in Mehsana buffaloes and Kankrej cows kept at
39°C provided with shelter alone (control) or shelter and splashed with water.
In the present study Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers showed significant difference in DMI on
combination of saltbush diets and Gupta et al. (1983) supported the results by reporting
higher intake in lactating Murrah buffaloes when given choice to have more than one
feeds and observed average DMI of 2.39, 2.51, 2.74, 2.53 and 2.62 kg, /100 kg body
weight fed a concentrate roughage diet, concentrate and wheat straw to meet the
maintenance requirement and berseem and lucerne to meet the production requirements,
lxxxv
berseem or lucerne only to provide maintenance and production requirements,
respectively. Average daily voluntary DMI of silage and concentates were 10.32 and
7.33, and 2.90 and 3.81 kg in lactating buffaloes given for 56 ds ensiled berseem and oat
forage in 1:1 ratio, respectively and concentrates containing 14 and 10 % crude protein
(Nandra et al. 1989).
The findings regarding increased consumption of Berseem forage during winter and
spring was in line with the findings of Reddy and Reddy (1982) reported significantly
higher DMI in crossbred Murrah buffaloes with the complete diets, which also had higher
protein digestibility than the control given pelleted or loose complete diets or cut Napier
grass to appetite with concentrates at 1 kg/2.5 kg milk (control). Chauhan and Chopra
(1984) also found DMI of 2.95, 3.12 and 3.27 kg/100 kg body weight in lactating
buffaloes incorporated berseem hay at 33 and 66 % in the concentrate mixture,
respectively.
Poudal et al. (1994) reported contrasting results and observed non significant difference
among groups and fortnightly periods in DMI in buffalo heifers fed on a concentrate plus
rice straw and maize silage, ipil-ipil (Leucaena sp.) or khanyu (Ficus semicordata). Some
researchers (Waghorn, et al. 1994) reported that addition of salt to the sheep diet had no
effect on DMI.
Hadjipanayiotou, (1995) als reported contrasting results as observed in the results of
present study and found no difference in DMI in Chios sheep and Damascus goats fed on
a diet of 50 % concentrate and 50 % barley hay (8 % CP) over 3 seasons, spring (26.1
°C), summer (36.5 °C) and winter (13.5 °C)) in Cyprus. Akram et al. (1991) also reported
no difference in fodder consumption in male and female Nili Ravi buffalo calves in
Pakistan kept under shade (in a shed) + fan assisted ventilation; shade + fan assisted
ventilation + sprinkling/wetting; shade + sprinkling/wetting; tree shade +
sprinkling/wetting. DMI were not different between treatments in Murrah buffaloes (120-
125 kg) given diets based on pearl millet silage and concentrates, without and with rye
lxxxvi
grass (Lolium perenne) hay at amounts providing roughage: concentrate ratios of 50:50,
and 75:25 or 85:15, respectively (Chauhan, et al. 1994b).
4.3.4 Water Intake
The daily water intake by the buffalo heifers fed on T1 during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5
was 2.82±0.58, 4.77±0.58, 5.25±0.58, 11.66±0.58 and 9.73±0.58 litres and in heifers on
T2 was 0.39±0.58, 2.70±0.58, 2.71±0.58, 13.55±0.58 and 14.21±0.58 litres, on T3
5.81±0.58, 11.41±0.58, 9.35±0.58, 17.14±0.58 and 13.91±0.58, on T4 was 8.24±0.58,
10.83±0.58, 8.46±0.58, 14.61±0.58 and 14.16±0.58, and on T5 was 6.61±0.58,
6.44±0.58, 6.84±0.58, 14.62±0.58 and 13.76±0.58 litres, respectively (Table 4.17).
Table 4.17 Daily water intake (liter) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional
fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
Litre (SE ±0.58) T1 2.82 04.77 5.25 11.66 09.73 T2 0.39 02.70 2.71 13.55 14.21 T3 5.81 11.41 9.35 17.14 13.91 T4 8.24 10.83 8.46 14.61 14.16 T5 6.61 06.44 6.84 14.62 13.76
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
The highest (11.52±0.26) intake of water was observed in the heifers on T3, followed by
T4 (11.28±0.26), T5 (9.65±0.26), T1 (6.85±0.26) and T2 (6.71±0.26). Water intake was
comparatively higher in heifers on T3 and T4, which was mainly due to the addition of
saltbush in the diets, and water intake was lower in heifers on M and B fed on
conventional fodders Mott and Berseem, respectively.
On overall basis the mean intake of water was 6.85±0.26, 6.71±0.26, 11.52±0.26,
11.28±0.26 and 9.65±0.26 litres in heifer fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively (Fig
4.9). On overall basis buffalo heifers fed on different feeds mean intake of water was
4.80±0.21, 7.23±0.21, 6.52±0.21, 14.32±0.21 and 13.16 ± 0.21 liters per day during P1,
P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Fig 4.9).
lxxxvii
Fig. 4.9 Overall means of daily water intake (liter) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
different treatments and during different periods
Water intake was also affected by the changes in environmental temperature during
different periods and it was also having definite effect of forage type and combinations
during various periods. Highly significant difference in water intake was noticed between
treatments (P<0.01) and between periods (P<0.01), and in the interaction of treatments
and periods (Table 4.18).
Table 4.18 ANOVA of daily water intake in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F. Value Prob.
Treatments 4 541.68 135.42 19.60 0.000
Period 4 1806.88 451.72 65.37 0.000
Treatments*Period 16 240.22 15.01 2.17 0.010
Error 100 691.07 6.91
Total 124 3279.85
Mtenga and Shoo, (1990) found that leucaena supplementation increased water intake
increased with increasing leucaena in the diet and intake was highest in hay plus leucaena
ad libitum fed Blackhead Persian lambs.
Studies done by Alim (1991) in Egypt in the hottest months of the year (July and August)
revealed that water intake of buffaloes and cattle kept in a feedlot was 33.4 and 21.1
litres/d and for hay and silage diets were 87 and 77 litres for buffaloes and 67 and 54
litres for cows given ad libitum berseem hay or mixed silage comprising berseem and
barley forage 2:1, plus a concentrate to buffaloes and Friesian x native cows.
4.8
7.236.52
14.3213.16
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5Lit.
PERIODS
6.85 6.71
11.52 11.28
9.65
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5Lit.
TREATMENTS
lxxxviii
Addition of salt to the diet had increased water intake relative to controls (P<0.01) with
the addition of salt (0.51 % Na) and 3.0 % bentonite without or with Na (0.49 %) to hay
based pelleted diets and recommended that salt should not be added to diets used for live
sheep shipments (Waghorn, et al. 1994). Peirce, (1957) reported increased intake of water
with the increase of concentration of sodium chloride in the water. Peirce (1960)
concluded that intake of water increases in sheep with the increasing level of mixtures in
water, respectively fed on chaffed lucerne and wheaten hays. He (Peirce, 1966) reported
that a concentration of solution having 0.2 % salts had higher water intake than that of
rain water. Meintjes and Olivier, (1992) also found significantly changed water intake
and electrolyte balance in sheep. Hemsley (1975) reported increased water intake in
sheep by two litres per d ingested large amounts of sodium chloride (150 g/d) offered a
diet consisting of 89 % linseed meal.
Garg and Nangia, (1993) also reported increased voluntary water intake in Salt-fed (200
g/d) buffaloes. Riaz et al. (1994) observed significant (P<0.01) difference in water intake
in Teddy goats on Atriplex amnicola alone and in combination with the sudex. Gihad,
(1993) reported that the general reaction of sheep to increasing salt concentration was to
increase the volume of drinking water to maintain a balanced nutritional state. Some
other researchers also observed similar findings in sheep having high concentration of
salt in saltbush diets increase the demand for fresh water for drinking, particularly in
summer and also found that sheep on a diet of A. vesicaria would consume up to 240 g
salt per d and in summer would require some 12 litres of water compared to 3 litres of
water on grassland (Grice and Muir, 1988).
Water intake of Awassi wethers was 2.9 times higher as investigated by Arieli et al.
(1989) sheep fed at maintenance and given diets containing saltbush (Atriplex
barclayana) 477 g, 347 g of pellets containing barley grains and NaCl (3:1) or a control
diet fed the high salt diets. Benjamin, et al. (1992) reported apparent water intake of 14
litre/d for an atriplex DMI of about 1300 g/d in sheep fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of
lxxxix
Atriplex barclayana and diets offered were Atriplex alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200
or 300 g/d.
Bharadwaj et al. (1992) housed 16 lactating Murrah buffaloes, in a covered shed, without
(group 1) or with showers (group 2) given at 11.00 and 15.00 h, given tree shade (group
3) or kept in the sun and given showers at 11.00 and 15.00 h (group 4) for 60 ds during
June and July 1990, environmental temperature ranged from 29.1 °C to 43.3 °C, mean
values for water intake were 84.8 and 86.3 litre/d and 83.6, 83.4, 85.8 and 89.5 litres/d for
groups 1, 2, 3 and 4 was 15.16, 14.14, 15.54 and 14.96 kg/d. Fulsoundar and Radadia,
(1993) provided shelter alone (control) or shelter and also splashed with water at 10-min
intervals between 12.30 and 14.20 h, daily (treated) to Meshana buffaloes and Kankrej
cows in March (39°C) average daily water intake was 54.99 and 52.35 litre/d (P<0.05)
and 36.91 and 33.23 litre/d (P<0.01), respectively.
Shafie, et al. (1994) housed singly five adult Rahmani x Ossimi rams in climatic
chambers at 18°C or 35°C fed to appetite on barley grain and berseem (Trifolium
alexandrinum) hay kept at 35°C increased their water intake by about 50 %.
Hadjipanayiotou, (1995) used Chios sheep and 4 Damascus goats fed on a diet of 50 %
concentrate and 50 % barley hay over 3 seasons (spring, summer and winter) in Cyprus
with mean maximum temperature of 13.5°C in winter, 26.1°C in spring and 36.5°C in
summer, respectively, daily water consumption was greater (P<0.001) in summer (3.4
and 2.2 litres for sheep and goats, respectively) than in winter and spring (1.6 and 1.3
litres, respectively). Schoeman and Visser (1995) recorded increased weekly water intake
two-fold per 1°C increase in ambient temperature in Dorper and Mutton Merino lambs
than in Blackhead Persians.
4.3.5 Weight Gain
The Nili-Ravi buffalo heifer weight changes during the experiment were recorded on
weekly basis presented in Table 4.19. Daily weight gain of heifers fed on T1, T2, T3, T4
and T5 during P1 was 0.08±0.05, 0.28±0.05, 0.07±0.05, 0.14±0.05 and 0.15±0.05 kg
during P2 was 0.11±0.05, 0.63±0.05, 0.10±0.05, 0.27±0.05 and 0.38±0.05 kg during P3
xc
was 0.27±0.05, 0.56±0.05, 0.15±0.05, 0.40±0.05 and 0.50±0.05 kg during P4 was
0.41±0.05, 0.41±0.05, 0.35±0.05, 0.05±0.05 and 0.25±0.05 kg, and during P5 weight gain
was 0.23±0.05, 0.28±0.05, 0.33±0.05, 0.32±0.05 and 0.20± 0.05 kg, respectively (Table
4.19).
Table 4.19 Daily weight gain (kg) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders
substituted with Saltbush diets.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
(kg) (SE ±0.05)
T1 0.08 0.11 0.27 0.41 0.23
T2 0.28 0.63 0.56 0.41 0.28
T3 0.07 0.10 0.15 0.35 0.33
T4 0.14 0.27 0.40 0.05 0.32
T5 0.15 0.38 0.50 0.25 0.20
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
On overall basis the weight gain on daily basis in heifers fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5
was 0.22±0.01, 0.43±0.01, 0.20±0.01, 0.24±0.01 and 0.30±0.01 kg, respectively. Weight
gain was highest on T2 having Berseem followed by T5, T4, T1 and T3, respectively (Fig
4.10). During the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 heifers fed different feeds on overall basis
showed a gain of 0.15±0.02, 0.3±0.02, 0.38±0.02, 0.30±0.02 and 0.27±0.02 kg,
respectively. While comparing weight gain during different periods, it was noticed that
highest (0.38±0.02) gain per day was achieved in P3 followed by P4 (0.30±0.02), P2
(0.30±0.02), P5 (0.27±0.02) and P1 (0.15±0.02), respectively (Fig 4.11).
Statistically significant difference was observed in weight gain between treatment
(P<0.06) and between periods (P<0.01) and non significant (P>0.876) difference in
interaction of treatments and periods (Table 4.20).
xci
Fig. 4.10 Overall means of daily weight gain (Kg) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
different treatments and during different periods
0.15
0.3
0.38
0.3 0.27
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5KgPERIODS
0.22
0.43
0.20.24
0.3
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5Kg
TREATMENTS
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
P1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
P2
00.10.20.30.40.50.6
P3
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
P4
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
P5
Fig. 4.11 Daily weight gain (Kg) of heifers on different
treatments and during different periods
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
xcii
Table 4.20 ANOVA of daily weight gain in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional
fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F. Value Prob.
Treatments 4 76.674 18.669 2.28 0.066
Period 4 172.338 43.084 5.25 0.001
Trt.*Period 16 78.974 4.934 0.60 0.876
Error 100 820.047 8.200
Total 124 1145.996
The buffalo heifer showed a gain of 0.43 kg on simply Berseem alone and 0.24 kg on
Berseem and saltbush combination. The weight gain performance of buffalo heifers as
observed in the present study was supported by Sivaiah and Mudgal (1984) observed a
daily growth rate of 443-569 g and and greatest in the group given 120 % energy and 100
% protein in Murrah buffaloes given feeds based on berseem, sorghum and wheat straw.
Parthasarathy et al. (1983) also reported significantly stimulated daily liveweight gains in
supplementary feeding with forages. Premaratne, (1990) reported that feeding fodder
legumes increased weight gain compared with grazing alone in female buffalo calves.
Liveweight gain in Holstein steers was 0.47, 0.84, 0.80, 0.68, 0.81 and 0.51 kg/d given
Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) hay and diets supplemented with ground maize,
whole maize, barley, sorghum and wheat, respectively as reported by Galloway et al.
(1993)
The buffalo heifers showed significant gain in body weight on Berseem alone and
combination of Berseem with saltbush and also on T5 having combination of
Mott+Berseem+saltbush during the experiment. The results of study were in line with the
findings of Abu-Zanat (2005) reported significant (P<0.05) effect on live weight changes
of lambs receiving the alfalfa hay diet showed high growth rate compared to those fed the
diets containing different proportions (25, 50 and 75 %) of Atriplex nummularia or
Atriplex halimus mixed with alfalfa hay except for the diet containing 25 % of Atriplex
nummularia browse, all lambs fed diets containing the saltbushes exhibited loss in body
weight.
xciii
Leigh and Wilson (1970) also noticed significant increase in weight of sheep grazing on
Atriplex nummularia due to the volume of extra feed produced compared to Danthonia-
Stipa grassland. Kirillova et al. (1992) also reported that increasing the amounts of
energy and protein in the diet of young cattle by 20 to 25 % above the standard resulted
in increased body weight gain by 12.7 %. The Murrah buffaloes in Ludhiana, India on
elevated rations performed better in terms of liveweight gain than those of the control
(Sharma, et al. 1993). Best daily gain in male buffalo calves on 75 % Elephant grass with
berseem + 25 % concentrate fed on different types of roughage (clover, or Napier grass)
on different roughage to concentrate ratios (El-Shamy and El-Kossy, 1987).
Some worker reported partially in contrast results and found that high concentration of
salt in saltbush (A. vesicaria) diets increase the demand for fresh water and limited water
supply can result in a loss of live weight (Grice and Muir 1988). Sheep on 1 % drinking
salt solution lost weight rapidly when maintained only on saltbush (Wilson, 1975).
Significant (P<0.01) decrease in weight gain with the increase in level of Atriplex and
Teddy goats showed slight decrease of body weight offered 100 % Atriplex amnicola
diets (Riaz et al. 1994).
Sheep only maintained liveweight, despite daily intakes of Atriplex barclayana upto 1200
g DM and tapioca upto 300 g fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of atriplex alone or with
tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d in a proportion roughly equivalent to that eaten by
sheep grazing freely in atriplex plantations as reported by Benjamin et al. (1992).
Rajnish and Singh (1992) also found non significant difference in weight gain and
reported daily body weight gain of 425±39.85, 407±38.89, 379±38.22 and 378±39.53 g
in male Murrah buffalo calves fed on diets containing 100 % of CP and TDN
requirements (NRC, 1981) in a mixed ration or feeds given separately, or 80 % of CP and
100 % of TDN in a mixed ration or feeds given separately.
The findings of the study also indicated significant effect of periods on weight gain in
buffalo heifers and these results were supported by Akram et al. (1991) reported
significant improved body weight gain by Shade and ventilation in male and female Nili-
xciv
Ravi buffalo calves. But Fulsoundar and Radadia, (1993) reported feed conversion
efficiency in lactating Meshana buffaloes and Kankrej cows as 2.45 and 2.48 kg feed/kg
milk, and 1.67 and 1.78 feed/kg milk, respectively provided with shelter alone (control)
or shelter and also splashed with water at 10-min intervals between 12.30 and 14.20 h,
daily (treated) during the month of March (39°C).
Hart, et al. (1990) also reported a daily gain at the intermediate and high level of
supplementation (204 and 213 g, respectively), was higher than at the low level (P<0.05)
in Rambouillet ewe and wether lambs on wheat forage grazing treatments supplemented
with a 72 % concentrate pellet at 0, 0.75 and 1.5 % of body weight per d. Raicu et al.
(1960) also found better weight gains in wethers and rams at medium level than the
lowest and was more economical than the highest.
Langer et al. (1985a) reported contrasting results and found no difference in daily weight
gain in Murrah buffalo calves given diets with wheat straw to appetite, daily 5 kg green
fodder and 1.5 kg concentrate with maize 10 and 10, groundnut cake 25 and 12, rice bran
30.0 and 31.7, wheat 23 and 32, rice 12 and 12 and urea 0 and 2.3 %, respectively.
Average daily body weight gain was observed as 625 and 825 g fed male buffalo calves a
standard feed mixture and an experimental feed mixture, respectively containing 60 %
experimental feed mixture plus 40 % chopped rice straw as reported by Ragheb et al.
(1989). Dien, et al. (1990) reported increasing weight gain in male Murrah buffaloes with
the increasing concentrate level in the diet. Male buffaloes 8 months old produced a daily
gain of 896, 887 and 936 g on diets containing 10.1, 12.8 and 15.1 % protein,
respectively (Aksoy, 1991). Average daily body weight gain as reported by Gupta, et al.
(1994) in male growing buffaloes was about 400 g fed to appetite for 42 ds on a pelleted
feed mixture containing 16 % CP, 17 % CF, 3.5 % EE, 5.5 % total ash and 42 % NFE.
4.3.6 Dgestibility
Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD): DMD of T1 diet having Mott grass during P1, P2, P3,
P4 and P5 was 55.50±.424, 55.75±0.05, 62.00±.424, 62.50±.424 and 64.00±.424 %,
xcv
respectively. DMD on T2 diet having Berseem was highest (66.00±.424 %) during P3
followed by P2 (65.50±.424 %), P1 (63.00±.424 %), P4 (63.00±.424) and P5 (56.50±.424
%), respectively. DMD in buffalo heifers on T3, T4 and T5 ranges from 63.00±.424 to
65.50±.424 %, from 63.00±.424 to 66.00±.424 % and from 61.50±.424 to 66.00±.424 %
during different periods, respectively (Table 4.21).
Table 4.21 Dry Matter Digestibility (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional
fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
(%) (SE ±.424)
T1 55.50 55.75 62.00 62.50 64.00
T2 63.00 65.50 66.00 63.00 56.50
T3 63.50 64.00 65.50 63.00 64.00
T4 66.00 64.00 65.00 63.00 64.50
T5 64.00 64.50 66.00 63.00 61.50
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
On overall basis dry matter digestibility in heifers fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5
59.90±0.19, 62.80±0.19, 64.00±0.19, 64.50±0.19 and 63.80±0.19 %, respectively. DMD
during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 62.40±0.19, 62.70±0.19, 64.90±0.19, 62.90±0.19
and 62.10±0.19 %, respectively (Fig. 4.12).
Fig. 4.12 Overall means of DMD (%) of feeds in buffalo heifers on different
treatments and during different periods
59.962.8 64 64.5 63.8
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%
62.4 62.7 64.9 62.9 62.1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%
xcvi
Statistically significant (P<0.01) difference in dry matter digestibility was observed
between treatments, periods and interaction of both (Table 4.22).
Table 4.22 ANOVA of Dry Matter Digestibility in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatments 4 135.400 33.850 94.028 .0000
Periods 4 48.800 12.200 33.889 .0000
Trt. * Periods 16 238.800 14.925 41.458 .0000
Error 25 9.000 .360
Total 49 432.000
Organic Matter Digestibility (OMD) in buffalo heifers fed on T1 and T2 diets was
54.50±.479 and 61.50±.479, 55.50±.479 and 61.50±.479, 57.50±.479 and 66.50±.479,
58.50±.479 and 64.60±.479, and 59.00±.479 and 53.50±.479 % during P1, P2, P3, P4 and
P5, respectively (Table 4.23). Highest (62.00±.479 %) organic matter digestibility of T3
diet was reported during P4 followed by P3 (61.50±.479 %), P5 (61.50±.479 %), P2
(60.00±.479 %) and P1 (59.50±.479 %). T4 diet having combination of BS showed OMD
63.50±.479, 63.30±.479, 65.00±.479, 64.50±.479 and 61.50±.479 % during P1, P2, P3,
P4 and P5, respectively. OMD in heifers on T5 diet having MBS combination showed
lowest (58.50±.479 %) value during P5 followed by P2 (60.50±.479 %), P1 (61.50±.479
%), P4 (62.30±.479 %) and P3 (62.50±.479 %). Organic Matter Digestibility was highest
on combination of saltbush and Berseem diets (Table 4.23).
Table 4.23 Organic Matter Digestibility (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
(%) (SE ±.479)
T1 54.50 55.50 57.50 58.50 59.00
T2 61.50 61.50 66.50 64.60 53.50
T3 59.50 60.00 61.50 62.00 61.50
T4 63.50 63.30 65.00 64.50 61.50
T5 61.50 60.50 62.50 62.30 58.50
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
xcvii
OMD on overall basis during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 60.10±0.002, 60.10±0.002,
62.60±0.002, 62.30±0.002 and 58.80±0.002 %, respectively (Fig 4.13). On overall basis
OMD in heifers fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 57.00±0.002, 61.50±0.002,
60.90±0.002, 63.50±0.002 and 61.00±0.002 %, respectively (Fig 4.13).
Fig. 4.13 Overall means of Organic Matter Digestibility (%) of feeds in buffalo
heifers on different treatments and during different periods
Highly significant (P<0.01) difference in organic matter digestibility was observed
among treatments, periods and interaction of period and treatments (Table 4.24).
Table 4.24 ANOVA of Organic Matter Digestibility in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatments 4 .022 .005 121.022 .0000
Periods 4 .010 .002 56.891 .0000
Trt. * Periods 16 .016 .001 22.516 .0000
Error 25 .001 .000
Total 49 .050
Dry Matter digestibility and Organic Matter digestibility data on overall basis indicated
that saltbush inclusion in the diets of Mott and Berseem improved the digestibility
significantly. Abu-Zanat (2005) full supported the present findings and reported that
dietary treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on DMD (P<0.01) and OMD (P<0.01)
while comparing digestibility of Atriplex halimus and Atriplex nummularia and determine
57
61.560.9
63.5
61
54
56
58
60
62
64
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%
60.1 60.1
62.662.3
58.8
58
59
60
61
62
63
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%
xcviii
the proper proportion of saltbushes for partial replacement of alfalfa hay in the diets of
Awassi sheep and concluded that it is possible to replace up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A.
nummularia without negative effects on intake and digestibility of dry matter.
The DMD in the present study ranges from 57 to 63.5 % in different diets and Otsyina
and Benjamin, et al. (1992) also reported 0.59 and 0.56 mean atriplex DM and OM
digestibility values in sheep fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of Atriplex barclayana in a
proportion roughly equivalent to that eaten by sheep grazing freely in Atriplex plantations
alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d. Bhattacharya (1989) also reported similar
OM digestibility of 66, 56 and 53 % for M. Sativa, H. Persicum and A. Cynanophylla
diets. The OMD in halophyte species ranged from 50.1 to 87.2 % (70.8±8.5 %) and the
control alfalfa was only 64.3 % and reported that Atriplex species appeared to be far
superior to alfalfa (Moore et al. 1982).
The Digestibility of Berseem fodder alone and in combination with saltbush was
significantly higher than other fodders as bserved in the study and Nandra et al. (1985)
also reported similar findings in adult male bufflaoes given the silage having DMD 66.58
% and OMD 68.29 % and concluded that berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) makes good
and nutritious silage.
Guevara et al. (2005) reported IVOMD of 47.0 % while assessing some relevant
nutritional parameters for saltbush vs. alfalfa hay. Saltbush proved to be a highly
productive species in areas that are marginal or unsuited for conventional crops such as
alfalfa.
Ueckert et al. (1990) reported partially in agreement results and found that spring A.
Canescens growth having 62 %. Morcombe et al. (1996) reported about 50 % of edible
material was leaf having 70 % DDM and 50 % was small stems having 40 % DDM.
Masters et al. (2005) reported that increasing sodium in the diet significantly decreased
digestibility (OMD 59.1 to 57.3 %). Abdelhamid (1993) reported no significant
differences among diets although diet having urea 15 g gave the highest nutrient
xcix
digestibility in Rahmani rams. Bhaskar, et al. (1988) reported that buffaloes utilize
nutrients better than cattle. DCP was 5.25, 5.16 and 5.67 %, TDN 67.94, 66.95 and 67.92
% in male buffalo calves given to appetite as sole ration of green fodder PBN-83, -87, -20
and -71 hybrid strains of pearl millet Napier or a standard NB-21 variety, respectively
(Chuhan et al. 1984). The digestibility of animals fed hay decreased with increasing
height of Napier grass hybrid NB-21 (Pennisetum purpureum x P. Americanum) plants
from 45 to 120 cm (Chauhan, 1983).
Chauhan (1986) reported that DMD was was not affected in lactating buffaloes given oat
silage and a concentrate mixture with fresh dried berseem. Costantini et al. (1994)
reported that combination of lucerne hay and fibrous byproducts did not influence OM
CP and GE digestibility and CF digestibility, byproducts showed a negative effect chiefly
on lucerne and to a lesser extent on them selves. Dien, et al. (1990) reported that only
digestibilities were higher in Murrah buffaloes fed on diets with a concentrate to
roughage ratio 32:68 and 34:66 than in 22:78. Digestibility of DM 57.1 % in male
growing buffaloes fed to appetite on a pelleted feed mixture contained 16 % CP, 17 %
CF, 3.5 % EE, 5.5 % ash, 42 % NFE (Gupta, et al. 1994).
Morris and McCormick (1994) concluded that average IVDMD was similar for both
sorghums at 60.2 %, but of sweet sorghum tended to be higher than forage sorghum at the
hard dough stage (61.4 vs. 55.1 %). Mudgal and Sivaiah (1982) concluded that
digestibilities of most major nutrients were unaffected by diet given protein at 80, 100 or
110 % and energy at 100 or 120 % of NRC standards and roughage was wheat straw and
5 kg green bersweem to murrah buffalo calves, though 5 kg green bersweem group
digestibility of CF and NFE tended to increase with increasing protein and energy.
Higher digestibility for CP (P<0.01) with lucerne hay, while EE and TDN were higher
(P<0.01) with the concentrate diet in the sheep consuming lucerne hay in Desert rams fed
on concentrates or lucerne hay in shade or exposed to direct solar radiation (Muna and
Abdelatif, 1992). Digestibility of EE increased significantly in buffaloes given roughage
75 and concentrate 25 % as reported by Naidu and Raghavan (1985).
c
Nandra et al. (1989) reported that DMD was similar and CP digestibility was quite high,
76.7 and 79.6 %, CF digestibility was the same for both 60 % with oat ensiled and
berseem and oat forage in 1:1 ratio were ensiled then given alongwith concentrates to 5
lactating buffaloes, respectively. Reddy, et al. (1992) reported that diet containing
berseem 3 kg compared with the other 2 diets; digestibilities of DM were also
significantly higher in rumen fistulated Murrah buffaloes fed on a diet of ammoniated
wheat straw, molasses, wheat bran and fish meal alone, or with berseem (Trifolium
alexandrinum) 3 or 6 kg. Digestibilities of DM were higher in oat based diets in cattle
and buffaloes given chopped oat hay+clusterbean meal, oat hay+groundnut oilmeal,
chopped wheat straw+clusterbean meal, or wheat straw+groundnut oilmeal providing 8-
10 % dietary CP (Sangwan, et al. 1990).
Verma, et al. (1990) reported digestibility of DM in Murrah buffaloes higher (P<0.01) in
groups fed on wheat straw and concentrate diet were splashed for 15 min and 30 min
before milking to overcome summer heat stress. Bhatia, et al. (1994) reported higher
(P<0.01) digestion of nutrients from low grade roughage in buffaloes than in cattle and
concluded that eating pattern is governed by ruminant species and fibrous components of
the diet. Digestibility of DM and OM in Murrah male buffaloes was 58 and 64 % fed on a
diet of wheat straw and concentrate mix (Chaudhary and Srivastava, 1995).
4.3.7 Blood Hematology
Blood picture analysis of buffalo heifers fed on different feeds regarding RBCs, WBCs,
HB and PCV were conducted. RBCs count indicated a decreasing trend with the
inclusion of saltbush in the diets and showed increasing trend with the increase in
environmental temperature.
Red Blood Cells Count (106 μl): Red Blood Cells count in heifers fed on T1 and T2 was
2.1±0.03 and 2.53±0.03, 4.17±0.03 and 4.67±0.03, 6.48±0.03 and 5.75±0.03, 6.76±0.03
and 7.1±0.03, and 7.11±0.03 and 5.7±0.03 106
μl during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5,
respectively (Table 4.25). Highest (7.07±0.03106
μl) RBCs in heifers on T3 (MS) was
recorded during P3 followed by P5 (6.46±0.03 106
μl), P4 (5.68±0.03 106
μl), P2
ci
(4.57±0.03 106
μl) and P1 (2.62±0.03 106
μl). T4 diet (BS) heifers showed RBCs of
2.27±0.03, 4.40±0.03, 5.43±0.03, 6.57±0.03 and 6.18±0.03 106
μl and on T5 (MBS) feed
showed count of 2.33±0.03, 4.93±0.03, 6.29±0.03, 6.07±0.03 and 6.43±0.03 106
μl during
P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Table 4.25).
Table 4.25 Red Blood Cells count (106
μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 (10
6 μl) (SE ±0.03)
T1 2.10 4.17 6.48 6.76 7.11 T2 2.53 4.67 5.75 7.10 5.70 T3 2.62 4.57 7.07 5.68 6.46 T4 2.27 4.40 5.43 6.57 6.18 T5 2.33 4.93 6.29 6.07 6.43
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
On overall basis RBCs count in heifers on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 5.32±0.05,
5.14±0.05, 5.28±0.05, 4.97±0.05 and 5.21±0.05 106
μl, respectively. Red Blood Cells
count on overall basis during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 2.37±0.75, 4.55±0.75,
6.21±0.75, 6.43±0.75 and 6.38±0.75 106
μl, respectively (Fig 4.14)
Fig 4.14 Overall means of RBCs (10
6 μl) in buffalo heifers on different treatments
and during different periods.
Statistically Significant (P<0.05) difference in RBCs count was observed among
treatments, among periods and interaction of period and treatments (Table 4.26).
5.32
5.14
5.28
4.97
5.21
4.8
4.9
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5106 μl
2.37
4.55
6.216.43 6.38
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5106 μl
cii
Table 4.26 ANOVA of RBCs (106
μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional
fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F. Value
Treatments 4 1.158 0.289 2.050
Period 4 184.927 46.232 327.482
Trt.*Period 16 12.034 0.752 5.327
Error 50 7.059 0.114
Total 74 205.177
White Blood Cells Count (103 μl): White Blood Cells count in heifers fed on T1 diet
were 12.37±0.05, 7.70±0.05, 8.33±0.05, 8.57±0.05 and 8.97±0.05 103 μl and on T2 feed
were 13.53±0.05, 8.07±0.05, 9.21±0.05, 8.82±0.05 and 8.52±0.05 103 μl during P1, P2,
P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Table 4.27). Highest (13.6±0.05 103 μl) White Blood cells
count was observed in heifers on T3 (MS) during P1 followed by P3 (8.89±0.05 103 μl),
P4 (8.63±0.05103 μl), P5 (7.84±0.05 10
3 μl) and P2 (7.75±0.05 10
3 μl). T4 (BS
combination) showed WBCs count of 10.47±0.05, 7.89±0.05, 8.57±0.05, 7.88±0.05 and
9.44±0.05 103 μl and on T5 (MBS) feed showed count of 10.65±0.05, 8.08±0.05,
8.05±0.05, 9.51±0.05 and 8.52±0.05 103 μl during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively
(Table 4.27).
Table 4.27 WBCs count (103 μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders
substituted with Saltbush diets.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
(103 μl) (SE ±0.05)
T1 12.37 7.70 8.33 8.57 8.97
T2 13.53 8.07 9.21 8.82 8.52
T3 13.60 7.75 8.89 8.63 7.84
T4 10.47 7.89 8.57 7.88 9.44
T5 10.65 8.08 8.05 9.51 8.52
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
On overall basis WBCs count in heifers on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 9.19±0.75,
9.63±0.75, 9.34±0.75, 8.85±0.75 and 8.96±0.75, respectively. WBCs count on overall
ciii
basis during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 12.12±0.04, 7.90±0.04, 8.62±0.04, 8.68±0.04
and 8.66±0.04, respectively (Fig 4.15).
Fig 4.15 Overall means of WBCs (10
3 μl) in buffalo heifers on different treatments
and during different periods.
Statistically significant (P<0.05) difference in WBCs count was observed between
treatments, periods and interaction of period and treatments (Table 4.28).
Table 4.28 ANOVA of WBCs (103 μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional
fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F. Value
Treatments 4 5745154.320 1436288.580 1.6858
Period 4 167350802.853 41837700.713 49.1051
Trt.*Period 16 32893922.080 2055870.130 2.4130
Error 50 42600174.667 852003.493
Total 74 248590053.920
Hemoglobin (g/dl): Hemoglobin level in heifers fed on T1was 6.23±0.07, 8.33±0.07,
10.07±0.07, 9.0±0.07 and 8.8±0.07, and on T2 diet was 7.57±0.07, 9.33±0.07, 9.87±0.07,
9.07±0.07 and 8.53±0.07 g/dl during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Table 4.29).
Hemoglobin level was 7.50±0.07, 9.13±0.07, 8.40±0.07, 8.67±0.07 and 9.77±0.07 g/dl in
heifers on T3 (MS) diet during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively. The heifers fed on T4
(BS combination) showed hemoglobin values as 6.47±0.07, 8.80±0.07, 8.73±0.07,
9.67±0.07 and 9.53±0.07 g/dl and on T5 (MBS) diet showed a level of 7.3±0.07,
9.19
9.63
9.34
8.85
8.96
8.7
8.9
9.1
9.3
9.5
9.7
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5103 μl
12.12
7.9
8.62 8.68 8.66
7.5
8.5
9.5
10.5
11.5
12.5
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5103 μl
civ
9.87±0.07, 8.73±0.07, 9.90±0.07 and 9.27±0.07 g/dl during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5,
respectively (Table 4.29).
Table 4.29 Hemoglobin (g/dl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders
substituted with Saltbush diets.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 (g/dl) (SE ±0.07) T1 06.23 08.33 10.07 09.00 08.80 T2 07.57 09.33 09.87 09.07 08.53 T3 07.50 09.13 08.40 08.67 09.77 T4 06.47 08.80 08.73 09.67 09.53 T5 07.30 09.87 08.73 09.90 09.27
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
On overall basis hemoglobin contents in heifers on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were
8.49±0.05, 8.87±0.05, 8.69±0.05, 8.64±0.05, and 9.01±0.05 g/dl, respectively.
Hemoglobin contents on overall basis during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 7.01±0.25,
9.09±0.25, 9.16±0.25, 9.26±0.25 and 9.18±0.25 g/dl, respectively (Fig 4.16).
Fig. 4.16 Overall means of Hemoglobin (g/dl) in buffalo heifers on different
treatments and during different periods.
Hemoglobin values differences were statistically significant (P<0.01) among treatments,
among periods and interaction of period and treatments (Table 4.30).
8.49
8.878.69
8.649.01
0
2
4
6
8
10
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5g/dl
7.01
9.09 9.16 9.26 9.18
0
2
4
6
8
10
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5g/dl
cv
Table 4.30 ANOVA of Hemoglobin (g/dl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on
conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F. Value
Treatments 4 2.534 0.634 1.5550
Period 4 56.178 14.045 34.4681
Treatments*Period 16 19.052 1.191 2.9223
Error 50 20.373 0.407
Total 74 98.138
Packed Cell Volume (%):Packed cell volume in heifers fed on T1was 36.33±1.25,
33.67±1.25, 28.33±1.25, 27.33±1.25 and 22.67±1.25 %, and on T2 feed was 32.67±1.25,
26.00±1.25, 27.68±1.25, 24.67±1.25 and 24.67±1.25 % during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5,
respectively (Table 4.31). T3 (MS) showed packed cell volume of 35.00±1.25,
28.33±1.25, 26.00±1.25, 23.00±1.25 and 30.00±1.25 % and on T4 (BS) fed heifers
showed PCV of 33.30±1.25, 29.67±1.25, 25.00±1.25, 29.33±1.25 and 25.67±1.25 %
during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively. During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 heifers fed on
T5 (MBS) reported PCV of 34.33±1.25, 39.33±1.25, 24.33±1.25, 26.00±1.25 and
26.33±1.25 %, respectively (Table 4.31).
Table 4.31 PCV count (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders
substituted with Saltbush diets.
Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 (%) (SE ±1.25) T1 36.33 33.67 28.33 27.33 22.67 T2 32.67 26.00 27.68 24.67 24.67 T3 35.00 28.33 26.00 23.00 30.00 T4 33.30 29.67 25.00 29.33 25.67 T5 34.33 39.33 24.33 26.00 26.33
T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,
T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4
On overall basis PCV contents in heifer blood on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were
29.67±0.75, 26.93±0.75, 28.47±0.75, 28.60±0.75 and 30.07±0.75 %, respectively.
Packed cell volume on overall basis during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 34.33±0.05,
31.40±0.05, 26.07±0.05, 26.07±0.05 and 25.87±0.05 %, respectively (Fig 4.17).
cvi
Fig. 4.17 Overall means of PCV (%) in buffalo heifers on different treatments and
during different periods.
Statistically highly significant (P<0.01) difference in Packed Cell Volume was observed
among treatments, periods and interaction of period and treatments (Table 4.32).
Table 4.32 ANOVA of PCV in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders
substituted with Saltbush diets.
SOV df S.S. M.S. F. Value
Treatments 4 89.653 22.413 2.3743
Period 4 913.653 228.413 24.1963
Trt.*Period 16 450.880 28.180 2.9852
Error 50 472.00 9.440
Total 74 1926.187
The results of the present study indicated significant difference in blood hematocrit as
type of forage and season changes. The findings were completely in line with the results
reported by Pradhan and Sastry (1989) found significant differences in
haematocrit/packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin, betwen crops and climatic periods
and in the cold period, PCV, Hb and free fatty acids were highest and plasma protein and
blood urea nitrogen lowest and buffalles given presoaked straw had higher PCV, Hb, than
the other treatments over 3 climatic periods in Haryana, India given concentrate at 1% of
body weight, fresh forage 1 kg DM/100 kg body weight and wheat straw ad libitum alone
or presoaked 1:1, mixed with concentates 1:1, or mixed with the forage 1:1, fresh forage
was green sorghum, green sorghum (mature) and rape berseem in the hot, hot humid and
cold period, respectively.
29.67
26.93
28.47 28.6
30.07
25
26
27
28
29
30
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%
34.33
31.4
26.07 26.07 25.87
24
26
28
30
32
34
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%
cvii
Some other workers also supported by observing significantly less erythrocyte count with
80 % maize silage and blood haematocrit significantly higher than with 40 % Napier or
molasses grass hay and blood values were lowest for Holsteins (Ezequiel et al.1989).
Pankaj et al. (1992) also found significant difference in Packed Cell Volume and
haemoglobin content in male buffalo calves given some treatment of combelen
(propiomazine) by i.v. or i.m. injection.
The results of Hill, et al. (1992) partially supported the findings regarding PCV and
hemoglobin level during winter and they reported that packed cell volume, mean
haemoglobin levels were higher in December, while mean cell volume was lower while
studying haematological values both in March and December. Khalil, et al. (1990) also
partially supported the results and indicated that water-deprived ewes had higher values
for Hb and Packed Cell Volume than controls and pure breeds had lower values for Hb
and PCV than the crossbreds, indicating better adaptability of the purebreds.
The findings of Gill, et al. (1994) were not in line with the results and they reported that
mean values for haemoglobin, erythrocyte count and packed cell volume were non
significant statistically among five different feeding regimes of Sudex and Atriplex alone
and with different proportions. Contrasting results were also indicated by Matras, et al.
1992 and found that diet had no influence on haematocrit, haemoglobin in ewes on diets
containing grass hay or hay with grass silage and concentrate 0.60 kg containing 0 or 60
% faba bean meal. Singh, et al. (1993) also reported non significant (P>0.05) differences
in all the treatment groups for total protein in lactating buffaloes provided with feed daily
without galactogogues and galactogogues given daily together with concentrates at
milking time for 20 consecutive days.
4.4 CONCLUSIONS
The Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers showed comparable intake and gain on diets having
inclusion of Saltbush with conventional fodders especially performed better on
Berseem+Saltbush diets during winter season. Performance of heifers was also better on
cviii
saltbush combination diets having Mott+saltbush and Berseem+Mott+Saltbush
combinations in the diets during suumer season. Therefore, the growth performance of
Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers can be improved by using Saltbush leaves and twigs in fresh
form as part of conventional fodders upto 50 % during different seasons. Saltbush can be
incorporated in the conventional diets of heifers to maintain daily intake and growth
performance during feed gaps. Saltbush can be used as an alternate forage source when
conventional fodders are short and their nutrient contents are less during severe winter
and summer seasons. The continuous supply of better feed to such neglected animals can
be maintained to achieve early growth and sexual maturity raised in saline areas.
cix
CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENT 2
EVALUATION OF SALTBUSH (Atriplex amnicola) AS
A SUBSTITUTE OF LUCERNE HAY NITROGEN
WITH DIFFERENT LEVELS OF SALTBUSH
NITROGEN IN COMPARISON WITH UREA
NITROGEN IN KAJLI LAMBS
Abstract
Nitrogen replacement experiment was conducted to substitute the Lucerne hay nitrogen
with different levels of saltbush and urea nitrogen on 30 kajli lambs divided into five
groups of six lambs each using CRD (5x6) fed for ten (10) weeks on 70% Lucerne hay
and 30% wheat straw, urea nitrogen replaced 20% T1 nitrogen, urea nitrogen replaced
30% T1 nitrogen, Saltbush nitrogen replaced 20% T1 nitrogen and saltbush nitrogen
replaced 30% T1 nitrogen designated as T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively. Dry matter
contents were higher in T4 and T5 (88.50±.376 and 89.50±.376 %) as compared to T1,
T2, and T3 % and Crude protein contents were higher in saltbush diets as compared to T1
(15.50±.214 %) and T2 and T3, respectively. Crude fiber contents were 26.25±0.55,
31.00±0.55, 32.75±0.55, 27.00±0.55 and 27.50±0.55 % on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, and
EE contents were 2.75±.194, 3.00±.194, 2.75±.194, 3.00±.194 and 3.25±.194,
respectively. Ash contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 8.50±.295, 11.00±.295,
11.75±.295, 11.25±.295 and 14.25±.295 % and NFE contents were 42.00±.438,
43.25±.438, 43.00±.438, 41.75±.438 and 42.00±.438 %, respectively. Differences in dry
matter (P<0.01) Crude fiber (P<0.01) ash (P<0.01) and NFE (P<0.09) contents were
significant and crude protein (P<0.290) and Ether Extract (P<0.364) were non-significant
between treatments. DMI was 0.97±0.05, 0.91±0.05, 0.87±0.05, 1.02±0.05 and 0.92±0.05
kg on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively. Statistically significant difference (P<0.05) in
dry matter intake was observed between treatments. Daily water intake was
comparatively higher (2.47±1.07 and 2.60±1.07 liters) on saltbush diets than control and
urea nitrogen diets. Statistically highly (P<0.01) significant difference in water intake
was observed between treatments. Higher (0.049±0.01 kg) daily weight gain on T4 than
T1 (0.044±0.01 kg) was observed. Significant difference (P<0.05) in weight gain was
observed between treatments. DMD in lambs was 58.75±.393, 55.75±.393, 57.25±.393,
58.50±.393 and 59.00±.393 % on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively. OMD in Kajli
lambs on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 63.25±.387, 61.75±.387, 61.25±.387, 63.00±.387
and 63.25±.387 %, respectively. Significant difference (P<0.01) in OMD was observed
between treatments. RBCs count of Kajli lambs fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was
4.87±.079, 4.47±.079, 5.00±.079, 4.80±.079 and 5.07±.079 106
μl, and WBCs count was
4.47± .064, 5.00± .064, 4.37± .064, 4.00± .064 and 3.87± .064 103 μl , respectively.
Hemoglobin values in lambs on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 9.96± .039, 9.93± .039,
cx
10.00± .039, 9.00± .039 and 9.00± .039 g/dl and PCV values were highest (29.00± .219
%) on T1 and T5 (29.03± .219 %). Significant (P<0.01) difference in RBCs, WBCs,
hemoglobin and PCV was observed between treatments. The lambs fed on saltbush
included diets and Urea nitrogen diets showed comparatively better intake, gained more
and also the digestibility values comparable to control fed on Lucerne hay based diets.
Therefore it is concluded that saltbush can be a better substitute for Lucerne based diets
and can produce comparable performance in lambs during crunch periods.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Key Words: Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola), DMI, Water intake, Substitution, Nitrogen,
Urea, Lucerne, Hay, Lambs, Digestibility, RBCs, Hemoglbin, Weight
gain.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The agricultural sector supports the Pakistani economy and provides food for the 137
million populations which is growing at a rate of 2.2 % per year (Ul-Haq, 1997). Small
ruminants plays an important role in uplifting the economy of Pakistan by catering
mutton, milk, wool, hair and skins for domestic consumption and provide jobs for
thousands of artisans and its net foreign exchange earning was to the tune of Rs. 53
billion, which was almost 8.5 percent of overall export earning of the country. At present
approximately 6.5 million families directly or indirectly are depending on livestock for
their livelihood. The livestock represent an essential element of traditional social systems
and constitute an important means of accumulating and distributing wealth (Economic
Survey, 2007).
Pakistan is the second largest sheep and goat producing country in the near East region
(Husnain 1985).The rearing of goat and sheep provide a significant supply of animal
protein in the form of milk and meat. This is particularly useful for the families of low-
income farmers and landless laborers. Goats provided 20-40 % of the farmer cash income
in some districts of Pakistan (Devendra and Mcleray, 1982).
Meat production is not sufficient in quantitative and qualitative measures for the existing
country population. Other constraints on meat production include inadequate feeding and
poor management of animals. One of the main constraints for increasing livestock
cxi
production in the country is the shortage of economical and balanced rations. The
characters such as good muscle development would be incapable of expression to their
full genetic potential in underfed animals.
The area under fodder production is about 2.7 million hectare in the country which
produces 58 million tones of fodder. In our country, this resource hardly contributed 24%
of the feed requirement. The animals are getting 20-40 % deficient of both dry and green
roughages according to their requirements. The production potential of the country
livestock is not being utilized due to underfeeding. Livestock in Pakistan continue to be
under-nourished and most of them survive on a bare minimum.
Rangelands constitute 60 percent of Pakistan total land area. Most of rangelands are
either marginal or are producing 10 to 50 percent of their potential productivity. In most
places restoration of rangelands is still possible through inputs to assist the regeneration
of vegetation. Although this would increase primary production substantially, it would
not provide support for a larger number of range animals. The present number of range
livestock is larger than ever before, and degradation processes have already started.
Grazing areas are also being denuded day by day due to over grazing, salinity and water
logging and continuously prevailing drought conditions are the major factors in
deteriorating the soil. However, with restoration of the ranges, productivity of the
livestock would increase and socio-economic conditions will be improved.
Fodder trees and shrubs have the ability to accumulate green fodder over several seasons,
providing fodder reserves for times of dearth and thus permitting a switch from
transhumance to sedentary husbandry (Le-Houerou, 2005). Saltbushes (Atriplex species)
are the major salt-tolerant fodder species for productive use of saltlands (Barrett-Lennard
et al. 2004). Salt tolerant trees and shrubs if grown on the salt affected wastelands
provide an economic incentive for vegetation of soils.
In spite of great economic significance of small ruminants in our livestock set up and
recognized as provider of more important items of daily food use, very little attention has
cxii
been given to the importance of scientific investigation on the sheep and goats in
achieving high growth and production. The present study was conducted to explore
potential of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) hay as a substitute for lucerne hay based and
compare it with urea treated straw diets in Kajli lambs in the saline areas.
5.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plan of Experiment: Saltbush and urea nitrogen substitution experiment was conducted
on 30 Kajli male lambs of approximately same age and weight (23±0.75 kg) divided into
five groups of six lambs each using Completely Randomized Design (5x6). The lambs
were fed on 70 % Lucerne hay and 30% wheat straw (T1), Urea nitrogen replaced 20%
T1 nitrogen, Urea nitrogen replaced 30 % T1 nitrogen, Saltbush nitrogen replaced 20 %
T1 nitrogen and Saltbush nitrogen replaced 20 % T1 nitrogen diets designated as T1, T2,
T3, T4 and T5, respectively (Table 5.1). In addition to treatment diets Oat grains were
given daily to each lamb at the rate of 0.75 percent of their body weight on dry matter
basis. The data was collected for ten (10) weeks excluding two weeks for adjustment.
Table 5.1 Distribution of Kajli lambs to treatments in Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with Saltbush and urea nitrogen trial.
Treatments Lambs Diets
T1 6 Lucerne hay 70% + Wheat Straw 30%
T2 6 Urea Nitrogen replaced 20 % T1 Nitrogen
T3 6 Urea Nitrogen replaced 30 % T1 Nitrogen
T4 6 Saltbush Nitrogen replaced 20 % T1 Nitrogen
T5 6 Saltbush Nitrogen replaced 30 % T1 Nitrogen
Farm produced Lucerne and Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) forages were cut, chopped and
sun dried to convert it into hay (Pic 5.1).
cxiii
Pic 5.1 Lucerne and Saltbush hay making under shade for feeding to Kajli Lambs
To replace Lucerne hay nitrogen with urea nitrogen wheat straw treated with fertilizer
grade urea. To replace 20 % feed nitrogen 1.20 kg of fertilizer grade urea was dissolved
in 40 litre water and sprinkled over 100 kg wheat straw spread in thick layer. The process
was repeated for each 100 kg wheat straw and total 1000 kg was treated, stacked and
covered with polyethelene sheet for three weeks to complete ammoniation process. To
replace 30 % feed nitrogen 1.75 kg of fertilizer grade urea was used for 100 kg wheat
straw by dissolving in 40 litre water and treated 1000 kg accordingly.The detailed
procedure is given in Chapter 3. Lambs were ear tagged and kept in wooden metabolic
cages having provision for separate buckets for feed and water (Pic 5.2).
Pic 5.2 Metabolic cages for lambs with separate feed and water for each lamb
Feed Analyses: Feed samples were collected at the start of experiment and subsequently
at fortnightly basis or whenever required. The samples were dried as per procedure given
in the Chapter 3 for determination of dry matter and retained for further analyses. Four
representative samples from each treatment (5x4) diets were taken from the retained bulk
cxiv
and analysed for crude protein, crude fiber, ether extract, NFE and ash using laboratory
procedure (AOAC, 1990).
The data on daily DMI, water intake and weekly weight changes were recorded. For data
analyses DMI, water intake and weight gain were averaged on weekly basis (5x6x10).
Digestibility: Dry Matter and Organic Matter Digestibility was determined by collecting
data on daily feed intake and total feces voided by each lamb during the last week (7
days). Four representative samples of diets and faeces from each treatment (5x4) were
taken from the procured samples and analyzed to calculate dry matter and organic matter
digestibility according to procedure described in Chapter 3.
Blood Hematology: The blood samples were collected on fortnightly bases (5x6x5) and
analysed to determine RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin and Packed Cell Volume by
hematological analyzer according to procedure described in Chapter 3.
Data Analyses: The data thus collected on feed composition (5x4) DMI, water intake and
weight gain were averaged on weekly basis (5x6x10), digestibility (5x4) and blood
analyses (5x6x5) entered in the Excel Computer software and and analyzed using Mixed
Model Least-Squares and Maximum Likelihood Computer Program (Harvey, 1990) to
calculate analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means were separated by Duncans Multiple
Range test (Duncan, 1955)
5.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.3.1 Feed Composition
Dry matter contents of diet T1, T2 T3, T4 and T5 were 85.25±.376, 75.25±.376,
75.00±.376, 88.50±.376 and 89.50±.376 %, respectively (Table 5.2). On overall basis dry
matter contents were highest in the T5 and T4 having saltbush included diets and lower
dry matter on urea treated wheat straw diets (T2 and T3) may be due to use of water at
cxv
the time of straw treatment. Statistically dry matter contents were significantly (P<0.01)
different between treatments (Table 5.2).
Table 5.2 Dry Matter contents (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
DM (%) 85.25±.376 75.25±.376 75.00±.376 88.50±.376 89.50±.376
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 4 782.300 195.575 345.132 .000
Error 15 8.500 .566
Total 19 790.800
The findings of Pichard et al. (1988) were partially supportive to the results of higher dry
matter contents in the saltbush included diets and they reported high (35-55 %) dry matter
content of green leaves of 13 species of trees and shrubs and CP conent was lower than
expected (<12 %). Correal et al. (1986) averaged over spring, summer, autumn and
winter for all 4 species of Atriplex and DM, OM and protein contents were 31.7, 72.6 and
16.7 %, respectively were comparatively higher as found in the results and indicated that
with an energy content of 3.567 Cal/g and protein content was only slightly reduced in
the summer (14.5 %), consistent protein and energy levels make these atriplex species a
useful alternative forage source in arid zones.
Crude protein level was highest (16.00±.214 %) in diet T4 and T2 (16.00±.214 %)
followed by T5 (15.75±.214 %), T3 and T1 (15.50±.214 %). Crude Proten contents were
higher on saltbush included diets (T4 and T5) as compared to T1 (control) diet (Table
5.3). Statistically non significant (P>0.290) difference in crude protein contents was
observed between treatments (Table 5.3).
cxvi
Table 5.3 Crude Protein contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
CP (%) 15.50±.214 16.00±.214 15.50±.214 16.00±.214 15.75±.214
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 4 1.000 .250 1.364 .290
Error 15 2.750 .183
Total 19 3.750
The findings of the result were partially supported by Pichard, et al. (1988) reported
lower CP conents (<12 %) than expected in green leaves of 13 species of trees and
shrubs. Another worker also reported lower and found that CP contents of whole dried
plants ranged from 6.6 % in A. Amnicola to 9.2 % in A. Vesicaria (Malcolm, et al. 1988)
sown 5 Atriplex species in saline soil in Western Australia. Otsyina and Mckell, (1986)
also reported lower CP contents in different Atriplex species and reported that diets with
shrub pasture containd more CP than those on grass pastures. A canescens (10 % CP), K.
Prostrata (12 % CP) and C. Lanata (12 % CP). Bhattacharya (1989) also found slightly
higher CP levels as observed on treatments having saltbush and found CP and CF 15 and
31 % for M. Sativa, 13 and 30 % for Acacia Cyanophylla and, 10 and 37 % for
Haloxylon persicum and A. Halimus cuttings contained 18 % CP and 24 % CF on DM
basis. Correal et al. (1986) averaged over spring, summer, autumn and winter for all 4
species of atriplex, DM and protein contents were 31.7 and 16.7 %, respectively and also
indicated that CP contents were slightly reduced in the summer (14.5 %).
The findings of the study indicated similar or higher CP in the saltbush substituted diets
and was comparable to Lucerne was also in agement with Karnezos, et al. (1994)
reported that herbage CP were highest for lucerne (253 g/kg) and lowest for wheatgrass
(159 g/kg). Guevara et al. (2005) also reported similar findings while comparing the
saltbush and alfalfa hay and reported mean values of ash 25.3 %; CP 13.6 % and found
that saltbush proved to be a highly productive species in areas that are marginal or
unsuited for conventional crops such as alfalfa. Grice and Muir (1988) also reported that
cxvii
CP content of saltbush leaf is either comparable to or higher than other annual and
perennial grasses.
Similar levels of CP as observed in the present results were also reported by Ueckert et
al. (1990) found that spring Atriplex canescens growth (16 % CP) was readily eaten by
yearling Angora goats.
Higher protein (18.2 %) levels were reported by James (1978) on feeding soft twigs of
Leucaena to goats.
Some wokers (Nandra et al. 1985) also observed lower levels of feed composition in
conventional fodder, Berseem silage (DM 27.43 %, CP 11.5 %, EE 3.83 %, CF 34.70 %
and ash 9.00 %).
Some workers also found increased crude peotein level in the diets with urea treatment as
compared to control diets and reported increased CP with urea treatment from 8.14 % in
untreated silage to 11.10 and 13.05 % in maize silage without or with 1 or 1.5 % urea,
respectively and concluded that nutritive value of maize silage can be greatly improved
with urea treatment (Chauhan and Dahiya, 1993). Khan, et al. (1992) also found DM, CP
and ammonia content of the silage mixture (50 % sugarcane bagasse supplemented with 5
% urea, 10 % fresh cattle manure and 35 % water) were increased (47.6 to 54.4 %, 18.4
to 22.2 % and 0 to 2.2 %, respectively) after 60 ds.
Virk et al. (1993) also supported the findings and reported that CP content improved
(P<0.05) by treatment when wheat straw was impregnated with animal urine (nitrogen
4.3 g/litre, 0.7 litre/kg straw) or treated with urea solution (65 litre/100 kg straw, urea 4
kg) and stacked for 3 weeks.
Crude Fiber contents were 26.25±0.555, 31.00±0.555, 32.75±0.555, 27.00±0.555and
27.50±0.555 % on diet T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively (Table 5.4). Crude fibre
contents were higher on T3 and T2 having urea treated wheat straw replacing Lucerne
cxviii
nitrogen. Saltbush included diets (T4 and T5) showed comparable crude fibre contents as
in T1 diet having Lucerne hay and wheat straw. Crude fibre contents were statistically
significantly (P<0.01) different between treatments (Table 5.4).
Table 5.4 Crude Fiber contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
CF (%) 26.25±.555 31.00±.555 32.75±.555 27.00±.555 27.50±.555
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 4 127.300 31.825 25.804 .000
Error 15 18.500 1.233
Total 19 145.800
The findings of the study regarding CF contents were partially in line with the results of
Bhattacharya (1989) reported 31 % for M. Sativa, 30 % for Acacia Cyanophylla and 37
% for Haloxylon persicum and A. Halimus cuttings contained 24 % CF on DM basis,
respectively.
Ether Extract values in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 diets were 2.75±.194, 3.00±.194,
2.75±.194, 3.00±.194 and 3.25±.194, respectively (Table 5.5). Statistically non
significant (P<0.364) difference was recorded in Ether Extract contents between
treatments (Table 5.5).
Table 5.5 Ether Extract contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
EE (%) 2.75±.194 3.00±.194 2.75±.194 3.00±.194 3.25±.194
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 4 .700 .1750 1.167 .364
Error 15 2.250 .1500
Total 19 2.950
cxix
Ash contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 diets were 8.50±.295, 11.00±.295, 11.75±.295,
11.25±.295 and 14.25±.295 %, respectively. Ash contents were highest in E feed having
30 % saltbush (Table 5.6). Differences between treatments in ash contents were
significant (P<0.01) statistically (Table 5.6).
Table 5.6 Ash contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen substitution with
saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
ASH (%) 8.50±.295 11.00±.295 11.75±.295 11.25±.295 14.25±.295
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 4 67.300 16.825 48.071 .000
Error 15 5.250 .350
Total 19 72.550
The diets having inclusion of saltbush showed higher Ash or salt contents as compared to
control diet as observed in the present study have been observed by Wilson (1966)
reported in line findings and concluded that the high ash content of saltbush (20 to 38 %),
which is principally NaC1, may nutritionally be a disadvantage to animals. Gihad (1993)
also reported up to 10 % NaCl in saltbush. Guevara, et al. (2005) compared saltbush and
alfalfa hay and reported mean values of OM 74.7 %; ash 25.3 %; CP 13.6 % and found
that saltbush proved to be a highly productive species in areas that are marginal or
unsuited for conventional crops such as alfalfa.
NFE contents were highest (43.25±.438 %) in T2 diet followed by T3 (43.00±.438 %),
T5 (42.00±.438 %), T4 (41.75±.438 %) and T1 (42.00±.438 %). Statistically significant
(P<0.09) difference was recorded in NFE contents between treatments (Table 5.7).
5.3.2 Dry Matter Intake (DMI)
Daily DMI in Kajli lamb was 0.97±0.05, 0.91±0.05, 0.87±0.05, 1.02±0.05 and 0.92±0.05
kg on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively. Highest (1.02±0.05) intake was observed on
T4 fed on Saltbush Nitrogen replaced 20% T1 followed by T1, T5, T2 and T3,
respectively (Table 5.8). Highly significant difference in dry matter intake was observed
between treatments (Table 5.8).
cxx
Table 5.7 NFE contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen substitution with
saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
NFE (%) 42.00±.438 43.25±.438 43.00±.438 41.75±.438 42.00±.438
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 4 7.300 1.825 2.380 .0981
Error 15 11.500 .766
Total 19 18.800
Table 5.8 DMI (kg) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
DMI (kg) 0.97± 0.05 0.91± 0.05 0.87± 0.05 1.02± 0.05 0.92± 0.05
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value
Treatment 4 0.9978 0.2494 8.00
Error 295 9.2000 0.312
Total 299 10.1978
The present study also indicated that intake of saltbush combination diet was increased
when conventional fodder was of higher dry matter and decreased with the increase in the
structure of saltbush dry matter. Some researchers also revealed that Atriplex vesicaria
provides maintenance rather than production requirements in sheep and may make up 25
% of the diet in summer and 90 % during drought (Leigh, 1972).
DMI was significantly increased in lambs when they have a choice to take Saltbush
combination diets and and Abu-Zanat (2005) also indicated that forage type had a
significant (P<0.001) effect on DMI in Awassi lambs given chopped alfalfa hay, dried
foliage of Atriplex nummularia or foliage of Atriplex halimus, lambs receiving the alfalfa
hay diet showed high DMI compared to those fed the diets containing saltbush and found
that inclusion of Atriplex nummularia in the diet up to 50 % had no significant effect on
DMI, whereas the inclusion of Atriplex halimus above 25 % reduced DMI and it is
cxxi
possible to replace up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without negative effects
on intake of dry matter.
In Pakistan researchers also found that dwarf goats can be maintained on 100 % Atriplex
amnicola diet and suggested supplements of good quality local fodders or concentrates
for growth (Nawaz, et al. 1994). Many researchers found fourwing saltbush useful plant
for rangeland in Balochistan province and could serve as a forage reserve species to
supplement natural vegetation (Rehman, et al. 1988). Benjamin, et al. (1992) also
recorded similar DMI as found in the results and they observed a daily intake of Atriplex
up to 1200 g DM and tapioca up to 300 g on diets of atriplex alone or with tapioca meal
100, 200 or 300 g/d in sheep.
Some researchers (Waghorn, et al. 1994) found in contrasting observations and reported
that addition of salt to the sheep diet had no effect on DMI, but they found increased DMI
in the diet with bentonite plus salt compared with controls (P<0.01). Masters, et al.
(2005) reported that increasing sodium in the diet significantly decreased feed intake
weaner wethers. In another study Masters, et al., (2006) reported depressed feed intake
and production at high salt intakes by grazing ruminants. Feed intake was erratic and
decreased by about 20 to 30 % at high intakes of salt (Gihad, 1993).
Other workers also found significant differences in DMI and concluded that saltbush can
be compared favorably with that from normal pastures while examining grazing trial on
the saltbushes, in terms of the number of grazing days possible (Clarke, 1982). Ahmed
and Abdelatif (1994) also reported decreased DMI (g/kg0.75) in adult desert rams with
water restriction. Grice and Muir (1988) reported that high concentration of salt in
saltbush diets decreased feed intake Wilson (1975) reported that wethers halved their feed
intake when maintained only on saltbush. Riaz et al. (1994) also reported significant
decreased feed intake with the increase in level of Atriplex in the rations as a result of
Atriplex amnicola feeding alone or in combination with the conventional forage (Sudex)
in Teddy goats.
cxxii
Lower dry matter intake was observed in lambs on urea treated straw diets in the trial was
also indicated by Coskun et al. (1992) noted decreased straw intake in Merino rams with
aqueous ammonia (25 % NH3) treatment. Sajjan and Yadav (1992) reported slightly
increasing daily DMI as 5.30, 5.33 and 5.44 kg in growing buffalo calves given cattle
litter treated with 5 % urea included at 20 and 30 % in the diets. DMI in buffaloes was
not different between silages with urea treatment fed maize silage harvested at milk stage
without or with 1 or 1.5 % urea for 40 days (Chauhan and Dahiya, 1993).
Some workers reported non-significant effect of DMI found similar DMI in growing
buffalo calves on diets containing concentrate and wheat straw (control), or urea treated
waste litter replacing 20 and 30 % of diet (Sajjan and Yadav, 1994). Similarly no
difference in feed intake between growing buffalo groups was reported by Shah, et al.
(1990) on diets containing wheat straw untreated or treated with 10 % calcium hydroxide
solution and concentrate.
The findings of some workers were not in line with the results and they found increased
DMI in animals fed treated straw (Virk et al.1993) used impregnated wheat straw with
animal urine (N 4.3 g/litre, 0.7 litre/kg) or treated with urea solution (65 litre/100 kg, urea
4 kg) and found increased DMI with straw treatment. Urea supplements also increased
intake of Rhodes grass by 12 % in buffaloes and 22 % in cattle, and of spear grass by 34
% in buffaloes and 41 % in cattle fed on mature Rhodes grass hay (Chloris gayana) with
a mineral supplement or with a supplement of minerals and urea (17.6 g N/d) and on
mature spear grass hay (Heteropogon contortus) with mineral supplementation at
intervals of 3 h and urea (0, 5, 21 and 97 g/d) and it was also observed that Rhodes grass
was eaten in greater amounts by cattle, whereas buffaloes ate more spear grass (Kennedy,
et al. 1992a).
Ammonia and urea treatment (3 %) increased intake in Barbari lambs by 60 and 30 %,
respectively as studied by Rokbani and Nefzaoui (1993) and intake of ammonia treated
and chopped straw was twice that for untreated straw. Garg, et al. (1990) reported also
found similar results and showed higher (P<0.01) straw intake (g/kg0.75) in UMMB
cxxiii
group (94±2.04) than straw group (83±2.87). UMMB intake was higher (P<0.05) in straw
group (246±17.32) than on UMMB group (185±18.22 g/d).
5.3.3 Water Intake
Water intake per lamb per day was 2.14±1.07, 2.31±1.07, 2.27±1.07, 2.47±1.07 and
2.60±1.07 on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively. Lowest (2.14±1.07) water intake was
observed in T1 fed only Basal feed and highest ranging from 2.47±1.07 to 2.60±1.07 was
on T4 and T5 fed on saltbush substitution (20 and 30%) diets. Water intake of lambs fed
on urea nitrogen substitution diets (T2 and T3) was also higher (2.31±1.07 and
2.27±1.07) than the control (T1) and was lower than the lambs fed on saltbush
substitution diets (Table 5.9). Statistically highly (P<0.01) significant difference was
observed between treatments (Table 5.9).
Table 5.9 Daily water Intake (Lit) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Water Intake (Lit) 2.14±1.07 2.31±1.07 2.27±1.07 2.47±1.07 2.60±1.07
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value
Treatment 4 7.284 1.846 4.08
Error 295 133.356 0.452
Total 299 140.740
On overall basis the lambs fed on saltbush substituted diets showed increased daily water
intake as compared to control (T1) and urea treated diets (T2 and T3). Some workers also
produced supportive findings and reported increased water intake in Awassi wethers
showed 2.9 times higher water intake given diets containing saltbush (Atriplex
barclayana) 477 g, 347 g of pellets containing barley grains and NaCl (3:1) or a control
diet fed the high salt diets (Arieli et al.1989). Significant (P<0.01) difference in water
intake in Teddy goats was reported on Atriplex amnicola alone and in combination with
the sudex diets (Riaz et al. 1994). Gihad (1993) confirmed the results by reporting that
the general reaction of sheep to increasing salt concentration was to increase the volume
cxxiv
of drinking water and at high intakes of salt and concluded that concentrated
supplementary feeds should be offered to livestock given atriplex together with a reliable
water source to maintain a balanced nutritional state.
Addition of salt to the diet had increased water intake relative to controls (P<0.01) with
the addition of salt (0.51 % Na) and 3.0 % bentonite without or with Na (0.49 %) to hay
based pelleted diets (Waghorn, et al. 1994). Water intake increased with the increase of
concentration of sodium chloride in the water and further reported that animals receiving
2.0 % NaCl became very emaciated and even two died (Peirce, 1957). He in another
study (Peirce, 1959) sheep showed increased intake of water with increasing level of salt
mixtures in drinking water. Peirce (1960) concluded that intake of water increases with
the increasing level of mixtures in water in sheep fed on chaffed lucerne and wheaten
hays and offered rain water to drink.
5.3.4 Daily Weight gain
Daily weight gain of Kajli lambs on different treatments ranged from 0.02±0.01 to
0.049±0.01 Kg per head. Highest (0.049±0.01 Kg) weight gain was recorded in lambs on
T2 fed on 20% urea nitrogen followed by T4, T1, T5 and T3, respectively. Weight gains
changes in the lambs fed on saltbush substitution diets (20 and 30%) was comparable
with in lambs fed on control diet (Table 5.10). Statistically significant difference
(P<0.05) in weight gain was observed between treatments (Table 5.10).
Table 5.10 Weight gain (Kg) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Weight gain (Kg) 0.044±0.01 0.059±0.01 0.02±0.01 0.049±0.01 0.033±0.01
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value
Treatment 4 2.641 0.660 1.54
Error 295 126.141 0.428
Total 299 128.781
cxxv
The lambs on 20 % saltbush substituted diets showed comparatively better weight gain
than control but on 30 % saltbush included diets weight gain was decreased and some
researchers also indicated a significant (P<0.01) decrease in weight gain with the increase
in level of Atriplex in the rations and Teddy goats showed slight decrease of body weight
offered 100 % Atriplex amnicola diets but they may be in a more normal situation by
reducing the mineral contents of saltbush by mixing of some other fodders locally
available such as Sudex (Riaz et al. 1994).
Abu-Zanat (2005) reported partially in agreement findings in Awassi lambs receiving the
alfalfa hay diet showed high growth rate compared to those fed the diets containing
different proportions (25, 50 and 75 %) of Atriplex nummularia or Atriplex halimus
mixed with alfalfa hay, treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on live weight changes
of lambs, except for the diet containing 25 % of Atriplex nummularia browse, all lambs
fed diets containing the saltbushes exhibited loss in body weight.
Some workers partially supported the findings and indicated that sheep only maintained
liveweight, despite daily intakes of Atriplex barclayana upto 1200 g DM and tapioca upto
300 g fed atriplex alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d (Benjamin et al. 1992).
Sheep will remain healthy on an exclusive Atriplex vesicaria diet although it may be
difficult to fatten sheep on it (Knowles and Candon, 1951). Harnai lambs in highland
Balochistan can be maintained on fourwing saltbush during winter with a little of extra
protein supplementation of cottonseed cake (Rehman et al. 1989, 1990) and maintained
lambs on fourwing saltbush as winter maintenance browse in comparison with native
range grazing with or without protein and energy supplementation and reported a gain of
0.95 kg in 10 weeks period.
Some researchers reported results in contrast with the finding in the present study and
they found loss of live weight with the high concentration of salt in saltbush (A.
vesicaria) in the diets (Grice and Muir 1988) and sheep on 1 % drinking salt solution lost
weight rapidly when maintained only on saltbush (Wilson, 1975). Leigh and Wilson
(1970) noticed significant increase in weight of sheep grazing on Atriplex nummularia
cxxvi
due to the volume of extra feed produced compared to Danthonia-Stipa grassland and the
bushes were able to sustain stock an extra one to two months into a drought compared to
the grassland.
An adverse effect on sheep health was also observed (Gihad 1993) due to high intake of
salts. At 1.0 % NaCl in water they suffered no ill effects, 1.5 % was detrimental to some
and 2 % was detrimental to all sheep. But Peirce (1957) reported a decline in body weight
of the affected animals and at 2.0 % NaCl became very emaciated and even two died.
Masters et al. (2005) observed significantly decreased liveweight gain with increasing
sodium in the diet.
Higher weight gain was also observed in lambs on urea treated straw diets than control
and this was reported in Barbari lambs showed significantly increased daily gain by
ammonia and urea treatment (3 % ammonia or urea) and daily gain was increased by 60
% with ammonia treated chopped straw given straw ad libitum and barley grain 400 g
was offered to 20 lambs for 100 ds and Rokbani and Nefzaoui (1993) suggested that diets
based on treated or untreated straw were more suitable for feeding to sheep with a low
performance potential or fed at maintenance level.
Urea treatment and fish meal supplementation increased (P<0.001) average daily gain in
growing dairy goats from 3.3±1.5 (urea sprayed rice straw) to 36.9±1.5 g/d (urea treated
rice straw) and from 13.0±1.5 (urea sprayed rice straw + fish meal) to 49.1±1.5 g/d (urea
treated rice straw + fish meal) fed on diets containing urea treated rice straw or urea
sprayed rice straw supplemented with rice bran without or with fish meal and Mgheni et
al. (1993) concluded that urea treatment increased growth due to increased rate and
extent of degradation of urea treated rice straw compared with urea sprayed rice straw
and when a small amount of fish meal was supplemented weight gain and feed
conversion efficiency improved for straws.
Virk et al. (1993) found no difference and reported similar daily body weight gain in all
groups by straw treatment when wheat straw was impregnated with animal urine
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(nitrogen 4.3 g/litre, 0.7 litre/kg straw) or treated with urea solution (65 litre/100 kg
straw, urea 4 kg) and stacked for 3 weeks. Kowalczyk (1994) reported that animals fed
untreated and urea treated straw, offered to appetite or rationed ammoniated straw lost
weight at about 100 g/d. Barbary lambs given to appetite diets of whole or chopped
triticale straw untreated or treated with 3 % ammonia or urea and supplemented with
barley 400 g daily and mean daily gain which was 50 and 52 g for untreated whole and
chopped straw, was increased significantly by ammonia treatment to 80 and 78 g and by
urea treatment to 56 and 69 g (Rokbani and Nefzaoui, 1994).
The daily body weight gain (g/d) buffalo calves was greater (P<0.01) in urea treated
straw plus germinated barley 24 % (640.15) followed by urea treated straw plus acid
(556.80), urea (7.5 %) treated straw (499.99) and untreated wheat straw plus concentrate
mixture, 20 % CP (458.32) and Yadav and Virk (1994).
5.3.5 Dry Matter and Organic Matter Digestibility
Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD) in Kajli lambs were 58.75±.393, 55.75±.393,
57.25±.393, 58.50±.393 and 59.00±.393 % fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively
(Table 5.11). DMD level was highest on T5 having 30 % saltbush in the diet. Statistically
highly (P<0.01) significant difference DMD was observed between treatments (Table
5.11).
Table 5.11 DMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
DMD (%) 58.75± .393 55.75± .393 57.25± .393 58.50± .393 59.00± .393
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value PROB.
Treatment 4 29.300 7.325 11.878 .000
Error 15 9.250 .616
Total 19 38.550
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Organic Matter Digestibility (OMD) in Kajli lambs on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was
63.25±.387, 61.75±.387, 61.25±.387, 63.00±.387 and 63.25±.387 % fed, respectively
(Table 5.12). Statistically highly (P<0.01) significant difference OMD was observed
between treatments (Table 5.12).
Table 5.12 OMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
OMD (%) 63.25±.387 61.75±.387 61.25± .387 63.00± .387 63.25± .387
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value PROB.
Treatment 4 14.000 3.500 5.833 .005
Error 15 9.000 .600
Total 19 23.000
DMD and OMD showed significant differences between treatments and were also higher
in lambs on saltbush substituted diets. Some workers also reported similar DM and OM
digestibilities (0.59 and 0.56) in sheep fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of Atriplex
barclayana (Benjamin, et al. 1992). Bhattacharya (1989) reported OM digestibility of 66,
56 and 53 %, for M. Sativa, H. Persicum and A. Cynanophylla diets 3 commonly browsed
range plants by the desert sheep in Saudi Arabia and and he also reported that A. Halimus
cuttings contained digestibility values being 61, 79 and 39 %, even though the
digestibility of A. Halimus groups was markedly higher than those in M. Sativa group.
The results of the present study were also in line and fall under the same range (50.1 to
87.2 %) reported in halophyte species and the control alfalfa IVOMD was only 64.3 %
and also indicated that halophytes as a group compared favorably to alfalfa and ten
Atriplex species appeared to be far superior to alfalfa in IVOMD (Moore et al. 1982).
Some other researchers reported lowere digestibility values these may be due to varying
species and stage of shrubs (Otsyina and Mckell, 1986) and found 51 % IVDMD in diets
containing shrubs compared with 44 % for diets without shrubs. Abu-Zanat (2005) also
cxxix
reported that dietary treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on DMD (P<0.01) and
OMD (P<0.01) while comparing digestibility of Atriplex halimus and Atriplex
nummularia and reported that inclusion of Atriplex nummularia in the diet up to 50 %
had no significant effect on DMD, whereas the inclusion of A. halimus above 25 %
reduced DMD and OMD and it is possible to replace up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A.
nummularia without negative effects on intake and digestibility of dry matter. Guevara, et
al. (2005) reported lower IVOMD of 47.0 % while assessing some relevant nutritional
parameters for saltbush vs. alfalfa hay.
Acceptable OMD make these Atriplex species a useful alternative forage source in arid
zones as reported by Correal, et al. (1986). Ueckert, et al. (1990) reported that spring A.
Canescens growth having 62 % DMD was readily eaten by yearling Angora goats, fed. A.
Cnescens. Gade and Provenza (1986) reported similar IVOMD in sheep on diets of (a)
Agropyron desertorum and (b) A. Desertorum, Kochia prostrata, Atriplex canescens,
purshia tridentata, artemisia tridentata, Chrysothamnus nauseousus and Ceratoides
(Krascheninnikovia) lanata pastures during the Ist period after which they were higher
for sheep grazing (a). Morcombe et al. (1996) grazed Merino wethers on saltbush forage
and reported about 50 % of edible material was leaf having 70 % DDM and 50 % was
small stems having 40 % DDM.
Some findings were not in line with the results observed in the study and Masters et al.
(2005) reported in contrast results and found decreased digestibility (OMD 59.1 to 57.3
%) in weaner wethers given 3 levels of added potassium and 4 levels of added sodium as
the chloride salts. Abdelhamid (1993) reported no significant differences among diets
although diet having urea 15 g gave the highest nutrient digestibility in Rahmani rams
given dried Egyptian sugarbeet pulp 350 + molasses 250 g; that diet+urea 15 g; dried
sugarbeet pulp 250+berseem hay 350 g and berseem hay 600 g.
Costantini, et al. (1994) also reported in line results that combination of lucerne hay and
fibrous byproducts did not influence OM digestibility. Khan, et al. (1992) reported mean
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digestibility values for DM, 58.7±4.4, %, respectively in adult wethers fed on diets
containing 90 % silage mixture, 5 % molasses and 5 % rice polishings.
Chauhan and Dahiya (1993) also reported increased digestion coefficients with urea
treatment in buffaloes fed maize silage without or with 1 or 1.5 % urea for 40 ds and
concluded that digestibility and nutritive value of maize silage can be greatly improved
with urea treatment. Coskun et al. (1992) reported that digestibility in Merino rams for
DM and OM was 47.74, and 49.22 % for untreated straw and 49.59, and 52.92 % for
aqueous ammonia (25 % NH3) treated straw, respectively.
The findings regarding decreasing trend in digestibility value on urea treated straw
substituted diets were not supported by Ghosh and Amitava (1993) and they reported that
digestibility of DM and OM was higher (P<0.01) in female Black Bengal goats fed urea
and molasses (88:2:10) diets as compared to dried rumen contents, molasses, berseem
hay and dried poultry droppings diets. Sarwar, et al. (1994) also found higher digestibility
and reported DMD of 65.74, 69.30, 68.13 and 67.40 % in buffalo calves fed on
isoenergetic and isonitrogenous diets containing wheat straw treated with water at 100
litres/100 kg or treated with urea solution at 4 % without or with 1 % crushed cowpeas or
crushed soyabeans. Virk, et al. (1993) also reported that digestibility of DM was
improved by treatment of wheat straw in buffaloes. Ben-Salem, et al (2002) reported that
urea treatment of straw increased content of digestible DM, OM, by 100 and 100, g/kg
diet, respectively and further increased when Atriplex nummularia was provided instead
of urea treated straw for sheep in arid and semi-arid zones.
5.3.6 Blood Hematology
RBCs count of Kajli lambs fed in group T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 4.87±.079,
4.47±.079, 5.00±.079, 4.80±.079 and 5.07±.079 106
μl, respectively. Increased RBCs
count was observed in the saltbush substituted groups (Table 5.13). There was significant
(P< 0.01) difference in RBCs was noticed (Table 5.13).
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Table 5.13 RBCs (106
μl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
RBCs (106
μl) 4.87± .079 4.47± .079 5.00± .079 4.80± .079 5.07± .079
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value PROB.
Treatment 4 6.560 1.640 8.616 .000
Error 145 27.600 .190
Total 149 34.160
WBCs count was highest (5.00±.064103 μl) T2 followed by T1, T3, T4 and T5,
respectively. WBCs count was reduced (4.00± .064 and 3.87± .064 103 μl) in the groups
fed on T4 and T5 having saltbush (20% and 30% SN) substituted diets (Table 5.14).
Significant difference (P< 0.01) was observed between treatments (Table 5.14).
Table 5.14 WBCs (103 μl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
WBCs (103 μl) 4.47± .064 5.00± .064 4.37± .064 4.00± .064 3.87± .064
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 4 23.760 5.940 48.117 .000
Error 145 17.900 .123
Total 149 41.660
Hemoglobin values were 9.96± .039, 9.93± .039, 10.00± .039, 9.00± .039 and 9.00± .039
in lambs on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 g/dl, respectively. Hemoglobin level decreased with
the addition of saltbush nitrogen in the diets and in the groups fed urea nitrogen
substituted diets hemoglobin level was also decreased but was comparable to group A fed
on basal feed (Table 5.15). Significant (P< 0.01) difference in hemoglobin was observed
between treatments (Table 5.15).
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Table 5.15 Hemoglobin (g/dl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay
nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Hb (g/dl) 9.96± .039 9.93± .039 10.00± .039 9.00± .039 9.00± .039
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 4 33.706 8.426 178.810 .000
Error 145 6.833 .047
Total 149 40.540
Packed Cell Volume (PCV) was highest (29.03± .219 and 29.00± .219 %) on T5 and T1
and lowest (27.03± .219) on T2. PCV values were equal in the group E fed on 30% SN to
group A fed on basal feed (Table 5.16). There was significant difference (P<0.01) in PCV
between treatments (Table 5.16).
Table 5.16 PCV (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen
substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
PCV (%) 29.00± .219 27.03± .219 28.17± .219 27.87± .219 29.03± .219
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 4 84.173 21.043 14.560 .000
Error 145 209.566 1.445
Total 149 293.740
The findings as observed in the study showed significant diet effect on blood hematology
and these results were supported by Pradhan and Sastry (1989) and they found significant
differences in haematocrit/packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin betwen crops, PCV
and Hb were highest and buffalles given presoaked straw had higher PCV, Hb and
protein than the other treatments over 3 climatic periods in Haryana, India given
concentrate at 1% of body weight, fresh forage 1 kg DM/100 kg body weight and wheat
straw ad libitum alone or presoaked 1:1, mixed with concentates 1:1, or mixed with the
cxxxiii
forage 1:1, fresh forage was green sorghum, green sorghum (mature) and rape Berseem,
respectively.
Some other observations on water-deprived ewes also had higher values for Hb, packed
cell volume and skin temp than controls and pure breeds had lower values Hb and PCV
than the crossbreds, indicating better adaptability of the purebreds (Khalil, et al. 1990).
Abdelhamid, et al. (1993) reported that vitamin A levels positively affected haemoglobin
content, packed cell volume in Rahmani ram lambs fed on a mixture of concentrates:rice
straw+urea 1:2 plus vitamin A. Meintjes and Pearce, et al. (2005) also reported that
plasma α-tocopherol concentrations in sheep fed saltbush increased up to Week 8 and
then decreased until the end of the experiment as availability of saltbush declined
(P<0.05).
Some findings reported (Matras, et al. 1992) were not in line with the study and they
observed that diet had no influence on haematocrit, haemoglobin, or in ewes on diets
containing grass hay or hay with grass silage and concentrate 0.60 kg containing 0 or 60
% faba bean meal. Blood profiles showed no significant diet effects on packed cell
volume, haemoglobin (Abdelhamid, 1993) in mature Rahmani rams given daily (1) dried
Egyptian sugarbeet pulp 350+molasses 250 g; (2) that diet+urea 15 g; (3) dried sugarbeet
pulp 250 + berseem hay (Trifolium alexandrinum) 350 g; (4) berseem hay 600 g. Gill, et
al. (1994) also reported that mean values for haemoglobin, erythrocyte count and packed
cell volume were non significant statistically among five different feeding regimes of
Sudex and Atriplex alone and with different proportions. Mathur et al. (1994) reported no
treatment effects on Hb, PCV, RBC and WBC counts at both stages in male Magra lambs
fed protein (T1), by-pass protein (T2), by-pass protein supplemented with urea (T3) and
protein supplemented with urea (T4) for a period of 360 ds.
5.4 CONCLUSIONS
The findings of the experiment indicated that the lambs fed on saltbush included diets and
urea nitrogen diets showed comparatively better intake, gained more and also the
cxxxiv
digestibility values were comparable to control fed on Lucerne hay based diets. The
blood hematology values also indicated significant differences between treatments.
Therefore it is concluded that the saltbush can be a better substitute for Lucerne based
diets with comparable performance, better digestibility and improved growth. The dried
saltbush leaves and twigs can suitably incorporated upto 30 % in the conventional hay
based diets to increase the nutrient level of the diet especially during drought and feed
shortage periods when no alternate feeds are available in the saline areas.
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CHAPTER 6
EXPERIMENT 3
EVALUATION OF SALTBUSH (Atriplex amnicola) IN
KAJLI LAMBS AS A SUBSTITUTE OF LUCERNE
HAY BASED TOTAL MIXED RATION
Abstract
Kajli lambs experiment was conducted to substitute the Lucerne hay based TMR with
different levels of saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) on 12 Kajli lambs (25±0.1 kg) divided
into three groups of four lambs each using CRD (3x4). The lambs were fed for 35 days
on TMR diet designated as T1 (CGM 20.5, Lucerne hay 60 %, Molasses 18 % and
mineral mixture 1.5 %), T2 (Saltbush hay replaced 30 % Lucerne hay of T1) and T3
(Saltbush hay replaced 45 % Lucerne hay of T1), respectively. DM contents in T1, T2
and T3 were 78.50±.263, 78.75±.263 and 79.75±.263 %, and Crude protein contents were
16.25±.144, 16.00±.144 and 15.00±.144 %, respectively. Crude Fiber level was highest
(16.75±.417 %) in T3 diet having 45 % saltbush included ration followed by T2
(15.25±.417 %) and T1 (14.25±.417 %). Ether Extract contents were 4.75±.250,
4.25±.250 and 4.75±.250 % in T1, T2 and T3 diets, respectively. Ash contents were
highest (13.75±.264 %) in T3 followed by T2 (12.75±.264 %) and T1 (10.50±.264 %).
NFE contents were 35.00±.546, 35.75±.546 and 36.00±.546 % in T1, T2 and T3,
respectively. Statistically in DM (P<0.019), CP (P<0.01), CF (P<0.01), EE (P< 0.311),
Ash (P<0.01) and NFE (P<0.43) differences were observed among treatments. Daily
DMI in Kajli lambs was 0.930±0.025, 0.842±.025 and 0.902±.025 kg in T1, T2 and T3,
respectively. Water intake per lamb per day was 3.434±0.148, 3.135±0.148, 4.009±0.148
on T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Mean weekly weight changes in Kajli lambs was
0.325±0.13, 0.254±0.13 and 0.508±0.13 kg on T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Highest
(72.6±18.2 g) daily weight gain was recorded on T3 followed by T1 (46.4±18.2 g) and
T2 (36.3±18.2 g), respectively. Significant DMI (P<0.045), water intake (P<0.01) and
non-significant weight gain (P<0.34) differences were observed between treatments.
DMD in lambs on T1, T2 and T3was 66.00± .391, 65.25±.391and 65.25±.391 %,
respectively OMD in lambs on T1, T2 and T3was 65.50±.323, 65.00±.323 and 64.25±
.323 %, respectively Non significant DMD (P<0.34) and significant OMD (P<0.06)
difference was noticed among treatments. RBCs count in Kajli lambs was higher on 45 %
saltbush diet (5.082±0.145 106
μl) than control and WBCs count was also higher on 45 %
saltbush diet (4.250 ±0.177 103 μl). Hemoglobin values were 9.063 ±0.244, 8.944 ±0.244,
and 9.150 ±0.244 g/dl on T1, T2 and T3, respectively. PCV was lower on saltbush diets
(26.937±0.64%). Differences between treatments in RBCs (P<0.88), WBCs (P<0.11),
cxxxvi
Hemoglobin (P<0.83) and PCV (P<0.63) were non significant. The lambs on TMR diets
performed in a equally good on saltbush substituted diets and they can be fed on TMR in
the form of pellets or mash having upto 45 % saltbush on dry matter basis inclusion as
leaf meal protein.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Key Words: Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola), DMI, Water intake, Substitution, Lucerne,
TMR, Lambs, Digestibility, RBCs, Hemoglbin, Weight gain,
Composition.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The livestock sector is an integral part of agriculture in Pakistan. The rearing of goat and
sheep provide a significant supply of animal protein in the form of milk and meat
particularly useful for the families of low-income farmers and landless laborers. Pakistan
is earning billions of rupees by exporting leather, leather products, wool and carpets. This
component has earned a worth of Rs. 53 billion in the form of foreign exchange by export
of leather and leather garments. Nearly 50 % of this earning came from small ruminants
(Economic Survey, 2007).
In spite of its great economic significance in our livestock set up and recognized as
provider of more important items of daily food use. Sheep and goat production is badly
affected due to several reasons, out of which mortality and slow growth is mainly due to
inadequate feeding and poor management, health problems, lack of skilled manpower,
lack of financial resources and marketing organization.
Pakistan has great climatic diversity due to variation in topography, altitude, and season.
The country has a total area of 79.6 M. ha with 22.0 M. ha cultivated and rangelands
constitute 60 percent of Pakistan total land area. Most of rangelands are in arid and semi-
arid zones either marginal or are producing 10 to 50 percent of their potential
productivity and characterized by low precipitation and extremes of temperature and low
humidity. Grazing areas are also being denuded day by day due to over grazing, salinity
cxxxvii
and water logging and continuously prevailing drought conditions are the major factors in
deteriorating the soil
There is ample evidence that under-feeding animals results in retardation of growth and
alters the subsequent development of body. Nutritional stress affects the carcass yield and
quality. It has been shown that fasting of lambs for a long period resulted in lower grade
of the carcass. All cuts with the exception of neck were significantly reduced in weight
due to fasting. Such conditions cause a considerable loss in meat production.
Green forage is the most important feed required by the ruminants. In our country, this
resource hardly contributed 24 % of the feed requirement. Feed resource situation is
further aggravated as about 6.28 M ha are affected by salt (Rafiq, 1990), between 2 and 3
M ha are categorised as wasteland due to high salinity and sodicity (Qureshi, et al. 1993),
but could be brought under cultivation by harnessing available water resources, improved
water management, additional surface storage and introduction of better-adapted crops
and livestock. Waterlogging and salinity have devastating social and economic effects on
farming communities in Pakistan (Ijaz and Davidson, 1997), leading to lower standards
of living, migration, health problems, the crumbling of houses, and damage to
communications and transport. These barren soils are bigger source to be developed as
forage resource for feeding to animals.
Mostly pastures, cereal straws, crop residues and other wastes are the major part of
animal diet and these cereal straws are an integral part of animal feed. Cereal straws can
vary greatly but in general these are poor quality feeds because of high ligno-cellulose
and low nitrogen contents (Pearce, et al., 1988). Improvement in the utilization of
fibrous feed resources primarily the natural vegetation might be a solution.
Livestock in Pakistan continue to be under-nourished and most of them survive on a bare
minimum. One of the main constraints for increasing livestock production in the country
is the shortage of economical and balanced rations. A high plan of nutrition hastens the
normal age changes, while a low plan of nutrition and show growth delay these changes.
cxxxviii
Promising results of bio-mass production experiments clearly indicated the future use of
these waste and stress lands as an alternate for the fodder by growing salt tolerant trees
and shrubs. Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) has the ability to flourish on a wide range of soil
types and climatic conditions. Saltbush, on the other hand, has been found to be best
suited to moderately saline areas which are summer moist, but only occasionally
waterlogged and receiving 300 mm to 600 mm of rain annually (Malcolm, 1986).
Providing stocks have access to fresh water, saltbush may provide maintenance feed for
sheep during the autumn feed gap. It also provides useful vegetative cover on erosion-
prone sites.
For making the livestock industry efficient, there is a need of good pastures and
nutritionally balanced and economical feeding arrangements that should meat the
nutritional requirement of animals all year round. All these aspects need detailed
investigations for the efficient utilization of available non-conventional feed resources in
the country to improve the production of small reuminants in the problem soil areas.
There is no doubt about the variations are existing in feed resources and feeding systems
specifically during droughts and severe seasons in farm animals located in different agro-
ecological regions. It is fact that mostly feeding practices are governed by the farmer's
land holdings, socio-economic status and marketing of livestock and their products. So
there is need to conduct intensive studies to determine the area specific feeding
management systems for the landless and small land owners raising small ruminants for
their livelihood in the saline areas. Saltbush and other non conventional feed resources
can be exploited as a part of complete diet designed for small ruminants in the saline
regions. Therefore, studies were conducted to evaluate saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a
substitute of lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration (TMR) in Kajli lambs.
6.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plan of Experiment: Feeding management study was conducted to test the hypothesis
that the Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) can be used as a substitute in the diets of small
ruminants to improve their performance in salt affected areas. The study was conducted
on 12 kajli lambs of approximately same age and weight (25±0.1) divided into three
cxxxix
groups of four lambs each (3x4) according to Completely Randomized Design. Lambs
were ear tagged/ and kept in individual stalls having provision for separate trough for
feed and buckets for water (Fig 6.1).
Pic 6.1 Distribution of lambs to different treatments with individual feed and water
arrangements
The lambs were fed for 35 days excluding two weeks for adjustment on TMR diets
designated as T1 (CGM 20.5, Lucerne hay 60 %, Molasses 18 % and mineral mixture 1.5
%), T2 (Saltbush hay replaced 30 % Lucerne hay of T1) and T3 (Saltbush hay replaced
45 % Lucerne hay of T1), respectively (Table 6.1).
Table 6.1 Distribution of Kajli lambs to different treatments of Lucerne hay based
Total Mixed Ration substituted with Saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 No. of lambs 4 4 4 Feed Ad-libitum Ad-libitum Ad-libitum % Corn Glutten Meal (30 %) 20.5 20.5 20.5 Lucerne Hay 60.0 30.0 15.0 Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) Hay 0.0 30.0 45.0
Molasses 18.0 18.0 18.0
Mineral Mix 1.5 1.5 1.5
Total 100 100 100
The data on daily feed and water intake was recorded for 35 days (3x4x35) and weight
gain was recorded on weekly basis for 6 weeks (3x4x6). The lambs belonging to different
treatments were fed on T1, T2 and T3 diets (Pic 6.2).
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Pic 6.2 Prepared TMR diet having Lucerne hay substituted with different levels of
Saltbush designated as T1, T2, T3 for feeding to Lambs.
Feed Analyses: Four representative feed samples were taken from the dried compsite
for each treatment collected during the experiment for further analysis (3x4). These
samples were grinded and used for determination of Crude Protein, Crude Fiber, Ether
Extract, ash and NFE using laboratory procedure produced in detail in Chapter 3.
Digestibility: For the determination of dry matter and organic matter digestibility the data
on daily feed intake and total feces voided by each animal during last week (7 days) of
experiment were collected (Pic 6.3). The samples of feed and feces voided were
chemically analyzed to calculate digestibility. Four dried samples from the composite
samples for each treatment were used for further analyses to calculate the dry matter and
organic matter digestibility by Dry matter and Organic Matter difference according to
procedure given in Chapter 3.
Pic 6.3 Fecal collection bags adjustment for digestibility estimations
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Blood Hematology: Four times blood samples were collected during the trial and tested
for RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin, and Packed Cell Volume according to procedure given in
Chapter 3.
Data Analyses: The data collected was entered in the Excel Computer soft ware and was
analyzed on Harvey Software using Mixed Model Least Squares and Maximum
Likelihood Computer Program to calculate analysis of variance (ANOVA) for feed
composition (3x4), DMI (3x4x35), water intake (3x4x35), weight gain (3x4x6),
digestibility (3x4) and blood analysis (3x4x4) and means were separated by least
significant difference (LSD) test according to Steel et al. (1997).
6.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
6.3.1 Feed Composition
Grice and Muir (1988) observed that some saltbush species show variation in chemical
composition as a result of change in season and the soil on which the shrubs are growing.
Dry matter content of ration T1, T2 and T3 were 78.50±.263, 78.75±.263 and
79.75±.263 %, respectively (Table 6.2). Dry matter content were slightly higher in T3 fed
45 % saltbush included feed than T1 and T2. On overall basis mean dry matter of rations
was 79.00±.152 %. Statistically there was non significant (P<0.019) difference between
treatments (Table 6.2).
Table 6.2 DM contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration
substituted with different levels of saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
DM (%) 78.50±.263 78.75±.263 79.75±.263 79.00±.152
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 3.500 1.750 6.300 .019
Error 9 2.500 .278
Total 11 6.000
Higher DM contents were found in T3 diet, this may be due higher DM contents of
Saltbush and similarly high (35-55 %) dry matter content of green leaves of 13 species of
trees and shrubs were also reported by Pichard et al. (1988).
cxlii
Crude protein contents were highest (16.25±.144%) in T1 fed on 60 % Lucerne hay
ration followed by T2 (16.00±.144%) fed on 30 % saltbush included ration and T3
(15.00±.144%) fed on 45 % saltbush included ration (Table 6.3). On overall basis crude
protein was 15.75±.0833 %. Significant difference (P<0.01) was observed between
treatments (Table 6.3).
Table 6.3 CP contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration
substituted with different levels of saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
CP (%) 16.25±.144 16.00±.144 15.00±.144 15.75±.0833
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 3.500 1.750 21.000 .0004
Error 9 .750 .083
Total 11 4.250
Pichard et al. (1988) also reported lower CP contents than expected (<12 %) in green
leaves of 13 species of trees and shrubs and these findings were partially in line with the
results of study indicsted variation in CP levels.
Crude Fiber level was highest (16.75±.417 %) in T3 diet having 45 % saltbush included
ration followed by T2 (15.25±.417 %) and T1 (14.25±.417 %). On overall basis Crude
Fiber contents were 15.41±.241 % in all the rations. Highly significant (P<0.01)
difference was noticed statistically among treatments (Table 6.4).
Table 6.4 Crude Fiber (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration
substituted with different levels of saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
CF (%) 14.25±.417 15.25±.417 16.75±.417 15.41±.241
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 12.667 6.333 9.120 .0068
Error 9 6.250 .694
Total 11 18.917
cxliii
Ether Extract Contents: Ether Extract contents were 4.75±.250, 4.25±.250 and
4.75±.250 in T1, T2 and T3 diets, respectively. On overall basis mean EE contents were
4.58±.144 %. Statistically non significant (P<0.311) difference was noted between
treatments (Table 6.5).
Table 6.5 Ether Extract (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration
substituted with different levels of saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
EE (%) 4.75±.250 4.25±.250 4.75±.250 4.58±.144
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 .666 .333 1.333 .3111
Error 9 2.250 .250
Total 11 2.916
Ash contents were varying among treatments and were highest (13.75±.264 %) in T3 fed
on 45 % saltbush substituted ration followed by T2 (12.75±.264 %) having 30 % saltbush
ration and T1 (10.50±.264 %) having 60 % Lucerne hay in the ration. On overall basis
12.33±.152 % ash was noted in all rations (Table 6.6). Highly significant (P<0.01)
difference in ash contents was noticed statistically among treatments (Table 6.6).
Table 6.6 ASH contents (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration
substituted with different levels of saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
ASH (%) 10.50±.264 12.75±.264 13.75±.264 12.33±.152
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 22.167 11.083 39.900 .0000
Error 9 2.500 .278
Total 11 24.667
Nitrogen Free Extract contents were highest (36.00±.546 %) in T3 followed by T2
(35.75±.546 %) and T1 (35.00±.546 %). On overall basis NFE was 35.58±.315 % in all
the rations. Statistically non significant (P<0.43) difference was observed among
treatments (Table 6.7).
cxliv
Table 6.7 NFE (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration
substituted with different levels of saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
NFE (%) 35.00±.546 35.75±.546 36.00±.546 35.58±.315
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 2.167 1.083 .907 .4377
Error 9 10.750 1.194
Total 11 12.917
Crude Protein contents of the diets T3 reduced as compared to the diet T2, this may be
due to lower CP level in the saltbush which reduced the contents when 45 % saltbush
was substituted The CP content of whole dried plants ranged from 6.6 % in A. Amnicola
to 9.2 % in A. Vesicaria as reported by Malcolm et al. (1988) sown 5 Atriplex species in
saline soil in Western Australia. Guevara et al. (2005) compared saltbush and alfalfa hay
and reported mean values of OM 74.7 %; ash 25.3 %; CP 13.6 %; Na 5.6 %; and Cl 7.7
%. Bhattacharya (1989) reported OM, CP and CF contents on a DM basis were,
respectively, 90, 15 and 31 % for M. Sativa, 90, 13 and 30 % for Acacia Cyanophylla and
87, 10 and 37 % for Haloxylon persicum. A. Halimus cuttings contained 73 % OM, 18 %
CP and 24 % CF on DM basis.
The low OM content of 760 g/kg together with its digestibility of 0.56 % resulted in
Atriplex having a low metabolizable energy of 6.28 MJ/kg DM and mean nitrogen
concentration of atriplex DM was 16.6 g/kg when offered leaves, fruits and twigs of
Atriplex barclayana alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d. (Benjamin, et al.
1992). Wilson (1966) concluded that the high ash content of saltbush (20 to 38 %), which
is principally NaC1. Gihad (1993) reported up to 10 % NaCl in saltbush. A.vesicaria
contains around 6 % sodium (Grice and Muir, 1988).
Correal, et al. (1986) for all 4 species of atriplex, DM, OM and protein contents were
31.7, 72.6 and 16.7 %, respectively, consistent protein and energy levels make these
atriplex species a useful alternative forage source in arid zones. Grice and Muir (1988)
cxlv
reported that CP content of saltbush leaf is either comparable to or higher than other
annual and perennial grasses. Morcombe, et al. (1996) reported leaf (8.9 % CP) and
small stems (4.5 % CP) on saltbush forage grazed Merino wethers. Ueckert, et al. (1990)
reported that spring Atriplex canescens growth (16 % CP) was readily eaten by yearling
Angora goats.
James (1978) reported 18.2 % crude protein and 2.2 % calcium in soft twigs of Leucaena
given to goats. Karnezos, et al. (1994) reported that herbage CP were highest for lucerne
(253 g/kg) and lowest for wheatgrass (159 g/kg) and concluded that lucerne or sainfoin
offer greater opportunities for spring lamb production than wheatgrass or wheatgrass
sainfoin pastures.
6.3.2 Dry Matter Intake
Daily Dry matter intake (DMI) in Kajli lambs was 0.930±0.025, 0.842±.025 and
0.902±.025 kg in T1, T2 and T3, respectively (Table 6.8). On overall basis DMI of 0.891
±.015 kg per day was observed. Highest (0.930±0.025) intake was observed in T1 fed on
control diet having 60 % lucerne hay followed by T3 (0.902±.025) and T2 (0.842±.025),
respectively. Generally, decreased DMI was observed with the inclusion of saltbush in
the diets (Table 6.8).
Reduced DMI was observed in the group B having 30 % saltbush diet but there was
increase in the daily intake in group C added 45 % saltbush in the diet, this may be due to
change in the preference of lambs for saltbush leaves. Statistically significant difference
(P<0.045) in DMI was observed between treatments (Table 6.8). While applying Least
Significant Difference it was noticed that there was no difference between the control diet
(T1) and the group fed on 45 % Lucerne hay replaced with saltbush. But intake on T2
having 30 % saltbush diet was less and differed from T1 and T3.
Forage type had a significant (P<0.001) effect on DMI in Awassi lambs given chopped
alfalfa hay, dried foliage of Atriplex nummularia or foliage of Atriplex halimus, lambs
receiving the alfalfa hay diet showed high DMI compared to those fed the diets
cxlvi
containing saltbush and found that inclusion of Atriplex nummularia in the diet up to 50
% had no significant effect on DMI, whereas the inclusion of Atriplex halimus above 25
% reduced DMI as reported by Abu-Zanat (2005) and found that the nutritive value of
Atriplex nummularia foliage is better than that of A. halimus and it is possible to replace
up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without negative effects on intake of dry
matter. Pasternak, et al. (1985) while testing the value of Atriplex nummularia as protein
supplement for sheep grazing on wheat aftermath found that the low feed intake is at
present the main limiting factor in the development of sea water irrigated fodder and
reported 400 g per head daily intake which was effective only with the daily addition of
400 g corn meal per head. Feed intake was unaffected in sheep by salt loading (Meintjes
and Olivier, 1992). Benjamin, et al. (1992) observed that sheep only maintained
liveweight, despite daily intakes of Atriplex up to 1200 g DM and tapioca up to 300 g on
diets of atriplex alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d.
Table 6.8 DMI (kg) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based Total Mixed
Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
DMI (kg) 0.930±0.025 a 0.842±.025 b 0.902±.025 a 0.891 ±.015
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 0.555 0.279 3.124 .0450
Error 417 37.093 0.089
Total 419 37.649
Some researchers (Waghorn, et al. 1994) reported that addition of salt to the sheep diet
had no effect on DMI, but they found increased DMI in the diet with bentonite plus salt
compared with controls (P<0.01). Masters, et al. (2005) reported that increasing sodium
in the diet significantly decreased feed intake weaner wethers. In another study Masters,
et al., (2006) reported depressed feed intake at high salt intakes by grazing ruminants.
Feed intake decreased by about 20 to 30 % at high intakes of salt (Gihad, 1993). Sheep
reduced feed intake on 2 % NaCl (Peirce, 1957).
Clarke (1982) concluded that saltbush can be compared favorably with that from normal
pastures while examining grazing trial on the saltbushes, in terms of the number of
cxlvii
grazing ds possible. Ahmed and Abdelatif (1994) also reported decreased DMI
(g/kg0.75) in adult desert rams with water restriction. Wilson (1975) reported that
wethers halved their feed intake when maintained only on saltbush. Riaz, et al. (1994)
also reported significant decrease in feed intake with the increase in level of Atriplex in
the rations as a result of Atriplex amnicola feeding alone or in combination with the
conventional forage (Sudex) in Teddy goats.
6.3.3 Water Intake
Water intake per lamb per day was 3.434±0.148, 3.135±0.148, 4.009±0.148 in T1, T2
and T3, respectively. Lowest (3.135±0.148) water intake was observed in T2 having
saltbush 30 % replaced lucerne hay and highest in T3 having 45 % saltbush replaced
lucerne hay. On overall basis daily intake of 3.526±1.781 litre was recorded in lambs
during winter period (Table 6.9). Statistically highly significant difference (P<0.01) in
daily water intake was noted between treatments as depicted in Table 6.9.
Table 6.9 Water intake (Lit) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based
TMR substituted with different levels of saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
Water Intake
(Lit)
3.434±0.148 3.135±0.148 4.009±0.148 3.526±1.781
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 55.202 27.601 9.038 .0001
Error 417 1273.460 3.054
Total 419 1328.662
Addition of salt to the diet had increased water intake relative to controls (P<0.01) with
the addition of salt (0.51 % Na) and 3.0 % bentonite without or with Na (0.49 %) to hay
based pelleted diets (Waghorn, et al. 1994). Peirce (1957) reported that sheep maintained
weight on saline drinking water and there was a decline in feed consumption, intake of
water increased with the increase of concentration of sodium chloride in the water and
further reported that animals receiving 2.0 % NaCl became very emaciated and even two
died. Peirce (1960) concluded that intake of water increases with the increasing level of
cxlviii
mixtures in water, respectively fed sheep on chaffed lucerne and wheaten hays and
offered rain water to drink; other groups were offered different levels of mixture of
sodium chloride and sodium sulphate in drinking water. He conducted further experiment
(Peirce, 1966) and reported that a concentration of solution having 0.2 % salts had higher
water intake than that of rain water. Hemsley (1975) reported increased water intake by
two litres per d while studying the effects of the ingestion of large amounts of sodium
chloride (150 g/d) on digestion and absorption in sheep offered a diet consisting of 89 %
linseed meal.
Garg and Nangia (1993) reported increased voluntary water intake in Salt-fed (200 g/d)
buffaloes. Riaz, et al. (1994) also observed significant (P<0.01) difference in water intake
in Teddy goats on Atriplex amnicola alone and in combination with the sudex. Gihad
(1993) reported that the general reaction of sheep to increasing salt concentration was to
increase the volume of drinking water when sheep drank water containing 1.0 % NaCl
they suffered no ill effects, 1.5 % was detrimental to some and 2 % was detrimental to all
sheep. Sheep having high concentration of salt in saltbush diets increase the demand for
fresh water for drinking, particularly in summer sheep on a diet of A. vesicaria would
consume up to 240 g salt per d (Grice and Muir, 1988).
Water intake of Awassi wethers was 2.9 times higher as investigated by Arieli, et al.
(1989) sheep fed at maintenance and given diets containing saltbush (Atriplex
barclayana) 477 g, 347 g of pellets containing barley grains and NaCl (3:1). Benjamin, et
al. (1992) reported apparent water intake of 14 litre/d for an atriplex DMI of about 1300
g/d in sheep fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of Atriplex barclayana and diets offered were
Atriplex alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d.
6.3.4 Weight Gain
Mean weekly weight changes in Kajli lambs was 0.325±0.13, 0.254±0.13 and 0.508±0.13
kg on T1, T2 and T3, respectively (Table 6.10). T3 having 45 % saltbush inclusion diet
achieved highest (0.508±0.13 kg) weekly gain. Daily weight gain of Kajli lambs ranges
from 36.3±18.2 to 72.6±18.2 g per lamb. Highest (72.6±18.2 g) daily weight gain was
cxlix
recorded on T3 diet having 45 % saltbush replaced Lucerne hay followed by T1
(46.4±18.2 g) and T2 (36.3±18.2 g), respectively. Weight gains changes in T3 having 45
% saltbush substitution diet were higher and 30 % saltbush (T2) was comparable to T1
having 60 % Lucerne hay based total mixed ration (Table 6.10). There was non-
significant difference (P<0.34) in weight gain between treatments (Table 6.10).
Table 6.10 Weight gain and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based TMR
substituted with different levels of saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERAL
L
Weekly Weight Gain
(kg)
0.325±0.13 0.254±0.13 0.508±0.13 0.363±0.07
Daily Weight Gain (g) 46.4±18.2 36.3±18.2 72.6±18.2 51.8±11.0
WEEKLY WEIGHT GAIN ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 .826 .413 1.066 .3499
Error 69 26.722 .387
Total 71 27.549
DAILY WEIGHT GAIN ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 0.017 0.008 1.066 .3499
Error 69 0.545 0.007
Total 71 0.562
The high concentration of salt in saltbush (A. vesicaria) diets increase the demand for
fresh water for drinking and limited water supply can result in a loss of live weight (Grice
and Muir, 1988). Sheep on 1 % drinking salt solution lost weight rapidly when
maintained only on saltbush (Wilson, 1975). Significant (P<0.01) decrease in weight gain
with the increase in level of Atriplex in the rations and Teddy goats showed slight
decrease of body weight offered 100 % Atriplex amnicola diets (Riaz, et al. 1994).
Sheep only maintained liveweight, despite daily intakes of Atriplex barclayana upto 1200
g DM and tapioca upto 300 g fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of atriplex alone or with
tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d in a proportion roughly equivalent to that eaten by
sheep grazing freely in atriplex plantations as reported by Benjamin, et al. (1992). Sheep
will remain healthy, produce wool and even lamb on an exclusive Atriplex vesicaria diet
as reported by Knowles and Candon (1951). Harnai lambs in highland Balochistan can be
cl
maintained on fourwing saltbush during winter with a little of extra protein
supplementation of cottonseed cake (Rehman et al. 1989, 1990).
Abu-Zanat (2005) also reported significant (P<0.001) effect on growth rate of Awassi
lambs, receiving the alfalfa hay diet showed high growth rate compared to those fed the
diets containing different proportions (25, 50 and 75 %) of Atriplex nummularia or
Atriplex halimus mixed with alfalfa hay, treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on
live weight changes of lambs, except for the diet containing 25 % of Atriplex nummularia
browse, all lambs fed diets containing the saltbushes exhibited loss in body weight. Leigh
and Wilson (1970) noticed significant increase in weight of sheep grazing on Atriplex
nummularia due to the volume of extra feed produced compared to Danthonia-Stipa
grassland.
Daily weight gain of 178.9, 179.3, 168.5 and 181.4 g in 3 months old precocious lambs
was reported (Kozyr, 1980) on diet containing 60 % concentrate without or with 10, 20 or
30 % hay and with 40, 30, 20 or 10 % silage, respectivley. Parthasarathy, et al. (1983)
reported significantly stimulated daily liveweight gains in supplementary feeding with
forages.
Leucaena supplementation increased weight gain in Blackhead Persian lambs fed on
Chloris gayana hay only ad libitum, hay plus leucaena 100 g, hay plus leucaena 200 g
and hay plus leucaena ad libitum and showed a gain of 13.70, 15.92 and 20.00 g/d more
than on Chloris gayana hay only (Mtenga and Shoo, 1990). Hossain, et al. (1995)
reported average daily liveweight gain in indigenous sheep as 41 g fed on wheat bran,
167 g Leucaena leucocephala leaves and rice straw ad libitum and 70 g on wheat bran,
167 g Leucaena leucocephala leaves and rice straw ad libitum plus free access to lick
blocks and found that supplementation of straw with lick blocks thus facilitates much
faster meat production.
6.3.5 Digestibility
cli
Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD) in lambs on T1, T2 and T3was 66.00± .391,
65.25±.391and 65.25±.391 %, respectively. On overall basis DMD was 65.50±.226 %
(Table 6.11). Digestibility was comparatively higher in lambs on T1having 60 % Lucerne
hay than T2 and T3 included 30 and 45 % saltbush in the diet. Statistically non
significant difference (P<0.34) was noted between treatments (Table 6.11).
Table 6.11 DMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based TMR
substituted with different levels of saltbush.
T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
DMD (%) 66.00± .391 65.25±.391 65.25±.391 65.50±.226
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 1.500 .750 1.227 .3378
Error 9 5.500 .611
Total 11 7.000
Organic Matter Digestibility (OMD) on overall basis was 64.92±.186 % and highest
(65.50±.323 %) OMD was observed in lambs on T1 having control diet followed by T2
(65.00±.323 %) and T3 (64.25± .323%). OMD was lower in saltbush included diets (T2
and T3) and showed decreasing trend with the increased saltbush level in the diet (Table
6.12). Statistically significant (P<0.06) difference was noticed among treatments. Least
significant difference test found differences in all treatments (Table 6.12).
Table 6.12 Organic Matter Digestibility (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on
Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of
saltbush.
T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
OMD (%) 65.50±.323 65.00±.323 64.25± .323 64.92±.186
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 3.167 1.583 3.800 .0636
Error 9 3.750 .417
Total 11 6.917
clii
Mean apparent digestibilities of the Atriplex DM and OM consumed were 0.59 and 0.56,
respectively fed sheep on leaves, fruits and twigs of Atriplex barclayana in a proportion
roughly equivalent to that eaten by sheep grazing freely in Atriplex plantations alone or
with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d and reported that addition of tapioca to Atriplex
did not improve there digestibility (Benjamin, et al. 1992). Bhattacharya (1989) reported
OM digestibility of 66, 56 and 53 %, for M. Sativa, H. Persicum and A. Cynanophylla
diets and he also reported that A. Halimus cuttings respective digestibility values being
61, 79 and 39 %.
The halophyte species IVOMD ranged from 50.1 to 87.2 % (70.8±8.5 %) and the control
alfalfa IVOMD was only 64.3 %, reported that halophytes as a group compared favorably
to alfalfa, and ten Atriplex species appeared to be far superior to alfalfa in IVOMD
(Moore, et al. 1982). Otsyina and Mckell (1986) reported 51 % IVDMD in diets
containing shrubs compared with 44 % for diets without shrubs. Abu-Zanat (2005)
reported that dietary treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on DMD (P<0.01) and
OMD (P<0.01) while comparing digestibility of Atriplex halimus and Atriplex
nummularia and determine the proper proportion of saltbushes for partial replacement of
alfalfa hay in the diets of Awassi sheep and reported that inclusion of Atriplex
nummularia in the diet up to 50 % had no significant effect on DMD, whereas the
inclusion of A. halimus above 25 % reduced DMD and OMD and it is possible to replace
up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without negative effects on intake and
digestibility of dry matter. Guevara, et al. (2005) reported reduced OMD of 47.0 % while
assessing some relevant nutritional parameters for saltbush vs. alfalfa hay.
Acceptable OMD make these Atriplex species a useful alternative forage source in arid
zones as reported by Correal, et al. (1986). Ueckert, et al. (1990) reported that spring A.
Canescens growth having 62 % DMD Angora goats, fed. A. Cnescens alone compared
with those given a 35 % CP concentrate in addition to A. Canescens. Gade and Provenza
(1986) reported similar IVOMD in sheep on diets of (a) Agropyron desertorum and (b)
A. Desertorum, Kochia prostrata, Atriplex canescens, purshia tridentata, lanata pastures
during the Ist period after which they were higher for sheep grazing (a). Morcombe, et al.
cliii
(1996) grazed Merino wethers on saltbush forage and reported about 50 % of edible
material was leaf having 70 % DDM and 50 % was small stems having 40 % DDM.
Masters, et al. (2005) reported that increasing sodium in the diet significantly decreased
digestibility (OMD 59.1 to 57.3 %). Ramirez, et al. (1995a) reported highest IVOMD
(58.6 %) in male Pelibuey x Rambouillet lambs grazed on a Buffelgrass (Cenchrus
ciliaris) dominated pasture.
Abdelhamid (1993) reported no significant differences among diets although diet having
urea 15 g gave the highest nutrient digestibility in Rahmani rams. Muna and Abdelatif
(1992) reported higher digestibility for TDN (P<0.01) with the concentrate diet, however,
CF digestibility was improved with exposure to solar heat load in the sheep consuming
lucerne hay in Desert rams fed on concentrates or lucerne hay in shade or exposed to
direct solar radiation (in July-August).
6.3.6 Blood Hematology
RBCs count in Kajli lambs fed on T1, T2 and T3 diets was 4.979±0.145, 5.033±0.145
and 5.082±0.145 106
μl, respectively (Table 6.13). Increased RBCs count was observed in
the lambs fed on saltbush substituted diets. On overall basis RBCs count in lambs was
5.032±0.084 106
μl. Non significant difference (P<0.88) in RBCs was noticed between
treatments (Table 6.13).
Table 6.13 Red Blood Cells (106
μl) count and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne
hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of
saltbush.
T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
RBCs (106
μl) 4.979±0.145 5.033±0.145 5.082±0.145 5.032±0.084
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 0.085 0.042 0.126 .8823
Error 45 15.152 0.336
Total 47 15.236
cliv
WBCs count was highest (4.250 ±0.177 103 μl) in lambs on T3 diet having 45 % saltbush
diet followed by T2 (3.969±0.177 103 μl) and T1 (3.716 ±0.177 10
3 μl), respectively
(Table 6.14). WBCs count was reduced (3.716 ±0.177 103 μl) in the lambs fed on control
diet (T1). On overall basis WBCs count in lambs was 3.978±0.102 103 μl. Statistically
non significant difference (P<0.11) was observed in WBCs count between treatments
(Table 6.14).
Table 6.14 White Blood Cells (103 μl) count and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on
Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of
saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
WBCs (103 μl) 3.716 ±0.177 3.969±0.177 4.250 ±0.177 3.978±0.102
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 2.281 1.141 2.268 .1152
Error 45 22.633 0.503
Total 47 24.914
Hemoglobin values in lamb blood were 9.063 ±0.244, 8.944 ±0.244 and 9.150 ±0.244
g/dl on T1, T2 and T3, respectively. On overall basis Hemoglobin level in lambs was
3.978±0.102 g/dl (Table 6.15). Hemoglobin level was slightly higher on 45 % saltbush
diet and decreased in the 30 % saltbush and in the lambs on control diet. Non significant
(P<0.83) difference in Hemoglobin level was recorded between treatments (Table 6.15).
Table 6.15 Hemoglobin (g/dl) values and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne
hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of
saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
Hb. (g/dl) 9.063 ±0.244 8.944 ±0.244 9.150 ±0.244 9.052 ±0.141
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 0.343 0.171 0.179 .8364
Error 45 43.017 0.955
Total 47 43.359
clv
Packed Cell Volume was highest (27.750 ±0.64 %) in lambs on T1 and lowest (26.937
±0.64 %) on T3 diet having 45 % saltbush. On overall basis PCV value was 27.250±0.37
%. Non significant (P<0.63) difference in PCV was recorded between treatments (Table
6.16).
Table 6.16 Packed Cell Volume (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay
based Total Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL
PCV (%) 27.750 ±0.64 27.063 ±0.64 26.937 ±0.64 27.250±0.37
ANOVA
SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.
Treatment 2 6.125 3.063 0.471 .63
Error 45 292.875 6.508
Total 47 299.000
The lambs fed on different levels of saltbush substitution in Lucerne hay based TMR
showed little higher levels of RBCs and WBCS on saltbush included diets but the
findings of the study regarding blood hematicrits were non-significant statistically
between treatments. The findings of another researcher were also completely in
agreement reported in goats on five different feeding regimes of Sudex and Atriplex
alone and with different proportions that mean values for haemoglobin, erythrocyte count
and packed cell volume were non significant statistically (Gill, et al.1994). Abdelhamid
(1993) also supported the study by reporting that blood profiles showed no significant
diet effects on packed cell volume and haemoglobin in mature Rahmani rams given daily
(1) dried Egyptian sugarbeet pulp 350+molasses 250 g; (2) that diet+urea 15 g; (3) dried
sugarbeet pulp 250 + berseem hay 350 g; (4) berseem hay 600 g.
Mathur, et al. (1994) also reported similar findings and reported no treatment effects on
Hb, PCV, RBC and WBC counts in male Magra lambs fed protein (T1), by-pass protein
(T2), by-pass protein supplemented with urea (T3) and protein supplemented with urea
(T4) for a period of 360 ds. Diet had no influence on haematocrit, haemoglobin, in ewes
clvi
on diets containing grass hay or hay with grass silage and concentrate 0.60 kg containing
0 or 60 % faba bean meal (Matras, et al. 1992).
Pradhan and Sastry (1989) reported in contrast results and found significant differences in
haematocrit/packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin, betwen crops and climatic periods
in buffaloes in Haryana, India given concentrate at 1% of body weight, fresh forage 1 kg
DM/100 kg body weight and wheat straw ad libitum alone or presoaked 1:1, mixed with
concentates 1:1, or mixed with the forage 1:1, fresh forage was green sorghum, green
sorghum (mature) and rape berseem in the hot, hot humid and cold period, respectively.
6.4 CONCLUSIONS
The results indicated that the dry matter contents and crude protein contents were similar
in saltbush diets and Lucerne hay based TMR. The inspite of taking less dry matter
showed quite better weight gain or at least performed in similar pattern as the lambs on
Lucerne hay based TMR. The lambs on saltbush included diets also showed similar dry
matter digestibility and organic matter digestibility and there were non-significant
differences in DMD and significant differences between treatments in OMD. It is
concluded that Kajli lambs on TMR diets performed in a equally good on saltbush
substituted diets and they can be fed on TMR in the form of complete diet pellets or mash
having upto 45 % saltbush inclusion as leaf meal protein.
clvii
CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY
To achieve the objective of exploring new feed resources for appropriate feeding of farm
animals to fill the feed scarcity periods, it was assumed that Saltbush can be used as an
alternate feed for large and small ruminants in the salinity affected areas. To exploit the
potential feeding value of Saltbush, three experiments were conducted to use Saltbush
(Atriplex amnicola) as dietary forage for Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers and Kajli lambs at
Livestock Experiment Station, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan.
Nili-Ravi Buffalo Heifers feeding management study (Experiment 1) was conducted
to see the effect of conventional fodder substitution with saltbush during different seasons
on their performance. Fifteen buffalo heifers of approximately same weight (120±2 kg)
allotted to five treatments (T) according to Latin Square Design (5x5x5) designated as
T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 having Mott, Berseem, Mott+Saltbush, Berseem+Saltbush and
Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, respectively. Mean maximum temperature during different
periods (P) designated as P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 20.76±1.75, 22.62±1.75, 24.51±1.75,
37.67±1.75 and 40.98±1.75˚C, respectively.
Mean DM contents were higher in saltbush combination diets than conventional fodder
alone and were higher during high temperature periods. Crude protein contents were
highest in Berseem fodder followed by saltbush combination diets and lower in Mott
grass. Crude protein contents were comparatively higher during mild season than during
severe winter and summer. Crude fibre contents were higher on saltbush included diets
and in Mott fodder. On overall basis during severe winter and summer, crude fibre
contents were also higher. EE contents showed increasing trend during mild seasons and
were higher in Berseem fodder and saltbush combination with Berseem diets. Ash
contents were higher during summer than winter and mild seasons. Diets showed higher
ash contents in saltbush included diets.
clviii
DMI was higher during mild seasons and heifers showed comparatively higher intake on
Berseem and saltbush combination diets. Daily water intake increased during summer
and also on saltbush included diets. Heifers showed higher gain on Berseem fodder and
saltbush combination diets and also higher during mild seasons. DMD was higher on
saltbush included diets and during mild seasons. OMD was better during mild season and
lower during severe seasons. OMD was comparatively higher on Berseem alone and
Berseem with saltbush diets than on other diets. Heifers showed significant difference
(P<0.05) in RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin and PCV between treatments and period.
The Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers showed comparable intake and gain on diets having
inclusion of Saltbush with conventional fodders especially performed better on
Berseem+Saltbush diets during winter season. Performance of heifers was also better on
saltbush combination diets having Mott+Saltbush and Berseem+Mott+Saltbush
combinations in the diets during suumer season. The growth performance of Nili-Ravi
buffalo heifers can be improved by using Saltbush leaves and twigs in fresh form as part
of conventional fodders upto 50 % during different seasons. Saltbush can be used as an
alternate forage source when conventional fodders are short and their nutrient contents
are less during severe winter and summer seasons. The continuous supply of better feed
to such neglected heifers raised in saline areas can be maintained to achieve early growth
and sexual maturity.
Lucerne hay based Kajli lambs trial (Experiment 2) was conducted to substitute the
Lucerne hay nitrogen with different levels of urea treated straw and saltbush nitrogen on
30 Kajli lambs divided into five groups of six lambs each using CRD (5x6) fed for ten
(10) weeks on 70% Lucerne hay and 30% wheat straw (T1), urea nitrogen replaced 20%
T1 nitrogen, urea nitrogen replaced 30% T1 nitrogen, Saltbush nitrogen replaced 20% T1
nitrogen and saltbush nitrogen replaced 30% T1 nitrogen designated as T1, T2, T3, T4
and T5, respectively.
Dry matter and CP contents were higher on Saltbush included diets as compared to
control and urea nitrogen diets. Crude fiber contents were higher in urea substituted diets
clix
followed by saltbush and Lucerne based diets. Higher EE contents in T4 and T5 having
saltbush (20 and 30 %) in the diets. Saltbush included diets showed higher Ash contents
as compared to urea nitrogen and Lucerne based control diet. Statistically differences in
DM, CF, Ash and NFE were significant (P<0.01) and CP and EE were non significant
between treatments.
Daily DMI was slightly higher on saltbush included diets than urea included and control
diets. DMI in lambs on urea substituted diets was lower than control. DMI was
significant (P<0.05). Daily water intake was increased on saltbush substituted diets and
lambs on urea diets also showed higher intake than control. Significant (P<0.01)
difference in water intake was observed between treatments. Daily weight gain on T1,
T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 0.044±0.01, 0.059±0.01, 0.02±0.01, 0.049±0.01 and 0.033±0.01
kg, respectively. Significant difference (P<0.05) in weight gain was observed between
treatments. DMD and OMD were similar in saltbush substituted and control diets but
higher than urea treated diets. Significant difference (P<0.01) in OMD was observed
between treatments. RBCs count of Kajli lambs fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was
4.87±.079, 4.47±.079, 5.00±.079, 4.80±.079 and 5.07±.079 106
μl, and WBCs count and
hemoglobin values were higher on control and urea substituted diets than saltbush
included diets. PCV values in lambs were similar in control and saltbush included diets
but higher than urea treated diets. Significant (P<0.01) difference in RBCs, WBCs,
hemoglobin and PCV was observed between treatments.
The findings of the experiment indicated that the lambs fed on saltbush included diets and
urea nitrogen diets showed comparatively better intake, gained more and also the
digestibility values were comparable to control fed on Lucerne hay based diets. The
blood hematology also indicated significant differences between treatments. Therefore it
is concluded that the saltbush can be a better substitute for Lucerne based diets with
comparable performance, better digestibility and improved growth. The dried saltbush
leaves and twigs can suitably be incorporated upto 30 % of feed nitrogen in the
conventional hay based diets to increase the nutrient level of the diet especially during
drought and feed shortage periods in the saline areas.
clx
Lucerne hay based TMR in Kajli lambs trial (Experiment 3) was conducted to
substitute the Lucerne hay based TMR with different levels of saltbush on 12 Kajli lambs
divided into three groups of four lambs each using CRD (3x4). The lambs were fed for 35
days on TMR diet designated as T1 (CGM 20.5, Lucerne hay 60, Molasses 18 and
mineral mixture 1.5 %), T2 (Saltbush hay replaced 30 % Lucerne hay of T1) and T3
(Saltbush hay replaced 45 % Lucerne hay of T1), respectively.
Dry matter contents were non significant (P<0.019) and significant difference (P<0.01) in
CP was observed between treatments. Crude Fiber level was highest (16.75±.417 %) in
T3 diet having 45 % saltbush included ration followed by T2 and T1. Highly significant
(P<0.01) difference was noticed statistically in crude fiber among treatments. Ether
Extract contents were similar in Lucerne hay based and 45 % saltbush included diets but
difference was non significant (P<0.311) between treatments. Ash contents were highest
in T3 having 45 % saltbush in the diet followed by T2 and T1 and found significant
(P<0.01) difference in ash contents among treatments. NFE contents were higher in 45 %
saltbush substituted diet but differences were non significant (P<0.43).
Daily DMI in Kajli lambs was higher (0.930±0.025 kg) on T1 followed by T3 and T2,
respectively and difference was significant (P<0.045). Daily water intake was higher on
45 % saltbush as compared to T1 and T2 and differences were significant difference
(P<0.01). Highest (72.6±18.2 g) daily weight gain was recorded on T3 followed by T1
and T2, respectively. Non-significant difference (P<0.34) in weight gain between
treatments was observed. DMD and OMD were higher (66.00± .391 and 65.50±.323 %)
in lambs on T1 and same on T2 and T3. Differences in DMD were non significant
(P<0.34) and OMD was significant (P<0.06). Differences between treatments in RBCs
(P<0.88), WBCs (P<0.11), Hemoglobin (P<0.83) and PCV (P<0.63) were non
significant.
The results indicated that the dry matter contents and crude protein contents were similar
in saltbush diets and Lucerne hay based TMR. Kajli lambs gained better weight or at least
performed in similar pattern as on Lucerne hay based TMR. The lambs on saltbush
clxi
included diets also showed comparable DMD and OMD. It is concluded that Kajli lambs
on TMR diets performed equally good on saltbush substituted diets and can be fed on
TMR in the form of complete pelleted diet or mash having upto 45 % saltbush inclusion
as leaf meal protein.
It is further suggested that growing animals especially the heifers and small ruminants in
the saline areas needs special attention concerning the feeding management during
drought spells to maintain their performance. This is only possible if alternate feed
resources like saltbush (commonly available in these areas) is given due importance
while propagation, harvesting/lopping, procurement and utilization in different
combinations and forms with conventional feeds and forages. The best proposed way to
use this potential shrub (saltbush) is only to dry the leaves and soft twigs and use upto 45
% in the conventional diets on dry matter basis. It will be more appropriate to have
complete formulated diets (TMR) in the form of pellet or thoroughly mixed mash diets.
clxii
CHAPTER 8
RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
The findings of the three studies clearly indicated that the conventional feeds can be
substituted with saltbush. The heifers and growing lambs also showed performance
comparable on saltbush substituted diets in fresh, dried and TMR forms to conventional
forages and Lucerne hay based diets. It was also found that saltbush in the green form can
be added in the conventional fresh fodders upto 50 % to maintain production in Nili-Ravi
heifers and dried saltbush leaves and twigs upto 45 % in Kajli Lambs. Saltbush was
found to be a better choice especially during drought conditions in saline areas and its
availability can be improved through cultivation of saline patches with improved type
saltbush (Atriplex amnicola).
It was also observed that saltbush value can be further improved if some soaking or
processing is devised to minimize the salt contents from the leaves and twigs before
feeding to the animals, this will improve the nutrients and palatability. So the dried
saltbush leaves are having greater scope to be used as part of conventional browse, stall
diets and Total Mixed Rations in the saline areas especially alongwith other grain or
energy sources. It can also be produced and used as an emergency feed to be used during
severe seasons and drought spells to maintain the livestock condition score.
It was further observed that more precise investigations are needed to be conducted in
future for the development and management of feed resource in these problem areas.
1. Strategies need to be devised to minimize the salt contents in the saltbush
through soaking and other techniques.
2. Improved agronomic practices be studied and introduced to increase the
quality and production of forage bio-mass per unit area.
clxiii
3. Possibility of involving commercial enterpreneures be investigated and
encouraged for feasible leaf meal added formula feed production and
utilization
4. Studies on economic feasibility of saltbush feed production through
farmer cooperatives.
5. Studies on production and feeding management economics under different
farming conditions.
6. Research investigations should be further conducted to screen the blood
metabolites including mineral profile in different species of animals and
on different feeding levels.
7. Farmer awareness and encouragement possibilities may also be studied.
8. Socio-economic problem oriented case studies may also be considered for
further investigations.
clxiv
Feb 1, 2009
Heading Detail
FIRST Caps,
Bold,
Center
CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENT 1
EVALUATION OF SALTBUSH (Atriplex
amnicola) AS A SUBSTITUTE OF
CONVENTIONAL FODDERS DURING
VARIOUS SEASONS IN NILI-RAVI
BUFFALO HEIFERS
SECOND Caps,
Bold,
L justified
Numbered
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Third Sen Case
Bold
Left J
Numbered
4.3.3 Dry Matter Intake (DMI)
Fourth Sen Case
Bold,
Italics
Left J
Un #
Feed Analyses:
Digestibility:
Blood Hematology
Fifth Un-Bold,
Italics
Left Just
No #
Wth P
Feed Analyses:
Digestibility:
Blood Hematology:
clxv
CHAPTER 9
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clxxviii
A BRIEF CV
Mr Jalees Ahmad Bhatti was born to Mr Abdul Ghani Bhatti at Changa Manga, Distt
Kasur on April 4, 1962 making his brothers and sister to nine. He passed his
Matriculation examination in 1979 from Government High School, Chunian. He did his
F.Sc. from Government Faridia College, Pak Pattan. Later he joined the University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad (UAF) in Dec 1981 to earn his B.Sc. (Hons.) Animal Husbandry
degree in 1984 from the Faculty of Animal Husbandry, UAF. He qualified his M.Sc.
(Hons.) Livestock Management under the supervision of Prof Dr Raza Ali Gill in 1988.
He joined as Lecturer in the Dept of Livestock Management, Faculty of Animal
Husbandry, and also started his doctoral program in the same year. He taught under- and
post-graduate classes at this Campus till 1998 and earned a lot of academic distinctions
and awards. He joined as Research Fellow in 1988 in the Dept and worked in different
capacities in FSR/MART Program (USAID), ACIAR Australian Project, Fodder and
Seed Production (FAO/PARC) focusing improvement of livestock productivity through
selection and transfer of technology (PARB) and as Principal Investigator in Utilization
of Forage Shrubs by Animals (ACIAR) project till he moved to Lahore in 1998.
Having moved to the then College of Veterinary Sciences (CVS) Lahore, he continued
his teaching and research with the same zeal and devotion. The College was raised to a
status of University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences (UVAS), Lahore in 2002, he was
elevated to the post of Assistant Professor in 2003 in the Dept of Livestock Production
where he is working till today in the same capacity. Due to his protracted illness, his
doctoral program was delayed. Soon after his recovery, he has done extremely well to
expedite his PhD program. Despite his ailing health and weakness, he retuned back to
UAF to complete his PhD in 2007-08 under the supervision of Prof Dr Muhammad
Younas. Since then he tried his best to complete his dissertation to earn his PhD degree
for which he is a candidate now.
February 3, 2009