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Promotion and adoption of Conservation Agriculture
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Understanding adoption and promotion of CA
Experiences in Laikipia County
Freddy van HulstSupervisors: H. Posthumus
J. Morton
Nairobi, June 2014
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Contents
• IntroductionMy backgroundCA and smallholder farming
• The adoption of CAReasoned action approach
• The promotion of CASome observations
• DiscussionCA in Kenya
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My background
• Wageningen University (The Netherlands)MSc: Land Degradation and Development
Modelling soil erosion under CA and conventional
MSc: Rural Development SociologyFarmers’ dreams and objectives in rural development
• University of Greenwich (United Kingdom)PhD: Combination of technical + social perspectives in Conservation Agriculture
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Conservation Agriculture
• Minimum soil disturbance
• Permanent soil cover– Mulch– Cover Crops
• Crop Rotations
• Agro-ecological principles• Africa’s Green
Revolution?
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Small-scale farming
• 97% of all the farms in the world are family farms (500 million households)
• 70% of the active farmers are women
• They produce about 50% of the food consumed by humans, farming on 20% of the land
Cassidy et al., 2013 Ecological letters 8
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Why CA for small-holders?
Advantages at field level
• Labour and cost reduction• Erosion control• Nutrient cycling• Increasing soil biology activity• Improving water balance• C and N input in soils• Forage production• Pest and disease control• Etc.
Global level agenda:1. Crop production intensification2. Sustainability of ecosystem services
of agriculture
ABACO: “to combat soil degradation and food insecurity”
CA4CC:For Climate Change adaptation and CC resilient agricultureWe can agree:
CA for improved, sustainable livelihoods
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What are reasons for farmers (not) to choose CA?
The adoption process
Delivery aspect
Adoption process
Uptake aspect
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Methodology
FFS members
Non-FFS members
CropsMaize
/beansPotatoes
Sample4 FFS (n=32)
Non-FFS(n=62)
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Conventional approach: determinants of behaviour
perception
decision
effort
cognitive
normative
conative
environmental factors
economic factors
institutional factors
personal factors
Innovation diffusion
Economic constraints
Adopter perception
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MethodologySocial psychology
ActionIntention
Attitude towards action
Outcome beliefs
Social normsSocial beliefs
Perceived control
Control beliefs Actual
control
Willing
Stimulated
Capable
Reasoned Action Approach
•Ploughing•Direct Planting•Spraying Herbicides •Shallow Weeding•Mulching•Etc.
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Results and discussion
Intention
Attitude
Injunctive Norm
Descriptive Norm
Perceived Control
-2 -1 0 1 2
Direct Planting
FFS members
Non-FFS members
*******ns***
*** = p<0.001, * = p<0.05; ns = not significant.
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ResultsAction: Attitude
towards behaviour
Perceived Behavioural Control
Often heard remarks from farmers
Direct planting: X X • How can it work? (A)• Which tools to use? (PBC)
Ploughing X • We have always ploughed (A)
• Equipment is available (PBC)
Shallow weeding X • Traditional practice (A)• Not effective (A)
Spraying herbicides
X X • Which Herbicide? (PBC) • When to apply? (PBC)• Effects on soil? (A)
Mulching X • Competing uses (PBC)• Increase in pests (A)
Cover Crop X X • Which variety to use? (PBC)
• Planting between maize? (A)
Crop Rotation X • My land is too small (PBC)• It keeps the soil fertile (A)
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ResultsAction: Attitude Control Remarks
Direct planting: X X • How can it work? • Which tools to use?
Ploughing X • We have always ploughed• Equipment is available
Shallow weeding X • Traditional practice• Not effective
Spraying herbicides
X X • Which Herbicide? • When to apply? • Effects on soil?
Mulching X • Competing uses• Increase in pests
Cover Crop X X • Which variety to use? • Planting between maize?
Crop Rotation X • My land is too small• Big potential!
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How is CA promoted?
The adoption process
Delivery aspect
Adoption process
Uptake aspect
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Promotion of CA
Tittonel et al. 2012
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Focus Groups: learning
• It saves time• It saves money• You can plant
early• Better yields• Strong plants• Less weeds• Soft, fertile soils• More moisture
• No equipment• It costs money• More weeds• Hard, infertile
soils• Less moisture People hold different, sometimes contradicting beliefs about CA
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Two examples of CA. Picture taken at the same day, in areas of similar rainfall. Will both farmers have the same attitude towards CA after this season? No. It is the perceived effects that inform beliefs.
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Learning and CA
• “Blame the student” – Farmers as ignorant, backward, lazy etc.
• “Blame the teacher” – No extension, no inputs, project too short, no
follow-up of projects, etc.
• Rather: improve learning together– From “Instrumental” to “communicative” rationale
(Habermas)
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Focus Groups: challenges
• Farming challenges fit with CA solutions:– Irregular rains– Lack of credit– Pests and diseases potential for CA?
• Gender and CA– Farm management decisions made by men
• Invite ♂ & ♀ to trainings
– Less costs (benefits ♂), Less labour (benefits ♀)– Fertile soils, more production (♂ & ♀)
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Conclusions
• Willingness, capability and social acceptance explain intention to do CA practices
• Training and learning is keyIt influences both perceived control and attitudes.
• Respect farmers’ social independence• Broad Innovation Systems perspective needed• Move from Instrumental to communicative
thinking in connecting promotion and adoption
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Understanding adoption and promotion of CA
Experiences in Laikipia County
Freddy van Hulst
Thank you!
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Discussion• Is there a future for CA in Kenya?
• How to change attitudes? – Experimenting, exposure to new ideas
• How to change ability? – Knowledge is essential– Include all actors (tools, marketing, etc.)– Experimenting
• How to respect farmers’ social independence? – Creating the Capabilities for change
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FFS members
Non-FFS members
*** = p<0.001, ** = p<0.01, * = p<0.05; ns = not significant.
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Methodology: questionnaire
(future) IntentionVery unlikely
PossibleVery
likely
AttitudeVery foolish
NeutralVery wise
Important others think
I should not plough
They have no opinion
I should plough
Important others plough
Very few ModeratelyVery
many
Control: ploughing is
Very difficult
AverageVery easy
Example. ...ploughing on your land, in the long rain season 2014:
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Literature• Social Psychology, the Reasoned Action Approach
Fishbein, Martin, and Icek Ajzen. 2010. Predicting and Changing Behavior; the Reasoned Action Approach. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
• Targeting technology, and innovation systems:
Tittonell, Pablo, E. Scopel, N. Andrieu, H. Posthumus, P. Mapfumo, M. Corbeels, G.E. van Halsema, et al. 2012. “Agroecology-based Aggradation-conservation Agriculture (ABACO): Targeting Innovations to Combat Soil Degradation and Food Insecurity in Semi-arid Africa.” Field Crops Research 132 (June): 168–174. doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2011.12.011.