Project Management Tools & Techniques

Module 5: Project Quality Management

Quality Management

• Quality is the degree to which the project fulfills requirements.

• Quality Management includes creating and following policies and procedures in order to ensure that a project meets the defined needs it was intended to meet from the customer’s perspective.

• Completing the project with no deviation from the project requirements, simple!

Project Quality Management – Some Perspectives• Customer satisfaction

• Quality is all about meeting the expectations and requirements of the customer and stakeholders and creating a product that fulfills those needs and is fit for its intended use.

• Prevention• Quality is achieved by planning, designing, and building it into a product or process

from the inception

• Management responsibility• It’s up to the project team to ensure the success of quality efforts but it is up to

organizational management to provide the financial resources needed for quality efforts to succeed.

• Continuous improvement• Quality and process improvement relies on the ongoing plan-do-check-act cycle

Quality Management: Important points to Remember• Customer Satisfaction

• Conformance to requirement• Fitness for use: product/service produced must satisfy real needs

• Prevention Over Inspection• Quality is planned in, not inspected in• Cost of preventing mistakes < cost of correcting

• Continuous Improvement (Kaizen)• Plan, Do, Check and Act is the basis of quality improvement• Using quality improvement initiatives e.g. TQM, 6 sigma• Using process improvement models e.g. OPM3, CMMI, Malcolm Baldrige

• Management Responsibility• To provide the resource needed to succeed

Quality vs. Grade

• Quality is the degree to which the characteristics of a product meet the demands or expectations of the project. Or

• Simply, Quality is conformance to the requirements. It includes the product and the customer’s requirements.

• Grade, “is a category or rank assigned to products or service having the same functional use but different technical characteristics.”

• For example, there are different grades of paint, different grades of metal, and even different grades of travel.

Quality vs. Grade?

Quality vs. Grade?

Quality vs. Grade – Some Important Points!• Low quality does not equal to low grade

• Low quality is not acceptable

• Low grade is never a problem and it is acceptable

• A product or service, regardless of its grade must be of high quality.

Accuracy and Precision

• Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual (true) value.• It is the measure of exactness.

• Precision is how close the measured values are to each other. • It is an assessment of correctness.

Accuracy Vs. Precision

Quality Concepts

• Gold Plating: Giving the customer extras. This practice is not recommended.

• Marginal Analysis: Looking for the point where benefits/revenue to be received from improving quality EQUALS the incremental cost to achieve that quality

• Just in Time (JIT): Just when they are needed or just before they are needed. It forces attention on quality practices.

• Total Quality Management (TQM): Company & their employees focus on finding ways to continuous improve the quality of their business practices & products.

Project Quality Management Processes• Plan Quality Management—The process of identifying quality

requirements and standards for the project and its deliverables and documenting how the project will demonstrate compliance with quality requirements.

• Perform Quality Assurance—The process of auditing the quality requirements to ensure that appropriate quality standards and operational definitions are used.

• Control Quality—The process of monitoring and recording results of executing the quality activities to assess performance and recommend necessary changes.

Plan Quality

• Plan quality management is the process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards for the project and the deliverables and documenting how the project will demonstrate compliance with relevant quality requirements.

• What is quality? How will we ensure it?

• Provides guidance and direction on how quality will be managed and validated throughout the project.

Plan Quality: Inputs

• Scope Baseline: The product scope often contains details of technical issues and other concerns that can affect quality planning

• Stakeholder register: Identify stakeholders possessing a particular interest in, or having an impact on, quality

• Requirements Documentation: The components of the requirements documentation include project (and product) quality requirements.

• Risk register: Risk register contains information on threats and opportunities that may impact quality requirements.

• Enterprise Environmental factors: • Government agency regulations• Rules, Standards and guidelines• Working or operating conditions

• Organizational process assets: • Organizational quality policy, procedures, guidelines• Historical database

Plan Quality Management – Tools & Techniques• Cost-benefit Analysis• Cost of Quality (COQ)• Seven Basic Quality Tools• Benchmarking• Design of Experiments• Statistical Sampling• Additional Quality Tools

Cost-Benefit Analysis

• Quality planning must consider cost-benefits tradeoffs.

• The primary benefit of meeting quality requirements is less rework, which means:

• Higher productivity• Lower costs• Increased stakeholder satisfaction

• The primary cost of meeting quality requirements is the expense associated with Project Quality Management activities.

Cost of Quality

• Quality costs are the total costs incurred by:• Investment in preventing nonconformance to requirements• Appraising the product or service for conformance to requirements• Failing to meet requirements (rework).

• Failure costs are also called cost of poor quality.

• Failure costs are often categorized into internal and external.

.. should be less then..

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Cost of Conformance Cost of Nonconformance

Quality training Rework/Repair

Quality audit Scrap

Studies, Surveys Inventory cost

Effort to ensure everyone knows the process to use to complete their work Warranty cost

Quality staff Lost business

Benchmarking

• Involves comparing actual or planned project practices to those of other projects.

• This is to generate ideas for improvement and to provide a basis by which to measure performance.

• These other projects can be within the performing organization or outside of it, and can be within the same or in another application area.

Design of Experiments

• Technique uses experimentation (testing) to statistically determine what variable will improve quality (Test script)

• It is a statistical method that can help make processes and products more efficient by mathematically simulating changes all at once to the variables affecting the process. The results can then be viewed to see how the changed factors not only influence the end result but how the factors relate to each other.

Statistical Sampling

• Choosing part of a population of interest for inspection.• Look at a subset of a population in order to determine a

measurement sampling.• We need it since studying entire population would take too long, too

much cost, be too destructive.• Depending upon the industry or project area, significant knowledge

about probability and statistical techniques may be required by the project team.

Ishikawa’s 7 Basic Tools of Quality

• Kaoru Ishikawa developed seven basic visual tools of quality so that the average person could analyze and interpret data.

• These tools have been used worldwide by companies, managers of all levels and employees.

Cause and Effect Diagram (Fishbone)• The cause and effect diagram is also called the Ishikawa diagram or

the fishbone diagram.• It is a tool for discovering all the possible causes for a particular

effect.• The major purpose of this diagram is to act as a first step in problem

solving by creating a list of possible causes.

Constructing a Cause and Effect Diagram• First, clearly identify and define the problem or effect for which the causes must

be identified. Place the problem or effect at the right or the head of the diagram.• Identify all the broad areas of the problem.• Write in all the detailed possible causes in each of the broad areas.• Each cause identified should be looked upon for further more specific causes.• View the diagram and evaluate the main causes.• Set goals and take action on the main causes.

Flow Charts

• A graphical representation of a process showing the relationships among process steps.

• It can help project to identify the points where quality problems might occur and may cause failures.

• Preventive or corrective measures can be taken to avoid problems.

Checksheets

• A check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data.

• Also known as tally sheets are used to organize facts in a manner that will facilitate the effective collection of useful data about a potential quality problem.

• They are especially useful when data can be observed and collected repeatedly by the same person or at the same location.

• For example, data about the frequencies or consequences of defects collected in checksheets.

Check Sheet Example

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• Simple data check-off sheet designed to identify type of quality problems at each work station; per shift, per machine, per operator

Check Sheet Example

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Appliance Department ComplaintsLate Wrong Faulty Total Units %

Month delivery appliance installation installed Complaints

January 2 3 3 8 800 1.00%February 4 3 4 11 900 1.22%March 1 4 3 8 750 1.07%April 4 5 2 11 1050 1.05%May 3 5 5 13 1400 0.93%June 2 6 3 11 980 1.12%July 3 4 4 11 1030 1.07%August 5 6 6 17 1500 1.13%September 3 5 5 13 1330 0.98%October 4 6 6 16 1500 1.07%November 3 7 5 15 1320 1.14%December 3 8 6 17 1550 1.10%

Control charts

• Graphic displays of the results, over time, of a process; used to assess whether the process is “in control” or “out of control”.

• A control chart always has a central line for the average, an upper line for the upper control limit and a lower line for the lower control limit. These lines are determined from historical data.

• These lines are again surrounded by two another lines known as the upper specification limit and lower specification limit.

Control charts

• Upper and lower specification limits are provided in the contract and you cannot cross them.

• The upper and lower control limit are determined by the project manager.

• By comparing current data to these lines, you can draw conclusions about whether the process variation is consistent (in control) or is unpredictable (out of control, affected by special causes of variation).

• If the 99.73% (3-sigma) of all the points fall between the upper and lower control limits, you will say that the process is under control.

Control charts

• Rule of Seven: If seven or more consecutive data points fall on one side of the mean, then there must be an investigation initiated to find out the reason for it, even if these points fall within the control limits.

Control charts

Upper control limit

Lower control limit

Out of controlAssignable/special cause

Specification limit: is point determines by customer, not calculated based on control chart

Normal and expected variationUsually 3 or 6 sigma

Rule of seven (non random data points)Out of controlAssignable/special cause

Pareto Charts

• Pareto charts are used to identify and prioritize problems to be solved.

• They are actually histograms aided by the 80/20 rule introduced by Vilfredo Pareto.

• The 80/20 rule as it applies to quality says that a small number of causes (20 percent) create the majority of the problems (80 percent).

• Pareto charts are displayed as histograms that rank-order the most important factors by their frequency over time.

Pareto Chart

Pareto Chart for complaints

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Wrong appliance Faulty installation Late delivery

Complaint category

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Orders problems by their relative frequency in decreasing order. Focus and priority should be given to problems that offer the largest potential improvement.

Scatter Diagrams

• The scatter diagram graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable on each axis (dependent & independent variable), to look for a relationship between them.

• If the variables are correlated, the points will fall along a line or curve.

• The better the correlation, the tighter the points will hug the line.

Scatter Diagrams

Positive Correlation Negative Correlation No Correlation

Additional Quality Planning Tools

• Brainstorming: This technique is used to generate ideas.

• Affinity diagrams: After you’ve gathered all ideas possible with brainstorming, you group similar ideas together on an affinity diagram.

• Once categories are established, the affinity diagram can be used to prioritize items and develop an action plan.

Additional Quality Planning Tools

• Force field analysis is a method of examining the drivers and resistors of a decision.

• List all the drivers down the left column and all the resistors in the right.

• Assign a priority or rank to each driver and resistor, and develop strategies for leveraging the strengths of the high-priority drivers while minimizing the highest-ranked resistors.

Force Field Analysis

Additional Quality Planning Tools

Nominal Group Techniques• Allow ideas to be brainstormed in small groups and then review by

larger group.• It's useful for new groups where the members aren't yet familiar with

each other, the issue is controversial, or there are group members who are more vocal than others.

• NGT starts out with each individual privately generating ideas which are then discussed with the group.

Additional Quality Planning Tools

Matrix Diagram &Prioritization Matrices • Matrices are rows and columns of data, typically thought of as

spreadsheets. • Matrices are versatile tools that help analysis, decision-making, and

prioritization. • A matrix diagram shows relationships between factors, causes, and

objectives and a prioritization matrix provides a way of scoring or ranking actions

Plan Quality Management: Outputs

• Quality Management Plan• Quality Metrics• Quality Checklists• Process Improvement Plan• Project Document Updates

Quality Management Plan

• It describes how the project management team will implement the performing organization’s quality policy.

• It documents the:• Resources needed to carry out the quality plan • Responsibilities of the project team in implementing quality • Processes and procedures the project team use to satisfy quality

requirements• Quality Control / Assurance techniques, and continuous improvement

processes.

Quality Metrics

• A quality metric is an operational definition that describes what is being measured and how it will be measured during the Perform Quality Assurance / Control processes.

• A measurement is an actual value.• Some examples of quality metrics include Defect density, Failure rate,

Availability, Reliability and Test coverage.

Quality Checklists

• Quality checklists are documents that outline the key steps that must be performed and in the correct order to ensure quality.

• They are usually phrased as imperatives (“Do this”) or interrogatories (“Have you done this?”).

• Many organizations have standardized checklists available to ensure consistency in frequently performed tasks.

• Checklists are also available from professional associations or commercial service providers.

• Quality checklists are heavily used in the quality control process.

Process Improvement Plan

• The process improvement plan focuses on finding inefficiencies in a process or activity and eliminating them.

• Process improvement should focus on:• Process Boundaries – which describes the purpose for the process and its

expected start and end dates• Process Configuration – so that you know what processes are performed

when and how they interact• Process Metrics – the matrices and measurements involved in process like

time, number of errors etc.

Perform Quality Assurance

• Quality Assurance process involves performing systematic quality activities and uses quality audits to ensure that appropriate quality standards and operational definitions are used.

• Quality assurance contributes to the state of being certain about quality by

• Preventing defects through the planning processes or • Inspecting out defects during the work-in-progress stage

• Perform Quality Assurance is an execution process that uses data from Plan and Control Quality processes.

• Quality assurance work will fall under the conformance work category in the cost of quality framework.

Perform Quality Assurance: Inputs

• Quality Management Plan• Process Improvement Plan• Quality Metrics• Quality Control Measurements• Project Documents

Perform Quality Assurance: Tools and Techniques• Plan Quality and Perform Quality Control tools and techniques• Quality audits• Process analysis

Quality Audits

• Quality audits are independent reviews performed by trained auditors or third-party reviewers.

• Quality audits examine and uncover inefficient processes and procedures as well as processes that are not in compliance with organizational practices.

• Quality audits may be scheduled or random, and may be conducted by internal or external auditors.

• Quality audits confirm the implementation of approved change requests, corrective actions, defect repairs, and preventive actions.

Quality Audits: Objectives

• Identify all good and best practices being implemented;• Identify all nonconformity, gaps, and shortcomings;• Share good practices introduced or implemented in similar projects in

the organization and/or industry;• Proactively offer assistance in a positive manner to improve

implementation of processes to help the team raise productivity; and• Highlight contributions of each audit in the lessons learned repository

of the organization.

Process Analysis

• Process analysis follows the steps outlined in the process improvement plan to identify needed improvements.

• This analysis also examines:• Problems experienced while conducting the project• Constraints experienced while conducting the work of the project• Inefficient and ineffective processes identified during process operation

• Includes root cause analysis, a specific technique to analyze a problem/situation, determine the underlying causes that lead to it, and create preventive actions for similar problems.

Perform Quality Assurance Outputs

• Change Requests: Change requests are used to take corrective action, preventive action, or to perform defect repair.

• Project Management Plan Updates: Quality management plan, Scope management plan, Schedule management plan and Cost management plan.

• Project Document Updates: Quality audit reports, Training plans, and Process documentation.

• Organizational Process Assets Updates: Organization’s quality standards and the quality management system.

Perform Quality Control

• Perform Quality Control is the process of monitoring and recording results of executing the quality activities to assess performance and recommend necessary changes

• The key benefits of this process include• Identifying the causes of poor quality• Validating that project deliverables and work meet the requirements

Perform Quality Control: Inputs

• Project Management Plan: The quality management plan describes how quality control will be performed within the project.

• Quality Metrics: A quality metric describes a project or product attribute and how it will be measured. Some examples of quality metrics include: function points, mean time between failure (MTBF), and mean time to repair (MTTR).

• Quality Checklists: Quality checklists are structured lists that help to verify that the work of the project and its deliverables fulfill a set of requirements.

• Work Performance Data: Work performance data can include, Planned vs. actual technical performance, Planned vs. actual schedule performance, and Planned vs. actual cost performance.

Perform Quality Control: Inputs

• Approved Change Requests: Approved change requests may include modifications such as defect repairs, revised work methods, and revised schedule.

• Deliverables: A deliverable is any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability that results in a validated deliverable required by the project.

• Organizational Process Assets: It includes, Organization’s quality standards and policies, Standard work guidelines, and Issue and defect reporting procedures and communication policies.

Perform Quality Control: Tools and Techniques• Seven Basic Quality Tools• Statistical sampling• Inspection• Approved Change Requests Review

Inspection

• Inspection involves physically looking at, measuring, or testing results to determine whether they conform to the quality standards.

• Inspection will tell you where problems exist and gives you the opportunity to correct them, thus leading to quality improvements.

• Inspections might occur after the final product is produced or at intervals during the development of the product.

• Inspected work is either accepted or rejected. • When work is rejected, it might have to go back through the process for

rework.• Attribute sampling is often used as an inspection technique.

Perform Quality Control: Outputs

• Validated changes are the results of changes, defect repairs, or variances that have been inspected and corrected.

• Validated deliverables involves using the tools and techniques of this process to determine if the deliverable is correct and accurate. This output becomes an input to the next process, Verify Scope.

• Change Requests: If the recommended corrective or preventive actions or a defect repair requires a change to the project management plan, a change request should be initiated in accordance with the defined Perform Integrated Change Control process.

Perform Quality Control: Outputs

• Organizational Process Assets Updates: Completed checklists become part of the project’s documentation and are included as part of the organizational process asset updates. Lessons learned should include the causes of variances found during this process and why the corrective actions were recommended.

• Project Management Plan Updates: Updates to the quality management plan and the process improvement plan may be required as part of the project management plan updates output of this process.

• Project Document Updates: Quality standards may also need updating as a result of this process, and they are included in the project document updates output.

Difference between Quality Assurance and Quality Control• Quality assurance is all about prevention, and quality control is all about the

detection.• Quality assurance is a proactive process while quality control is a reactive process.• Quality assurance is a process based approach while quality control is a product

based approach.• Quality audit is an example of quality assurance. Inspection and testing are

examples of the quality control process.• The goal of the quality assurance process is to develop a process so that defects

do not arise when you are producing the product, and quality control identifies the defects after the product is produced but is not yet released or is still in the production phase.