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Project managementProject management is the discipline of planning, organizing, securing, managing, leading, and controllingresources to achieve specific goals. A project is a temporary endeavor with a defined beginning and end (usuallytime-constrained, and often constrained by funding or deliverables),[1] undertaken to meet unique goals andobjectives,[2] typically to bring about beneficial change or added value. The temporary nature of projects stands incontrast with business as usual (or operations),[3] which are repetitive, permanent, or semi-permanent functionalactivities to produce products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems is often quite different,and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and management strategies.The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals[4] and objectives while honoringthe preconceived constraints.[5] The primary constraints are scope, time, quality and budget.[6] The secondary —andmore ambitious— challenge is to optimize the allocation of necessary inputs and integrate them to meet pre-definedobjectives.

History

Roman soldiers building a fortress, Trajan's Column 113 AD

Until 1900 civil engineering projects weregenerally managed by creative architects,engineers, and master builders themselves, forexample Vitruvius (first century BC),Christopher Wren (1632–1723), Thomas Telford(1757–1834) and Isambard Kingdom Brunel(1806–1859).[7] It was in the 1950s thatorganizations started to systematically applyproject management tools and techniques tocomplex engineering projects.[8]

Henry Gantt (1861–1919), the father ofplanning and control techniques

As a discipline, project management developed from several fields ofapplication including civil construction, engineering, and heavy defenseactivity.[9] Two forefathers of project management are Henry Gantt,called the father of planning and control techniques,[10] who is famousfor his use of the Gantt chart as a project management tool (alternativelyHarmonogram first proposed by Karol Adamiecki[11]); and Henri Fayolfor his creation of the five management functions that form thefoundation of the body of knowledge associated with project andprogram management.[12] Both Gantt and Fayol were students ofFrederick Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific management. His workis the forerunner to modern project management tools including workbreakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.

The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management erawhere core engineering fields come together to work as one. Project

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management became recognized as a distinct discipline arising from the management discipline with engineeringmodel.[13] In the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad-hoc basis, using mostly Ganttcharts and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project-scheduling models were developed.The "Critical Path Method" (CPM) was developed as a joint venture between DuPont Corporation and RemingtonRand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. And the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique"or PERT, was developed by Booz Allen Hamilton as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with theLockheed Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program;[14] These mathematical techniques quickly spread intomany private enterprises.

PERT network chart for a seven-month project with fivemilestones

At the same time, as project-scheduling models werebeing developed, technology for project cost estimating,cost management, and engineering economics wasevolving, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others.In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers(now AACE International; the Association for theAdvancement of Cost Engineering) was formed by earlypractitioners of project management and the associatedspecialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating,and cost/schedule control (project control). AACEcontinued its pioneering work and in 2006 released thefirst integrated process for portfolio, program and projectmanagement (Total Cost Management Framework).

The International Project Management Association (IPMA) was founded in Europe in 1967,[15] as a federation ofseveral national project management associations. IPMA maintains its federal structure today and now includesmember associations on every continent except Antarctica. IPMA offers a Four Level Certification program basedon the IPMA Competence Baseline (ICB).[16] The ICB covers technical, contextual, and behavioral competencies.In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed in the USA.[17] PMI publishes A Guide to the ProjectManagement Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), which describes project management practices that are commonto "most projects, most of the time." PMI also offers multiple certifications.

ApproachesThere are a number of approaches to managing project activities including lean, iterative, incremental, and phasedapproaches.Regardless of the methodology employed, careful consideration must be given to the overall project objectives,timeline, and cost, as well as the roles and responsibilities of all participants and stakeholders.

The traditional approachA traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed. In the "traditional approach", fivedevelopmental components of a project can be distinguished (four stages plus control):

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Typical development phases of an engineering project

1.1. initiation2. planning and design3.3. execution and construction4.4. monitoring and controlling systems5.5. completionNot all projects will have every stage,as projects can be terminated beforethey reach completion. Some projectsdo not follow a structured planningand/or monitoring process. And some projects will go through steps 2, 3 and 4 multiple times.Many industries use variations of these project stages. For example, when working on a brick-and-mortar design andconstruction, projects will typically progress through stages like pre-planning, conceptual design, schematic design,design development, construction drawings (or contract documents), and construction administration. In softwaredevelopment, this approach is often known as the waterfall model,[18] i.e., one series of tasks after another in linearsequence. In software development many organizations have adapted the Rational Unified Process (RUP) to fit thismethodology, although RUP does not require or explicitly recommend this practice. Waterfall development workswell for small, well defined projects, but often fails in larger projects of undefined and ambiguous nature. The Coneof Uncertainty explains some of this as the planning made on the initial phase of the project suffers from a highdegree of uncertainty. This becomes especially true as software development is often the realization of a new ornovel product. In projects where requirements have not been finalized and can change, requirements management isused to develop an accurate and complete definition of the behavior of software that can serve as the basis forsoftware development.[19] While the terms may differ from industry to industry, the actual stages typically followcommon steps to problem solving—"defining the problem, weighing options, choosing a path, implementation andevaluation."

PRINCE2

The PRINCE2 process model

PRINCE2 is a structured approach to projectmanagement, released in 1996 as a genericproject management method.[20] Itcombined the original PROMPTmethodology (which evolved into thePRINCE methodology) with IBM's MITP(managing the implementation of the totalproject) methodology. PRINCE2 provides amethod for managing projects within aclearly defined framework. PRINCE2describes procedures to coordinate peopleand activities in a project, how to design andsupervise the project, and what to do if theproject has to be adjusted if it does notdevelop as planned.

In the method, each process is specified with its key inputs and outputs and with specific goals and activities to becarried out. This allows for automatic control of any deviations from the plan. Divided into manageable stages, themethod enables an efficient control of resources. On the basis of close monitoring, the project can be carried out in acontrolled and organized way.

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PRINCE2 provides a common language for all participants in the project. The various management roles andresponsibilities involved in a project are fully described and are adaptable to suit the complexity of the project andskills of the organization.

PRiSM (Projects integrating Sustainable Methods)PRiSM[21] is a structured project management method developed to align organizational sustainability initiativeswith project delivery. By design, PRiSM is a repeatable, practical and proactive methodology that ensures projectsuccess while decreasing an organization's negative environmental impact.The methodology encompasses the management, control and organization of a project with consideration andemphasis beyond the project life-cycle and on the five aspects of sustainability. PRiSM is also used to refer to thetraining and accreditation of authorized practitioners of the methodology who must undertake accreditedqualifications based on competency to obtain the GPM certification.[22]

Critical chain project managementCritical chain project management (CCPM) is a method of planning and managing project execution designed todeal with uncertainties inherent in managing projects, while taking into consideration limited availability ofresources (physical, human skills, as well as management & support capacity) needed to execute projects.CCPM is an application of the Theory of Constraints (TOC) to projects. The goal is to increase the flow of projectsin an organization (throughput). Applying the first three of the five focusing steps of TOC, the system constraint forall projects is identified as are the resources. To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical chain are given priorityover all other activities. Finally, projects are planned and managed to ensure that the resources are ready when thecritical chain tasks must start, subordinating all other resources to the critical chain.The project plan should typically undergo resource leveling, and the longest sequence of resource-constrained tasksshould be identified as the critical chain. In some cases, such as managing contracted sub-projects, it is advisable touse a simplified approach without resource leveling.In multi-project environments, resource leveling should be performed across projects. However, it is often enough toidentify (or simply select) a single "drum". The drum can be a resource that acts as a constraint across projects,which are staggered based on the availability of that single resource.One can also use a "virtual drum" by selecting a task or group of tasks (typically integration points) and limiting thenumber of projects in execution at that stage.

Event chain methodologyEvent chain methodology is another method that complements critical path method and critical chain projectmanagement methodologies.Event chain methodology is an uncertainty modeling and schedule network analysis technique that is focused onidentifying and managing events and event chains that affect project schedules. Event chain methodology helps tomitigate the negative impact of psychological heuristics and biases, as well as to allow for easy modeling ofuncertainties in the project schedules. Event chain methodology is based on the following principles.• Probabilistic moment of risk: An activity (task) in most real-life processes is not a continuous uniform process.

Tasks are affected by external events, which can occur at some point in the middle of the task.• Event chains: Events can cause other events, which will create event chains. These event chains can significantly

affect the course of the project. Quantitative analysis is used to determine a cumulative effect of these eventchains on the project schedule.

• Critical events or event chains: The single events or the event chains that have the most potential to affect theprojects are the “critical events” or “critical chains of events.” They can be determined by the analysis.

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• Project tracking with events: Even if a project is partially completed and data about the project duration, cost,and events occurred is available, it is still possible to refine information about future potential events and helps toforecast future project performance.

• Event chain visualization: Events and event chains can be visualized using event chain diagrams on a Ganttchart.

Process-based managementAlso furthering the conception of project control is the incorporation of process-based management. This area hasbeen driven by the use of Maturity models such as the CMMI (capability maturity model integration; see thisexample of a predecessor) and ISO/IEC15504 (SPICE – software process improvement and capability estimation).

Agile project management

The iteration cycle in agile project management

Agile project management approaches based on the principles ofhuman interaction management are founded on a process view ofhuman collaboration. It is "most typically used in software, website,technology, creative and marketing industries."[23] This contrastssharply with the traditional approach. In the agile softwaredevelopment or flexible product development approach, the project isseen as a series of relatively small tasks conceived and executed as thesituation demands in an adaptive manner, rather than as a completelypre-planned process.

Lean project managementLean project management uses principles from lean manufacturing to focus on delivering value with less waste.

Extreme project management

Planning and feedback loops in Extremeprogramming (XP) with the time frames of the

multiple loops.

In critical studies of project management it has been noted that severalPERT based models are not well suited for the multi-project companyenvironment of today. Most of them are aimed at very large-scale,one-time, non-routine projects, and currently all kinds of managementare expressed in terms of projects.

Using complex models for "projects" (or rather "tasks") spanning a fewweeks has been proven to cause unnecessary costs and lowmaneuverability in several cases . Instead, project management expertstry to identify different "lightweight" models, such as ExtremeProgramming and Scrum.

The generalization of Extreme Programming to other kinds of projectsis extreme project management, which may be used in combinationwith the process modeling and management principles of humaninteraction management.

Benefits realisation managementBenefits realization management (BRM) enhances normal project management techniques through a focus onagreeing what outcomes should change (the benefits) during the project, and then measuring to see if that is

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happening to help keep a project on track. This can help to reduce the risk of a completed project being a failure asinstead of attempting to deliver agreed requirements the aim is to deliver the benefit of those requirements.An example of delivering a project to requirements could be agreeing on a project to deliver a computer system toprocess staff data with the requirement to manage payroll, holiday and staff personnel records. Under BRM theagreement would be to use the suppliers suggested staff data system to see an agreed reduction in staff hoursprocessing and maintaining staff data (benefit reduce HR headcount).

Processes

The project development stages[24]

Traditionally, project management includes a number ofelements: four to five process groups, and a control system.Regardless of the methodology or terminology used, thesame basic project management processes will be used.Major process groups generally include:[6]

•• initiation•• planning or design•• production or execution•• monitoring and controlling•• closingIn project environments with a significant exploratoryelement (e.g., research and development), these stages maybe supplemented with decision points (go/no go decisions)at which the project's continuation is debated and decided.An example is the Phase–gate model.

Initiating

Initiating process group processes[24]

The initiating processes determine the nature andscope of the project.[25] If this stage is notperformed well, it is unlikely that the project willbe successful in meeting the business’ needs.The key project controls needed here are anunderstanding of the business environment andmaking sure that all necessary controls areincorporated into the project. Any deficiencies

should be reported and a recommendation should be made to fix them.

The initiating stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas:• analyzing the business needs/requirements in measurable goals• reviewing of the current operations• financial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budget• stakeholder analysis, including users, and support personnel for the project• project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule

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Planning and designAfter the initiation stage, the project is planned to an appropriate level of detail (see example of a flow-chart).[24] Themain purpose is to plan time, cost and resources adequately to estimate the work needed and to effectively managerisk during project execution. As with the Initiation process group, a failure to adequately plan greatly reduces theproject's chances of successfully accomplishing its goals.Project planning generally consists of[26]

•• determining how to plan (e.g. by level of detail or rolling wave);•• developing the scope statement;•• selecting the planning team;•• identifying deliverables and creating the work breakdown structure;•• identifying the activities needed to complete those deliverables and networking the activities in their logical

sequence;•• estimating the resource requirements for the activities;•• estimating time and cost for activities;•• developing the schedule;•• developing the budget;•• risk planning;•• gaining formal approval to begin work.Additional processes, such as planning for communications and for scope management, identifying roles andresponsibilities, determining what to purchase for the project and holding a kick-off meeting are also generallyadvisable.For new product development projects, conceptual design of the operation of the final product may be performedconcurrent with the project planning activities, and may help to inform the planning team when identifyingdeliverables and planning activities.

Executing

Executing process group processes[24]

Executing consists of the processesused to complete the work defined inthe project plan to accomplish theproject's requirements. Executionprocess involves coordinating peopleand resources, as well as integrating andperforming the activities of the projectin accordance with the projectmanagement plan. The deliverables areproduced as outputs from the processesperformed as defined in the projectmanagement plan and other frameworksthat might be applicable to the type ofproject at hand.

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Monitoring and controlling

Monitoring and controlling process group processes[24]

Monitoring and controlling consists ofthose processes performed to observeproject execution so that potentialproblems can be identified in a timelymanner and corrective action can betaken, when necessary, to control theexecution of the project. The keybenefit is that project performance isobserved and measured regularly toidentify variances from the projectmanagement plan.Monitoring and controlling includes:[27]

•• Measuring the ongoing project activities ('where we are');• Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, scope, etc.) against the project management plan and the project

performance baseline (where we should be);• Identify corrective actions to address issues and risks properly (How can we get on track again);•• Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are

implemented.In multi-phase projects, the monitoring and control process also provides feedback between project phases, in orderto implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan.Project maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes:[6]

•• Continuing support of end-users•• Correction of errors•• Updates of the software over time

Monitoring and controlling cycle

In this stage, auditors should pay attention to howeffectively and quickly user problems are resolved.

Over the course of any construction project, the workscope may change. Change is a normal and expected partof the construction process. Changes can be the result ofnecessary design modifications, differing site conditions,material availability, contractor-requested changes, valueengineering and impacts from third parties, to name afew. Beyond executing the change in the field, the changenormally needs to be documented to show what wasactually constructed. This is referred to as changemanagement. Hence, the owner usually requires a finalrecord to show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work.The record is made on the contract documents – usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The endproduct of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, “as built.” The requirement forproviding them is a norm in construction contracts.

When changes are introduced to the project, the viability of the project has to be re-assessed. It is important not tolose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted result may notjustify the original proposed investment in the project.

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Closing

Closing process group processes.[24]

Closing includes the formal acceptance of theproject and the ending thereof. Administrativeactivities include the archiving of the files anddocumenting lessons learned.This phase consists of:[6]

• Project close: Finalize all activities across all ofthe process groups to formally close the projector a project phase

• Contract closure: Complete and settle each contract (including the resolution of any open items) and close eachcontract applicable to the project or project phase.

Project controlling and project control systemsProject controlling should be established as an independent function in project management. It implementsverification and controlling function during the processing of a project in order to reinforce the defined performanceand formal goals.[28] The tasks of project controlling are also:•• the creation of infrastructure for the supply of the right information and its update•• the establishment of a way to communicate disparities of project parameters•• the development of project information technology based on an intranet or the determination of a project key

performance index system (KPI)• divergence analyses and generation of proposals for potential project regulations[29]

•• the establishment of methods to accomplish an appropriate the project structure, project workflow organization,project control and governance

• creation of transparency among the project parameters[30]

Fulfillment and implementation of these tasks can be achieved by applying specific methods and instruments ofproject controlling. The following methods of project controlling can be applied:•• investment analysis• cost–benefit analyses•• value benefit Analysis•• expert surveys•• simulation calculations•• risk-profile analyses•• surcharge calculations•• milestone trend analysis•• cost trend analysis• target/actual-comparison[31]

Project control is that element of a project that keeps it on-track, on-time and within budget.[27] Project controlbegins early in the project with planning and ends late in the project with post-implementation review, having athorough involvement of each step in the process. Each project should be assessed for the appropriate level of controlneeded: too much control is too time consuming, too little control is very risky. If project control is not implementedcorrectly, the cost to the business should be clarified in terms of errors, fixes, and additional audit fees.Control systems are needed for cost, risk, quality, communication, time, change, procurement, and human resources. In addition, auditors should consider how important the projects are to the financial statements, how reliant the stakeholders are on controls, and how many controls exist. Auditors should review the development process and procedures for how they are implemented. The process of development and the quality of the final product may also

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be assessed if needed or requested. A business may want the auditing firm to be involved throughout the process tocatch problems earlier on so that they can be fixed more easily. An auditor can serve as a controls consultant as partof the development team or as an independent auditor as part of an audit.Businesses sometimes use formal systems development processes. These help assure that systems are developedsuccessfully. A formal process is more effective in creating strong controls, and auditors should review this processto confirm that it is well designed and is followed in practice. A good formal systems development plan outlines:• A strategy to align development with the organization’s broader objectives•• Standards for new systems• Project management policies for timing and budgeting•• Procedures describing the process•• Evaluation of quality of change

Topics

Project managersA project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers can have the responsibilityof the planning, execution, and closing of any project, typically relating to construction industry, engineering,architecture, computing, and telecommunications. Many other fields in production engineering and designengineering and heavy industrial have project managers.A project manager is the person accountable for accomplishing the stated project objectives. Key projectmanagement responsibilities include creating clear and attainable project objectives, building the projectrequirements, and managing the triple constraint for projects, which is cost, time, and scope.A project manager is often a client representative and has to determine and implement the exact needs of the client,based on knowledge of the firm they are representing. The ability to adapt to the various internal procedures of thecontracting party, and to form close links with the nominated representatives, is essential in ensuring that the keyissues of cost, time, quality and above all, client satisfaction, can be realized.

Project management triangle

The project management triangle

Like any human undertaking, projects need to beperformed and delivered under certain constraints.Traditionally, these constraints have been listed as"scope," "time," and "cost".[1] These are also referred toas the "project management triangle", where each siderepresents a constraint. One side of the triangle cannot bechanged without affecting the others. A furtherrefinement of the constraints separates product "quality"or "performance" from scope, and turns quality into afourth constraint.

The time constraint refers to the amount of time availableto complete a project. The cost constraint refers to thebudgeted amount available for the project. The scopeconstraint refers to what must be done to produce the project's end result. These three constraints are often competingconstraints: increased scope typically means increased time and increased cost, a tight time constraint could meanincreased costs and reduced scope, and a tight budget could mean increased time and reduced scope.

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The discipline of project management is about providing the tools and techniques that enable the project team (notjust the project manager) to organize their work to meet these constraints.

Work breakdown structureThe work breakdown structure (WBS) is a tree structure that shows a subdivision of effort required to achieve anobjective—for example a program, project, and contract. The WBS may be hardware-, product-, service-, orprocess-oriented (see an example in a NASA reporting structure (2001)).[32]

A WBS(work break down) can be developed by starting with the end objective and successively subdividing it intomanageable components in terms of size, duration, and responsibility (e.g., systems, subsystems, components, tasks,sub-tasks, and work packages), which include all steps necessary to achieve the objective.[19]

The work breakdown structure provides a common framework for the natural development of the overall planningand control of a contract and is the basis for dividing work into definable increments from which the statement ofwork can be developed and technical, schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can be established.[32]

Project management frameworkThe Program (Investment) life cycle integrates the project management and system development life cycles with theactivities directly associated with system deployment and operation. By design, system operation management andrelated activities occur after the project is complete and are not documented within this guide[24] (see an example ofan IT project management framework).For example, see figure, in the US United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) the program management lifecycle is depicted and describe in the overall VA IT PROJECT MANAGEMENT FRAMEwork to address theintegration of OMB Exhibit 300 project (investment) management activities and the overall project budgetingprocess. The VA IT Project Management Framework diagram illustrates Milestone 4 which occurs following thedeployment of a system and the closing of the project. The project closing phase activities at the VA continuesthrough system deployment and into system operation for the purpose of illustrating and describing the systemactivities the VA considers part of the project. The figure illustrates the actions and associated artifacts of the VA ITProject and Program Management process.[24]

International standardsThere have been several attempts to develop project management standards, such as:• Capability Maturity Model from the Software Engineering Institute.• GAPPS, Global Alliance for Project Performance Standards – an open source standard describing

COMPETENCIES for project and program managers.• A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge from the Project Management Institute (PMI)• HERMES method, Swiss general project management method, selected for use in Luxembourg and international

organizations.• The ISO standards ISO 9000, a family of standards for quality management systems, and the ISO 10006:2003, for

Quality management systems and guidelines for quality management in projects.• PRINCE2, PRojects IN Controlled Environments.• Association for Project Management Body of Knowledge[33]

• Team Software Process (TSP) from the Software Engineering Institute.• Total Cost Management Framework, AACE International's Methodology for Integrated Portfolio, Program and

Project Management.• V-Model, an original systems development method.• The Logical framework approach, which is popular in international development organizations.

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• IAPPM, The International Association of Project & Program Management, guide to project auditing and rescuingtroubled projects.

Project portfolio managementAn increasing number of organizations are using, what is referred to as, project portfolio management (PPM) as ameans of selecting the right projects and then using project management techniques[34] as the means for deliveringthe outcomes in the form of benefits to the performing private or not-for-profit organization.

References[1] Chatfield, Carl. "A short course in project management" (http:/ / office. microsoft. com/ en-us/ project/ HA102354821033. aspx). Microsoft. .[2] *The Definitive Guide to Project Management. Nokes, Sebastian. 2nd Ed.n. London (Financial Times / Prentice Hall): 2007. ISBN

978-0-273-71097-4[3] Paul C. Dinsmore et al (2005) The right projects done right! John Wiley and Sons, 2005. ISBN 0-7879-7113-8. p.35 and further.[4] Lewis R. Ireland (2006) Project Management. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-147160-X. p.110.[5] Joseph Phillips (2003). PMP Project Management Professional Study Guide. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003. ISBN 0-07-223062-2 p.354.[6] PMI (2010). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge p.27-35[7] Dennis Lock (2007) Project Management (9th ed.) Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2007. ISBN 0-566-08772-3[8] Young-Hoon Kwak (2005). "A brief History of Project Management". In: The story of managing projects. Elias G. Carayannis et al. (9 eds),

Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005. ISBN 1-56720-506-2[9] David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global Project Management Handbook. "Chapter 1: "The evolution of project management".

McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-146045-4[10] Martin Stevens (2002). Project Management Pathways. Association for Project Management. APM Publishing Limited, 2002 ISBN

1-903494-01-X p.xxii[11] Edward R. Marsh (1975). "The Harmonogram of Karol Adamiecki". In: The Academy of Management Journal. Vol. 18, No. 2 (Jun., 1975),

p. 358. ( online (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 255537))[12] Morgen Witzel (2003). Fifty key figures in management. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-36977-0. p. 96-101.[13] David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global Project Management Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-146045-4.

p.1-4 states: "It was in the 1950s when project management was formally recognized as a distinct contribution arising from the managementdiscipline."

[14] Booz Allen Hamilton – History of Booz Allen 1950s (http:/ / www. boozallen. com/ about/ history/ history_5)[15] Bjarne Kousholt (2007). Project Management –. Theory and practice.. Nyt Teknisk Forlag. ISBN 87-571-2603-8. p.59.[16] ipma.ch (http:/ / www. ipma. ch/ publication/ Pages/ ICB-IPMACompetenceBaseline. aspx)[17] F. L. Harrison, Dennis Lock (2004). Advanced project management: a structured approach. Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2004. ISBN

0-566-07822-8. p.34.[18] Winston W. Royce (1970). "Managing the Development of Large Software Systems" (http:/ / www. cs. umd. edu/ class/ spring2003/

cmsc838p/ Process/ waterfall. pdf) in: Technical Papers of Western Electronic Show and Convention (WesCon) August 25–28, 1970, LosAngeles, USA.

[19] Stellman, Andrew; Greene, Jennifer (2005). Applied Software Project Management (http:/ / www. stellman-greene. com/ aspm/ ). O'ReillyMedia. ISBN 978-0-596-00948-9. .

[20] OGC – PRINCE2 – Background (http:/ / webarchive. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ 20110822131357/ http:/ / www. ogc. gov. uk/methods_prince_2__background. asp)

[21] http:/ / greenprojectmanagement. org[22] , http:/ / greenprojectmanagement. org/ certification[23] "What is Agile Project Management?" (http:/ / www. planbox. com/ resources/ agile-project-management). Planbox. .[24] "Project Management Guide" (http:/ / www. ppoe. oit. va. gov/ docs/ VA_IT_PM_Guide. pdf). VA Office of Information and Technology.

March 3, 2005. .[25] Peter Nathan, Gerald Everett Jones (2003). PMP certification for dummies. p.63.[26] Harold Kerzner (2003). Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling (8th Ed. ed.). Wiley.

ISBN 0-471-22577-0.[27] James P. Lewis (2000). The project manager's desk reference: : a comprehensive guide to project planning, scheduling, evaluation, and

systems. p.185[28][28] Jörg Becker, Martin Kugeler, Michael Rosemann (2003). Process management: a guide for the design of business processes. ISBN

978-3-540-43499-3. p.27.[29] Bernhard Schlagheck (2000). Objektorientierte Referenzmodelle für das Prozess- und Projektcontrolling. Grundlagen – Konstruktionen –

Anwendungsmöglichkeiten. ISBN 978-3-8244-7162-1. p.131.[30] Josef E. Riedl (1990). Projekt – Controlling in Forschung und Entwicklung. ISBN 978-3-540-51963-8. p.99.

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[31] Steinle, Bruch, Lawa (1995). Projektmanagement. FAZ Verlagsbereich Wirtschaftsbücher. p.136–143[32] NASA NPR 9501.2D (http:/ / nodis3. gsfc. nasa. gov/ displayDir. cfm?Internal_ID=N_PR_9501_002D_& page_name=Chp2&

format=PDF). May 23, 2001.[33][33] Body of Knowledge 5th edition, Association for Project Management, 2006, ISBN 1-903494-13-3[34] Albert Hamilton (2004). Handbook of Project Management Procedures. TTL Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-7277-3258-7

External links• Guidelines for Managing Projects (http:/ / www. berr. gov. uk/ files/ file40647. pdf) from the UK Department for

Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR)• Max Wideman's "Open Source" Comparative Glossary of Project Management Terms (http:/ / www.

maxwideman. com/ )• Open Source Project Management manual (http:/ / www. projectmanagement-training. net/ book/ )

Article Sources and Contributors 14

Article Sources and ContributorsProject management  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=526818166  Contributors: 05proedl, 152.98.195.xxx, 1959frenchy, 4RugbyRd, 62.158.194.xxx, 9Nak, A.harris0708,AGK, ALargeElk, Aaronbrick, AbsolutDan, Achalmeena, Acheah, Aeon1006, Aidanmharrington, Aitias, Akbradford, Ale jrb, Alessandro57, Alisha0512, Allstarecho, Alphamu57, Alsuara,Altaïr, Altrock78, Anakin101, Ancheta Wis, AndrewStellman, AndyBrandt, AngelOfSadness, Anitanandi, Ankit Maity, Anodynomine, Antillarum, Ap, Apparition11, Aranel,ArmadilloFromHell, Arsenikk, Artemis Fowl Rules, Asannuti, Asoucek, AstareGod, Atena.kouchaki, Atif673, Auntof6, Austinm, AxelBoldt, BSJWright, Bananaman68, Barek, BartaS,Bdouthwaite, Beano, Beetstra, Belovedfreak, Bendoly, Benfellows, Bento00, Bernd in Japan, Bertha32, Billaronson, Binafhmz, Blanchardb, Blathnaid, Bmartel, Bmicomp, Bnorrie, Bob Bolin,Bobo192, Bonadea, Boxplot, Brentwills, Brion.finlay, Buissy, Burner0718, Butrain, CALR, CFMWiki1, CPMTutor, Calvadosser, Calvin 1998, Camw, CarlGuass, Ccorpusa, Cerrol, Chadloder,ChemGardener, Chiefwhite, Chris Roy, ChrisG, Chrispreece2007, Christiebiehl, Christopherlin, Christyoc, Chuq, Clad2020, Claidheamohmor, Clf99, Closedmouth, Cloud10pm, Cmaley,Colabtech31, Colin Marquardt, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, ConstructionSoftwareExperts, Conversion script, Craigwb, Creacon, Crzer07, Cst17, Ct31, Cybercobra, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,DBlomgren, DVD R W, DVdm, Dan Polansky, DanielDeibler, Danielhegglin, Dansedmonson, David VS West, David.alex.lamb, Dawnseeker2000, Dbfirs, DeadEyeArrow, Deimos814, Deli nk,Delirium, DeltaOperator, Dendlai, Dennal68, Dennis.wittekind, DenzilS, Derek Ross, Deville, Dghutchinson, Dgmoran, Dgw, Dickietr, DisneyG, DominikusH, Donreed, Doroli, DougsTech,Dougweller, Dr PDG, DrDooBig, Drshields, Dtarver, Dycedarg, ESkog, Earthandfire, Ebe123, EdBever, Edward, Eeekster, Ehheh, Elena1234, Elvismcgrady, Englishman in Provence, Epbr123,Eric Pement, Erkan Yilmaz, EronMain, Escape Orbit, Eshirazi, Exir Kamalabadi, FMMonty, Fabricationary, FactsAndFigures, Faithlessthewonderboy, Falcon9x5, FalconZero, Fang Aili,Favonian, Firien, Fongamanda, Forestsmith, Fpolack, Frankfshsu, Fred Bradstadt, Freeformer, Freepmstudy, Freeskies, Frontelo, Frostbitcanadian, Fullstop, Funatic, Fxsunny, Fæ, GAPPS,GESICC, Garrybooker, GeoffWilson, Geoffsauer, GerK, Gerritklaschke, Gfani, Ghaag, Giftlite, Globalprofessor, Goethean, Gop 62, Graeme Bartlett, GraemeL, Graham87, Graibeard, Granite07,Greyskinnedboy, Gruffi, Gsaup, Gshills, Gunnala, Gurch, Guy Van Hooveld, Gwernol, Hadal, Haikon, HamburgerRadio, HappyCamper, Hazmat2, Hech xwijnerj, Herbythyme, Himdey njitwill,Hirzel, Hongooi, Howardjp, Hroðulf, Hu12, Hubbardaie, Hubertus, Hudec, Hux, ICSGlobal, ITServiceGuy, Ian Pitchford, Ian.thomson, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Imroy, IngaRea, Inwind, Itgov,Ixfd64, J.delanoy, Jaberwocky6669, Jackaranga, Jamezbailey, Janbenes, Jbcarboni, Jburks97, Jcardinal, Jdtoellner, Jeff3000, Jeffmcneill, Jeltz, Jetojedno, Jgritz, Jiang, Jim1138, JimGleaves,Jkhcanoe, Jlao04, Jmciver, Jmi41, Jmlk17, Jn.arch, Jnankivel, John Richard Parker, John Vandenberg, John.j.smitherson, JohnManuel, Jojhutton, Jonpro, Jordiferrer, Josemoromelon, Jp361, JudyPayne, Julesd, Jurajv, Just plain Bill, KGun10, Kaisersoze1, Kanags, Kanojia, Karl-Henner, Kbh3rd, Kcone, Kelemendani, Kenmckinley, Kenstandfield, Ketiltrout, Kevin B12, Khalid, Khalidhassani, Khusroks, Kilmer-san, Kim Kris, KimBecker, Kingpin13, Kinu, Kltownsend, Kokcharov, Krappie, Ktlonergan, Kubigula, Kuru, Kwertii, L3aa-cademy, LFaraone, LeaveSleaves, Lecard,Leonardo Aloi, Leszek Jańczuk, Levana77, Levineps, Liao, LightAnkh, LilHelpa, Linkspamremover, LizardJr8, Lmarinho, Loflabr, Longdongniner, Loren.wilton, Lotje, Luk, Lumos3, LunaSantin, Lundholm, Lynbarn, M4gnum0n, MY2sense, Macoykolokoy, MagnaMopus, Mann jess, Manop, Maokart444, Mapador, Marco Krohn, Margeru, Mark Millard, Mark Renier,Mark.murphy, Markkh, Matt Deres, Maurreen, Mav, Mbrylant, Mdd, Mean as custard, Media lib, Meitar, Melashri, Mephistophelian, Merovingian, Mgillett, Michael Hardy, MichaelDawin,Milkau111, Mimihitam, Mindmatrix, Minesweeper, Mini.here, Mkoval, Mlavannis, Mmpubs, Mneser, Monkey Bounce, Moonriddengirl, MorrisRob, Mpleahy, Mr.Z-man, MrKris, MrOllie,Mrt3366, Mudgen, Mugunth Kumar, Muminshawaf, Mummy34, Munazanjum, Mwanner, Mwfnwa, Mydogategodshat, Mywikiid99, NOKESS, Nandak89, Nankivel, NawlinWiki, Nazmanager,Ngoult, Nickg, Nicos interests, Nighthawkx15, Nikai, Ninadelis, Nishalegend, Niteowlneils, Nixdorf, Norm, OSUKid7, Oberiko, Oblomoff, Ocrakate, Octahedron80, Oicumayberight, Ojigiri,Oldschoolosama, OliverTwisted, Orange Suede Sofa, Overviewer, Owain.wilson, Padraig1888, Paltpappa, Paradoxic, Parent5446, PatrickWeaver, Paul W, Pavel Vozenilek, Pcremer2270,Pcremerfluno, Pdcook, Pepper, Peter Reusch, Peterbud, Pgauld, Pgreenfinch, PhilHibbs, PhilKnight, Phreed, Pigsonthewing, Pilgaard, Pinkadelica, Pixievamps, Pjganon, Plakhi24, Pm by day,Pm master, Pmtoolbox, Pmyteh, Poli08, Porchcorpter, PrestonH, ProgrammeUK, Project mosaic, Projectmagic, Protr, Psaico, Pstansbu, Pstout, Pukivruki, Pythia90, Qaiassist, Qarakesek,Qatestdev, Quadell, RAM, RJASE1, RJBurkhart, RJaguar3, RSedor, Radagast83, Radavi, RainbowOfLight, Ralfjnr, Rami R, RandyKaelber, Rangoon11, Raymundsy, Raywil, Rcannon100,Readysetpass, Reconsider the static, RedHillian, Redux, Reedy, Reliablesources, Renebach, Renesis, Rernst, Research2007, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Richard Allen, Richard Harvey,RichardF, Richardgush, Richi, Richman9, Rlolsen, Rmp80ind, Ron Richard, Ronhjones, Ronz, RoyHanney, Royallarry, Rrburke, Rrjanbiah, Rror, Rspanton, RuM, Rubysixty6, Rumblesnuf,Ruud Koot, Rwgreen1173, Rwil02, S.K., SE SME, SJP, Salliesatt, Sandymok, Sara050805, Sarah, Saros136, Sbugs, Scaevus, Scientizzle, Scjessey, Scmbwis, Sean Whitaker, Seanieboy1974,Seaphoto, Search4Lancer, Sebasanjuan, Securiger, Seraphim, Shadowjams, Shanes, Sharkface217, Shawn in Montreal, Shoeofdeath, Shoessss, Shokolada, Shoy, Sisalto, Skumar.rakesh,Sleepyhead81, Smartse, Smiker, Smpickens, Solipsist, Sonialoud, SorenAndersen, SpaceFlight89, Spalding, Spangineer, Spartikus411, Steevm, Stevenwmccrary58, SueHay, Sutanumartand,TVBZ28, Tarquin, TastyPoutine, Teammetz, Technopat, Tephlon, Tetraedycal, TetsuoTheRob, That Guy, From That Show!, The Led, The Letter J, The Thing That Should Not Be, The manekin,Thebluemanager, Theboymusic, Thebrownell, Theroadislong, Thingg, Thopper, Thrane, ThreePD, Tijuana Brass, Tmopkisn, Tobias Bergemann, Tobryant, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tommy2010,Tony1, Tosblt, Toytoy, Transity, Traroth, Trewinpa, Trial, Triz231, Trout001, Truthbro, Tslocum, Tswelch, Turnstep, Twestgard, Tzartzam, Uqjwhitt, Urbanette, Utcursch, VARies, Vaceituno,Vald, Valerie.sather@stage-gate.com, Van der Hoorn, Vanderzyden, Vanished user 39948282, Vans0100, Vcmohanonline, Versageek, Vgranucci, Vigo10, Vincehk, Vineetgandhi, Viokiori,Vrenator, WJBscribe, WKirschling, Wacko39, Weatherman90, Weregerbil, Weyes, Wgoetsch, Widefox, Wik, WikHead, Wikid77, Wikipelli, Wikke41, Wireless friend, Wissons, Woohookitty,Wrduncan3, Wwmarket, X201, Xavexgoem, Xholyrelicx, Xlynx, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yendor1958, Ykimva, Ylebihan, Yongliang08, Zigger, Zntrip, Zscout370, Zugerbueb, Zzuuzz, උපුල්, 1576anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Trajan's Column (Roman Soldiers Building a Fortress).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trajan's_Column_(Roman_Soldiers_Building_a_Fortress).png License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Fikret YegulImage:Henri Gannt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henri_Gannt.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MddImage:Pert chart colored.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pert_chart_colored.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Pert_chart_colored.gif: Original uploaderwas Jeremykemp at en.wikipedia derivative work: Hazmat2 (talk)Image:Project Management (phases).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Project_Management_(phases).png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Alphamu57Image:Prince2 procces model .jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prince2_procces_model_.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Markavian,ThroxanaFile:Agile Project Management by Planbox.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Agile_Project_Management_by_Planbox.png  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:FongamandaImage:Xp-loop with time frames.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Xp-loop_with_time_frames.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Marcel Douwe DekkerFile:Project development stages.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Project_development_stages.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DEPARTMENT OFVETERANS AFFAIRS Office of Information and TechnologyFile:Initiating Process Group Processes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Initiating_Process_Group_Processes.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DEPARTMENTOF VETERANS AFFAIRS Office of Information and TechnologyFile:Executing Process Group Processes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Executing_Process_Group_Processes.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS Office of Information and TechnologyFile:Monitoring and Controlling Process Group Processes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Monitoring_and_Controlling_Process_Group_Processes.jpg  License:unknown  Contributors: DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS Office of Information and TechnologyImage:Project Management (project control).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Project_Management_(project_control).png  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Share Alike  Contributors: Alphamu57File:Closing Process Group Processes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Closing_Process_Group_Processes.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DEPARTMENT OFVETERANS AFFAIRS Office of Information and TechnologyImage:The triad constraints.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_triad_constraints.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: JohnM. Kennedy T.

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License 15

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