CRASH SIMULATION OF ALUMINIUM CAST SPOKE MOTORCYCLE

WHEEL

LOGESWARAN ARUMUGAM

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI PERTAHANAN NASIONAL MALAYSIA

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

MAY 2009

UNIVERSITI PERTAHANAN NASIONAL MALAYSIA

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS PSM

JUDUL: CRASH SIMULATION OF ALUMINIUM CAST SPOKE MOTORCYCLE WHEEL

SESI PENGAJIAN: 2008/2009

Saya LOGESWARAN ARUMUGAM (N/404319) __ ____ _

(HURUF BESAR) mengaku membenarkan Projek Sarjana Muda ini disimpan di Perpustakaan Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia dan Perpustakaan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan seperti berikut: 1. Hakmilik PSM adalah di bawah nama penulis melainkan penulisan sebagai projek bersama dan

dibiayai oleh UPNM, hakmiliknya adalah kepunyaan UPNM dan UTM. 2. Naskah salinan di dalam bentuk kertas atau mikro hanya boleh dibuat dengan kebenaran bertulis

daripada penulis. 3. Perpustakaan UPNM dan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk

tujuan pengajian sahaja. 4. PSM hanya boleh diterbitkan dengan kebenaran penulis. Bayaran royalti adalah mengikut kadar

yang dipersetujui kelak. 5. *Saya membenarkan / tidak membenarkan Perpustakaan UPNM dan UTM membuat salinan

PSM ini sebagai bahan pertukaran di antara institusi pengajian tinggi. 6. **Sila tandakan (√ )

SULIT (Mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keselamatan atau kepentingan Malaysia seperti yang termaktub di dalam AKTA RAHSIA RASMI 1972).

TERHAD (Mengandungi maklumat TERHAD yang telah ditentukan oleh

organisasi/badan di mana penyelidikan dijalankan). TIDAK TERHAD Disahkan oleh

________________________ ______________________________ (TANDATANGAN P KDT) (TANDATANGAN PENYELIA) Alamat tetap : No.62-B, Bdr Baru Seri Manjung, Nama Penyelia : EN.TAN KEAN SHENG

Jalan Kayu Manis, 32040 Seri Manjung, PERAK.

Tarikh : MEI 2009 Tarikh : MEI 2009

√

CATATAN : * Potong yang tidak berkenaan. ** Jika PSM ini SULIT atau TERHAD, sila lampirkan surat daripada pihak

berkuasa/organisasi berkenaan dengan menyatakan sekali tempoh PSM ini perlu dikelaskan sebagai SULIT atau TERHAD.

CRASH SIMULATION OF ALUMINIUM CAST SPOKE MOTORCYCLE

WHEEL

LOGESWARAN ARUMUGAM

A project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Mechanical-Automotive) Faculty of

Mechanical Engineering

Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

MAY 2009

I

“I declared that I have read this project and in my point of view this project is qualified

in term of scope and quality for the purpose of awarding the Degree of Bachelor

Engineering (Mechanical - Automotive)”

Signature :

Supervisor : EN.TAN KEAN SHENG

Date : MAY 2009

II

“I hereby declare that this thesis with the title ‘Crash Simulation of Aluminium Cast

Spoke Motorcycle Wheel’ is the results of my own research. Materials which are not

effort of my work have been documented clearly. I wish to further state that this thesis

has never been submitted previously for any degree considerations.”

Signature :

Name of Candidate : LOGESWARAN ARUMUGAM

Date : MAY 2009

III

Dedicated to my parents, Arumugam and Maliga,

Thanks for the love and inspiration

To complete this effort and for their early emphasis on the importance of education

To my respected and remarkable supervisor

Tuan Tan Kean Sheng

A salutation for the priceless sacrifices and efforts given

Thank you for the advices

Your contribution will be always remembered

To my girlfriend Thenmanimoli

For you great support and care during the progression of study in UPNM

For my course-mates 4SZA

A highest acknowledgement for the endless support and motivation

For my Creator

To persist my journey until the completion of this thesis

IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I wish to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to his

supervisory, Mr. Tan Kean Sheng, for his patient and continuous supervision, valuable

advice, and guidance throughout the course of the study. I would also like to express my

great thankfulness and appreciation to lecturer UPNM for their valuable suggestions and

advice. The expertise and experience sharing by the supervisors had enhanced my

knowledge in the field of study.

My appreciation also goes to my family who has been so tolerant and supports

me all these years. Thanks for their encouragement, love and emotional supports that

they had given to me. I would also like to thank my seniors for their co-operations,

guidance and helps in this project.

Nevertheless, my great appreciation dedicated 4SZA member’s batch 2004 and

those whom involve directly or indirectly with this project. My warmest gratitude to my

fellow friends who always there to support and motivate me for completion of this

project. Last but not the least, Thanks to God for the guidance and knowledge bestowed

upon me, for without it I would not have been able to come this far.

V  

ABSTRACT

In Malaysia, motorcycles are used mainly for individual transport due to cheaper

ownership cost and ease of usage. The statistics show the accident rates involving

motorcycle in Malaysia is 67% with constitution of nearly 58% of death. In the most

severe cases which usually the frontal crashes, the highest failure or damage are

recorded on the motorcycles wheel. The deformation of the wheel can be used to

quantify the severity of such crashes. Literature survey revealed that even there are some

full motorcycle crash simulation being developed, but a detailed Finite Element (FE)

model of cast wheel is still lacking. The FE model of motorcycle aluminium cast wheel

assembly was developed to fill the gap in the area of study. Geometrical properties and

design of aluminium cast wheel were measured and examined to obtain the key

dimensions which to be served as inputs in CAD modeling stage. The cast wheel

assembly which consists of rim, hub and spoke and secondly the tyre and tube and

finally the bearing and shaft. The model of rim which chosen was Racing Boy with 6

spokes of front wheel of Honda EX5 100cc. Meshing of wheel model was done by the

finite element software, MSC PATRAN. Highly curvature parts were first identified

where it was important to put mesh seed to capture the curvature and control the size

element. Element property for model was subdivided into shell elements which consist

VI  

of tyre and tube and solid elements which consist of rim component, bearing and shaft.

However, the material properties for the cast wheel were standard Aluminium Alloy

B443, Steel Alloy 1020 for the bearing and shaft and standard rubber accordingly for

tyre and tube. Once the complete FE model was developed, the FE model was solved

using LS-DYNA and Nastran software for simulated the static compression and frontal

impact loading, respectively. For static simulation, total load was applied was 39kN

according the experimental results which took 4 hours to complete in 3.0GHz Pentium 4

processor with 1G RAM. In the frontal impact simulation, parameters like contact

interface and time step size need to be carefully handled in order to run the simulation

successfully and the striker was used to crash the wheel model. The complete FE model

consist 172687 elements to be analysis with simulation time 0.02s which took 74 hours

to complete in 2.5GHz Quad Core processor with 3.25G RAM. The results of static

simulation was analyzed and compared against the experimental result of quasi-static

compression testing, which has been successfully conducted by employing the Universal

Testing Machines. However, the results of impact simulation was analyzed and

compared indirectly to the static compression testing based on some assumption

substantially and theoretical calculation by previous researchers. Response variable

which were used to compare are displacement for static simulation and internal energy

for impact simulation. For the results, the percentages error of displacement was 9.45%

however the percentages error of internal energy was 0.55%. As a conclusion, the

objective of this study was achieved which to develop a FE model for the motorcycle

aluminium cast wheel assembly and validate the computational model of aluminium cast

spoke motorcycle wheel against compression testing and proven by results where the

difference of results in range ±10%.

VII  

 

 

 

ABSTRAK

Di Malaysia, motorsikal digunakan sebagai kenderaan individu yang amat

penting disebabkan kos untuk memiliki adalah rendah dan senang untuk digunakan.

Statistik kemalangan yang melibatkan motorsikal di Malaysia adalah sebanyak 67%

dimana membawa kematian menghampiri 58%. Kebanyakan kes yang dilaporkan

dimana dalam perlanggaran hadapan melibatkan kegagalan atau kerosakan pada roda

motorsikal. Ubah bentuk pada roda motorsikal boleh digunakan untuk menentukan

kecederaan dalam sesuatu kemalangan. Modal FE bagi aluminium roda-tayar motorsikal

struktur dibangunkan untuk memenuhi ruang dalam kajian. Kajian pembelajaran dalam

struktur penuh bagi simulasi perlanggaran motorsikal telah dibangunkan tetapi model FE

secara terperinci bagi aluminium roda-tayar motorsikal masih kekurangan. Geometri dan

reka bentuk bagi aluminium roda-tayar motorsikal telah diukur dan dikaji terlebih

dahulu untuk mendapatkan pengukuran sebenar dimana digunakan sebagai input dalam

tahap penghasilan CAD. Struktur aluminium roda dimana mengandungi rim, buyung,

lidi dan kemudian tayar dan tiub dan akhirnya bearing dan shaft dimana menghasilkan

struktur penuh depan roda-tayar motorsikal. Model rim yang telah dipilih adalah ‘Racing

Boy’ dengan 6 lidi bagi roda depan Honda EX5 100cc. ‘Meshing’ bagi CAD model

telah disiapkan menggunakan perisian MSC PATRAN. Kelengkungan yang besar telah

VIII  

dikenal pasti terlebih dahulu dimana penting untuk meletakkan ‘mesh seed’ bagi

menangkap kelengkungan dan mengawal saiz element. ‘Element property’ bagi model

telah dibahagikan kepada ‘shell element’ dimana mengandungi tayar dan tiub dan ‘solid

element’ pula mengandungi komponen rim, bearing dan shaft. Bagaimanapun, ‘material

properties’ bagi roda-tayar motorsikal adalah Aloi Aluminium B443, Aloi Keluli 1020

bagi bearing dan shaft dan getah standard bagi tayar dan tiub. Sebaiknya model lengkap

FE telah dibangunkan, model FE perlu diselesaikan dan dijalankan menggunakan

perisian LS-DYNA dan Nastran bagi simulasi statik dan impak depan masing-masing.

Bagi simulasi statik, jumlah muatan yang digunakan adalah 39kN mengikut keputusan

ujian penekanan dimana mengambil masa 4 jam untuk menyelesaikan dalam 3.0GHz

Pentium 4 processor dengan 1G RAM. Dalam simulasi impak depan struktur depan

roda-tayar motorsikal, parameter seperti ‘contact interface’ dan ‘time step size’ perlu

dimasukkan dengan berhati-hati untuk menjalankan simulasi dengan berjaya dan

pemukul digunakan untuk perlanggaran model roda. Model lengkap FE mengandungi

172687 element untuk dianalisis dengan masa simulasi 0.02s dimana mengambil masa

untuk menyelesaikan dalam 2.5GHz Quad Core processor dengan 3.25G RAM.

Keputusan statik simulasi dianalisis dan dibandingkan dengan keputusan ujian statik

penekanan dimana telah berjaya dijalankan dengan menggunakan ‘Universal Testing

Machines’. Bagaimanapun, keputusan impak simulasi dianalisis dan dibandingkan

secara tidak khusus dengan ujian statik penekanan berpandukan dengan andaian penting

dan pengiraan secara teori oleh pengkaji sebelumnya. Faktor respons yang digunakan

untuk perbandingan adalah anjakan ubah bentuk bagi statik simulasi dan tenaga dalaman

bagi impak simulasi. Perbezaan peratusan bagi anjakan ubah bentuk adalah 9.45%

manakala perbezaan peratusan bagi tenaga dalaman adalah 0.55%. Pada kesimpulannya,

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objektif kajian talah dicapai dimana untuk membangunkan model FE bagi struktur depan

aluminium roda-tayar motorsikal dan mengesahkan model perkomputeran aluminium

roda-tayar motorsikal berbanding ujian penekanan dan telah dibuktikan dengan

keputusan dimana perbezaan adalah dalam lingkungan ±10%.

X 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

ABSTRACT V

ABSTRAK VII

TABLE OF CONTENTS X

LIST OF TABLES XIV

LIST OF FIGURES XV

LIST OF NOTATION XVIII

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS XIX

XI 

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Motorcycle and Road Crash 1

1.2 Background of the Spoke 3

1.3 Problem Statement 4

1.4 Objectives of Study 4

1.5 Thesis Organization 5

1.6 Structure of Thesis 7

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8

2.1 Motorcycle Wheel Designs 9

2.1.1 Basic Components of Motorcycle Wheel 9

2.1.2 Types of Motorcycle Wheel 10

2.1.3 Design of Aluminum Cast Spoke Wheel 14

2.2 Motorcycle Crash Analysis 17

2.2.1 Motorcycle Casualties 17

2.3 Deformation and Damage Modes of Front Wheel-Tyre

Structure of Motorcycle in Frontal Crash 20

2.4 Motorcycle Collision Dynamics 23

2.4.1 Collision Configuration 23

2.4.2 Obstacles Hit by Motorcycle 27

2.5 Factors Affecting Dynamic Impact Response of

Wheel-tyre Assembly 31

2.6 Discussion 32

XII 

3 METHODOLOGY 34

3.1 Introduction 35

3.1.1 Preliminary Literature Survey 37

3.1.2 Identification of Damage and Deformation of

Motorcycle 37

3.1.3 Wheel Design Selection 38

3.1.4 Computational Simulation 38

3.1.5 Experimental Testing 40

3.2 Comparison and Validation 43

3.3 Interpretation and Study on Dynamic Response of

Spoke Cast Wheels 44

4 CAD AND FE MODELLING 45

4.1 CAD Modelling 46

4.1.1 Rim Component 46

4.1.2 Tyre 48

4.1.3 Tube 49

4.1.4 Bearing 51

4.1.5 Shaft 52

4.1.6 Full Assembly of Wheel 53

4.2 FEM Modelling 54

4.2.1 Meshing 54

4.2.2. Material Property 56

4.3 Running Simulation 60

4.3.1 Static Analysis 61

4.3.2 Impact Analysis 62

4.3.2.1 Contact Interface 64

4.3.2.2 Time Step Size 65

XIII 

4.3.2.3 Initial Velocity 66

5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 67

5.1 Energy Analysis 68

5.2 Displacement Analysis 75

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 79

6.1 Conclusion 80

6.2 Recommendation 81

REFERENCES 83

APPENDIX 86

XIV

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page 2.1 Frequency of various collision configurations in non-fatal 26

motorcycle road crashes (Pang et al., 2000). 2.2 Frequency of various collision configurations in fatal motorcycle 27

road crashes (Pang et al., 2000). 2.3 Collision types against objects struck in fatal motorcycle traffic 28

crashes (Pang et al., 1999). 2.4 Objects struck by motorcycle in road crash (Hurt et al., 1981). 29 2.5 Objects hit by motorcycle in road crash (Whitaker, 1980). 30 2.6 Frequency of objects struck by motorcycle in road crash 31

(Kalbe et al., 1981; Harms, 1981). 4.1 The total element and node for each components of wheel. 56 4.2 The material property for each components of the wheel. 59 5.1 Simple calculation for percentages error of the energy absorbs. 74 5.2 Simple calculation for percentages error of the displacement. 78

XV

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page 1.1 Structure of thesis. 7 2.1 Aluminum cast wheel. 11 2.2 Assembled wheel. 12 2.3 Typical wire-spoke wheel. 13 2.4 Cross pattern spoke wheel. 13 2.5 Cast wheel with 3 spokes. 14 2.6 Cast wheel with 6 spokes. 15 2.7 Cast wheel with 8 spokes. 15 2.8 Cast wheel with 5 spokes and different pattern. 16 2.9 Cast wheel with 5 spokes and different pattern. 16 2.10 Motorcycle Crashes in Malaysia (2000). 18 2.11 Motorcycle Rider Casualties Compared to Casualties for Occupants 19

in Other Types of Vehicles (2000).

2.12 Typical deformations and damage modes of front wheel-tyre 22 assembly of motorcycles which experienced frontal collision: a) dented rim; b) distorted and buckled wheel; c) rim distorted and tyre came off; d) buckled wheel; e) totally collapsed wheel (Pang, 2000).

2.13 ISO13232 seven basic collision configurations (1996). 24

XVI

2.14 Pictorial definition of coding system in ISO 13232 (1996): 25 (a) digits representing parts on passenger car; (b) on motorcycle; (c) angle distribution.

3.1 Flow chart outlining the research methodology. 36 3.2 ‘Universal Testing Machines’ 41 3.3 Condition of test specimen while running the experiment. 42 3.4 Deformation of aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel. 43 4.1 Isometric view of rim component. 47 4.2 Cross section view of rim component. 47 4.3 Isometric view of tyre part. 48 4.4 Cross section view of tyre part. 49 4.5 Isometric view of tube part. 50 4.6 Cross section view of tube part. 50 4.7 Isometric view of bearing part. 51 4.8 Isometric view of shaft part. 52 4.9 Isometric view of full assembly of wheel. 53 4.10 Isometric view of cross section of full assembly of wheel. 54 4.11 Isometric view of rim component after meshed. 56 4.12 Isometric view of bearing after meshed. 57 4.13 Isometric view of shaft after meshed. 57 4.14 Isometric view of tyre after meshed. 58 4.15 Isometric view of tube after meshed. 58 4.16 Model setup of static testing. 62 4.17 Complete model assembly after meshed. 63 4.18 Cross section complete model assembly after meshed. 64

XVII

5.1 Energy curve between force (N) versus displacement (mm). 69 5.2 Internal energy graph of static simulation. 70 5.3 Energy curve between kinetic and internal energy. 72 5.4 Internal energy graph of impact simulation. 72 5.5 Maximum displacement of the static simulation. 75 5.6 Maximum displacement of the quasi-static compression testing. 76 5.7 Graph displacement (mm) versus time (s) in impact simulation. 77

XVIII

LIST OF NOTATION

km/h Kilometer per hour

mm Milimeter

mm/s

J

kPa

Mpa

N.m

Millimeter per second

Joule

Kilo Pascal

Mega Pascal

Newton meter

N Newton

N.mm Newton milimeter

s Second

XIX

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

FE

FEM

Finite Element

Finite Element Method

PDRM Polis Di-Raja Malaysia (Royal Malaysia Police)

UPNM Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Motorcycle and Road Crash

In 1885, the first motorcycle was designed and built by the German inventors

Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt Stuttgart. A motorcycle is a

two-wheeled motor vehicle powered by an engine and many prefer the motorcycle as

major transport. In developing countries such as Malaysia, the motorcycle is a practical

mode of personal daily transport and even in industrialised nations it continues to be a

very important transportation mode nowadays. This is mainly due to its effective and

convenient mobility in congested traffic conditions, and the second reason would be the

economical justification compared to motorized four-wheelers.

2

The numbers of registered two-wheel motor vehicles in Malaysia have increased

tremendously from 1,391,899 in 1980 (PDRM, 1993) to 5,609,351 in 2001 (PDRM,

2003), which accounted for about 59% and 51% respectively of the total registered

vehicles, with their proportion on the road varies from 35% to 68%, depending on

location (Radin Umar, 1998). As a consequence of increased of ownership, motorcycle

crashes have also increased dramatically during that period from 19,969 in 1980

(PDRM, 1993) to 85,761 in 2001 (PDRM, 2003).

In Malaysia, it is reported that an overall relative risk of death or injury is about

20 times higher for motorcycles compared to the passenger-cars (Radin Umar, 1995).

Therefore, it is not surprising to note that approximately 67% of all traffic injuries

involved motorcycle riders and pillions, with constitution of nearly 58% of all fatalities

in the road crashes in 2001 (PDRM, 2003). Some motorcycle crash studies conducted in

other countries also show such consistent results. In a typical motorcycle crash,

deformation of the motorcycle spoke is the most severe due to direct and unobstructed

impact. However, little attention has been paid to investigate the deformation of

motorcycle spokes during a crash.

3

1.2 Background of the Spoke

Motorcycle wheels are generally made of aluminum or steel rims with spokes,

although some models that were introduced in the 1970s can offer cast wheels. Cast

wheels allow the bikes to use tubeless tires, which unlike traditional pneumatic tires;

don't have an inner tube to hold the compressed air. Instead, the air is held between the

rim and the tire, relying on a seal that forms between rim and tire to maintain the internal

air pressure. At the same time, motorcycles used spoke wheels built up from separate

components but besides usage in dirt bikes, one-piece wheels are more common now.

The two main types of motorcycle rims are solid wheels in which case the rim

and spokes are all cast as one unit usually in aluminum or spoke wheels where the

motorcycle rims are "laced" with spokes. Apart from the obvious point that the spokes

add strength to the rim, the lacing also gives a design feature all on its own to the

motorcycle rims. Other materials used are magnesium alloy and even carbon fiber, these

motorcycle rims have incredible strength weight ratios, and their light weight give racers

a significant advantage in situations where the difference between success and failure is

measured in tenths of a second. Performance racing motorcycles often use carbon-fiber

wheels but the expense of these wheels is prohibitively high for general usage.

4

1.3 Problem Statement

The problem statement of this study is:

i. No detail about FEM Model.

ii. Only simple wheel model was developed using FEM.

iii. Manufacturer’s concerns about performance but not the safety aspects of the cast

wheel.

iv. Lack of knowledge of energy effect and deformation characteristics of cast

wheel.

1.4 Objectives of Study

The following objectives have been established:

i. To develop a Finite Element model for the motorcycle front wheel-tyre

assembly.

5

ii. To validate the computational model of aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel

against quasi-static compression testing.

1.5 Thesis Organization

This thesis is divided into six chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 1 is about the introduction of the general problem statement, objectives and also

thesis organization and structure.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

The details about the project will be discussed more clearly in this chapter related to the

journal which gives a critical review of the relevant literatures, from motorcycle wheel

designs, motorcycle crash analysis, typical damage modes of motorcycle front wheel-

tyre assembly in the frontal road crash, motorcycle traffic collision dynamics, and

factors affecting dynamic impact response of wheel-tyre assembly.

6

Chapter 3: Methods/Methodology

This chapter is about various methods and their description, theoretical and analytical

techniques and relevant experiments used to find the data fill which will be discussed in

this chapter.

Chapter 4: Review Case Study

This chapter presents the review about the description and discussion on finite element

analysis and the experimental on aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel.

Chapter 5: Result and Discussion

This chapter provides an analysis of the experimental and simulation results and the

establishment of empirical models of the motorcycle spoke assembly.

Chapter 6: Summary and Conclusion

This chapter contains the summary and conclusion of the entire work, including

methods, results, major conclusions and recommendations for future works which are

suggested based on the present work.

7

1.6 Structure of Thesis

Figure 1.1 below shows briefly the content for each chapter to complete this study.

Introduction of background of study and determining problem

statements (case study)

The details of the project will be discussed further for literature

review

The methodology which was used to investigate the problem

Review of the case study

The results from the experiment will be discussed to find the best

solution

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6 Analysis of the results and

further suggestions

Figure 1.1: Structure of thesis

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents reviews of literatures relevant to the present study. The

survey was conducted with the aid of journals, proceedings, theses, patents, website

publications and other relevant reading materials. The chief area of reviews are as

follows: motorcycle wheel designs, motorcycle crash analysis, typical damage modes of

motorcycle front wheel-tyre assembly in the frontal road crash, motorcycle traffic

collision dynamics, and factors affecting dynamic impact response of wheel-tyre

assembly.

9

2.1 Motorcycle Wheel Designs

2.1.1 Basic Components of Motorcycle Wheel

The hub, axle, rim, spokes, and bearings make up the basic wheel components.

The hub is situated at the center of the wheel. The hub is an aluminum casting that

carries the load. Occasionally there is a steel or iron drum pressed into the brake for

brake linings. Besides the disk brake systems, the braking device situated inside the hub,

a flange is cast on the hub’s outer diameter. Holes in the flange are for the spokes that

support the wheel. Wheel bearings and a spacer make up the construction of the hub.

When the bearings are not sealed, the hub will have its own seals. The wheel revolves on

wheel bearings and is attached to the motorcycle by the axle. The axle is mounted at the

lower end of the front fork or the rear swing arm.

The aim of the rim is supporting the tyre. The rim is designed to allow not only

tyre removal but also its installation. Steel or aluminum is used to make the rim. It is

ring-shaped with a recess along the center. Along the center of the rim are located spoke

holes and a tyre valve hole. The following are three types of valve stems: side, center,

and L-shaped. On certain tube-type rims, a rim lock is included to prevent the tyre from

slipping on the rim during operation. The rim flanges are made to provide greater

rigidity, as is the drop center in the rim. Three basic functions of the drop center are as

10

follows: to provide rigidity, to position the spoke nipples out of the way of the tyre and

tube, and to aid tyre changing.

2.1.2 Types of Motorcycle Wheel

Commercially available are four basic types of motorcycle wheels: the aluminum

or magnesium cast wheel, the assembled wheel, the split rim wheel and the spoke wheel.

Figure 2.1 shows an example of an aluminum cast wheel. While the aluminum cast

wheel is designed to use either tube or tubeless tires, magnesium cast wheels can be used

only with tube tyres. The standards may be tested from cast wheel manufacturing, which

are published and obtainable. There are tolerances for radial and lateral deflection and

precise standards for the rim contours. On no account should the rim be less than half the

width of the tyre. The rim width is measured at the inside of the flange.

11

Figure 2.1: Aluminum cast wheel

Figure 2.2 shows the hub and rim of the modern assembled wheel made of

aluminum. The aluminum or steel spokes are permanently riveted to the rim and bolted

to the hub. Under no circumstances should this wheel be disassembled. Cast alloy

wheels require very little maintenance but need to be kept balanced and periodically

examined for cracks and trueness.

12

Figure 2.2: Assembled wheel

Figure 2.3 shows typical wire-spoke wheels. Still popular today though

pioneered by motorized bicycles in the 1880s are the wire-spoke wheels. Properties of a

properly constructed spoke wheels are strong, lightweight, and resilient. The spokes are

made of string wires that shift the force to the hub to keep the wheel true. Spoke wheels

are commonly laced with cross pattern. This cross pattern is determined by the number

of times one spokes crosses other spokes that are in the opposite direction from the same

side of the hub and rim shown in Figure 2.4. One to four cross patterns are not

uncommon for spoke wheels. Radial and vertical strength of the wheel increases with

the number of cross patterns.

13

Figure 2.3: Typical spoke wheel

Figure 2.4: Cross pattern spoke wheel

14

2.1.3 Design of Aluminum Cast Spoke Wheel

Commercially there are many design of aluminum cast spoke wheel available in

market. Design of wheel was differentiate by the number of spoke on that rim. Other that

than, wheel was also differentiate by the colour, pattern and the size which suitable for

all kind of motorcycle respectively. Basically the design of wheel was chosen by

customer depends on their personal requirement and taste of choices. Here is some

designs of aluminum cast wheel are available in market:

Figure 2.5: Cast wheel with 3 spokes

15

Figure 2.6: Cast wheel with 6 spokes

Figure 2.7: Cast wheel with 8 spokes

16

Figure 2.8: Cast wheel with 5 spokes and different pattern

Figure 2.9: Cast wheel with 5 spokes and different pattern

17

2.2 Motorcycle Crash Analysis

2.2.1 Motorcycle Casualties

Motorcycle crashes continue to be a problem in both developing and developed

countries. In developing countries, deaths and serious injuries from motorcycle accidents

constitute a large portion of total road casualties especially in Asian countries, because

motorized two-wheelers make up 40% to 95% of their vehicle fleets. As a result, more

than half of the road fatalities were riders or pillion passengers.

In Malaysia, motorcycles constitute more than half the total vehicle population

and contribute more than 60% of the casualties (deaths, serious and slight injuries) in

traffic crashes. In 2000, 79,816 crashes involved motorcycles, an increase of almost

three-fold from 1990. Of these, almost 3,000 motorcyclists were killed every year during

this period as shown in Figure 2.10.

18

Source: Polis Di Raja Malaysia, Statistical Report: Road Accidents, Malaysia 2000

(Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 2002, Traffic Branch, Royal Malaysian Police).

Figure 2.10: Motorcycle Crashes in Malaysia, 2000

19

Source: Polis Di Raja Malaysia, Statistical Report: Road Accidents, Malaysia 2000

(Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 2002, Traffic Branch, Royal Malaysian Police)

Key: Fatality rate = fatalities per 10,000 registered vehicles; injury rate = injuries per

10,000 registered vehicles; casualties (%): as a percentage of all casualties in traffic

crashes in Malaysia.

Figure 2.11: Motorcycle Rider Casualties Compared to Casualties for Occupants in

Other Types of Vehicles, 2000

20

Moreover, motorcyclist casualties were much higher than those of occupants in

other types of vehicles as shown in Figure 2.11. In an attempt to reduce casualties,

exclusive motorcycle lanes were constructed along major trunk roads in the country.

Since the implementation of this initiative, a number of studies (Radin Umar 1996;

Radin Umar et al. 1995, 2000) have been carried out to evaluate the impact of these

lanes on motorcycle crashes on highway links. Results indicate the lanes had a

significant effect (p <0.01), reducing motorcycle crashes by 39% following the opening

of the lanes to traffic. However, little research has been done on motorcycle crashes at

intersections. In depth studies would allow traffic engineers to establish appropriate

intersection treatment criteria specifically designed for motorcycle lane facilities.

2.3 Deformation and Damage Modes of Front Wheel-tyre Structure of

Motorcycle in Frontal Crash

The damages of the front fork structure have been classified into several modes

of deformation through Motorcycle Inspection Form designed by Pang (2000). They are

as follows: grazed, dented or smashed, distorted and broken off. Bending and

displacement from the axle axis are included under distortion category. Besides being

grazed, it is common that the front fork tends to be distorted due to its relatively slender

structure. There has been no specific classification presented in the inspection form for

21

front wheel or wheel-tyre assembly though there is one available for the spokes

conditions. They have been classified into modes of either distortion or broken off. Even

so, the examination of photographs of collided motorcycles showed that there are a few

deformation modes which resided on crashed motorcycle front wheel-tyre structure.

Figure 2.12 shows several typical deformation patterns of the wheel-tyre structures that

were exposed to different crash conditions.

Typical deformation modes are as such: denting, buckling, distortion, and

collapse. Combinations of these deformation modes were common, for example,

distortion together with buckling, and a buckled wheel with a broken hub. Mostly the

spokes will be distorted rather than broken off. Several cases presented as broken hubs

and rims at connection spoke holes due to the torn-off spoke wires. There were only a

minimal number of cases where the hub was broken off. Not one case involved the

breaking off of the axle. Several severe cases showed that the tube was punctured and

came off from the rim together with the tyre.

22

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 2.12: Typical deformations and damage modes of front wheel-tyre assembly

of motorcycles which experienced frontal collision: a) dented rim; b) distorted and

buckled wheel; c) rim distorted and tyre came off; d) buckled wheel; e) totally

collapsed wheel (Pang, 2000)

23

2.4 Motorcycle Collision Dynamics

Analysis on collision dynamics of motorcycles in real-world road crashes allows

the evaluation of vehicle movement sequence and crash severity in any traffic collision

or road crash. It also supplies the precious and informative insights of various aspects of

crashing characteristics and accident mechanisms especially in collision configurations,

characteristics of collision, frequency of obstacles hit and conclusions.

2.4.1 Collision Configuration

The collision configuration explains the manner in which the two vehicles

involved in the traffic accident came together. Its analysis is essential since different

impact configurations produce different characteristics of vehicle damages and human

body injuries. There are seven basic impact configurations shown in Figure 2.13. The

impact configuration code is comprised of a series of three digits describing the car

contact point, the motorcycle contact point and relative heading angle respectively,

followed by a hyphen (-), the car impact speed and the motorcycle impact speed,

respectively in m/s (Deguchi.M).

24

Figure 2.13: ISO13232 seven basic collision configurations

The international standard ISO 13232 (1996) provides more specific

classifications of collision configurations. A three-digit-number coding system is used

by the standard to concisely define the configuration. The first and second digits

describe the point of accident on the opponent and on the motorcycle respectively whilst

the third number defines the angle of the longitudinal axis for describing the impact

direction. As illustrated in Figures 2.14 (a) and (b), the first and second digits represent

specific parts on the passenger car and motorcycle respectively. Figure 2.14 (c) instead

presents a pictorial definition of the angle distribution. When regarded individually, the

number gives the first indications of the critical points of the accident.

25

In the standard ISO 13232, the angle of the longitudinal axis of the vehicles

involved in collision is divided into 45º-angle groups. As far as the direction in which

the motorcycle strikes the car is concerned, this is relatively broad. Impact directions are

usually categorized by accident investigators into clock face angles, which limit the

accuracy of angular information to 30º-slots. The area of 12 o’clock or the area “1”

(Figure 2.14 (c)) corresponds to the angle ranging from 345º to 15º, in contrast to the

ISO Standard in which this area ranged from 337.5º to 22.5º. This narrower presentation

obviously ended up in more collision types and the number of cases in each being

noticeably reduced. The division into 30º-segments is particularly more informative in

the case of some collision types (Sporner et al., 1995).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.14: Pictorial definition of coding system in ISO 13232 (1996): (a) digits

representing parts on passenger car; (b) on motorcycle; (c) angle distribution

26

A study which was conducted by T.Y Pang et al. (March 2000), investigating

accident characteristics of injured motorcyclists in Klang Valley, Malaysia also found

high frequency of occurrence of motorcycle accidents with frontal collision

configuration. Table 2.1 presents findings for non-fatal cases (T.Y Pang et al., 2000)

while Table 2.2 shows the findings for fatal cases (T.Y Pang et al., 2000).

Table 2.1: Frequency of various collision configurations in non-fatal motorcycle

road crashes (Pang et al., 2000)

Collision configuration Frequency Percentage

Head-on 9 4.4

Rear end 30 14.5

Side collision 98 47.6

Hitting Object 23 11.2

Loss Control 46 22.3

TOTAL 206 100

27

Table 2.2: Frequency of various collision configurations in fatal motorcycle road

crashes (Pang et al., 2000)

Collision configuration Frequency Percentage

Head-on 39 21.4

Rear end 19 10.4

Side collision 69 37.9

Hitting Object 12 6.6

Loss Control 43 23.6

TOTAL 182 100

2.4.2 Obstacles Hit by Motorcycle

Another important factor which has direct effect on the severity and mechanisms

of deformation of motorcycle components is types of obstacles struck by the motorcycle

constituted. With the equal force applied, the physical indentation which resides on a

motorcycle wheel will definitely be higher for a sharp striking object than that of flat

contact geometry. Wong (2000) pointed out that the nature of impact, which may be

categorized by the hitting object and target obstacle collision mode, stiff or deformable,

28

has contributions to the collision severity. Table 2.3 presents typical obstacles hit by the

motorcyclists in fatal traffic crashes in Klang Valley, Malaysia (Pang et al., 1999).

Table 2.3: Collision types against objects struck in fatal motorcycle traffic crashes

(Pang et al., 1999)

Object Hit Frequency Percentage

Car 50 28.1

Motorcycle 17 9.5

Light commercial vehicle 35 19.7

Heavy commercial vehicle 35 19.7

Others 41 23.0

Total 178 100.0

Hurt et al. (1981) who conducted a comprehensive investigation with a sample

size of 900 on-scenes, in-depth motorcycle accidents found the findings as summarized

in Table 2.4. Of the cases shown, 230 were vehicle collisions where the motorcycle did

not make contact with another vehicle but collided with a fixed object, animal, roadway,

pedestrians, trash, etc.

29

Table 2.4: Objects struck by motorcycle in road crash (Hurt et al., 1981)

Collision with Frequency Percentage

Passenger car 588 65.3

Other motorcycle 27 3.0

Fixed object 40 4.4

Animal 8 0.9

Roadway 172 19.1

Other 4-wheel vehicle 48 5.3

Other 17 1.9

TOTAL 900 100

The following study by Whitaker (1980) found that in the total of 425 cases of

road accidents, more than half were crashes where motorcycles impacted with other on-

road vehicles. Table 2.5 summarizes the outcome of the study.

30

Table 2.5: Objects hit by motorcycle in road crash (Whitaker, 1980)

Object Hit

Multi-vehicle

accidents

Single-vehicle

accidents All accidents (%)

Other on road vehicle 290 - 290 (68.2)

Other parked vehicle 1 23 24 (5.6)

Pedestrian 13 1 14 (3.3)

Cyclist 5 - 5 (1.2)

Other object 7 33 40 (9.4)

No object 17 34 51 (12.0)

Not known - 1 1 (0.3)

Total 333 92 425(100.0)

The studies by Whitaker (1980) and Hurt et al. (1981) showed nearly constant

findings in multi-vehicle collisions wherein Whitaker found 78% while Hurt et al.

reported 74% in such collisions. Table 2.6 displays the summary of obstacles hit by

motorcycles in the road accident from two other studies (Harms (1981) and Kalbe et al.

(1981)). Work by Vallée et al. (1981) also shows that the highest proportions of

collisions are with cars.

31

Table 2.6: Frequency of objects struck by motorcycle in road crash (Kalbe et al.,

1981; Harms, 1981)

Study Sample

Size

Collision with (%)

Car

Other 4-wheeler

Other motorcycle

Fell off

Other obstacles

Kalbe et al. 123 57 6 2 18 1

Harms 766 41 6 2 30 6

2.5 Factors Affecting Dynamic Impact Response of Wheel-tyre Assembly

An impact phenomenon is a complex event which sees the frontal collision of the

motorcycle front wheel-tyre structures with other vehicles or roadside objects. The

impact response of the wheel-tyre structure in the crash depends on a variety of factors.

They may be potential design factors which should be given careful consideration in

experimental design. The discussion in Section 2.4 (deliberations on the motorcycle road

crash scenario and the collision dynamics) has assisted in identifying the following

parameters that may be influential to the dynamic response of a wheel-tyre structure in

the frontal crash condition:

32

a) Wheel-tyre assembly.

b) Tyre pressures.

c) Speed of impact.

d) Contact geometry and structure of the objects struck.

e) Compliance of front suspension.

f) Wheel rotation motion and speed.

g) Location of the impact relative to the wheel-tyre assembly (radically or offset).

h) Impact angle.

The listed factors are further classified into factors which are of essential value to the

wheel-tyre structure itself such as tyre pressure and integrity of wheel-tyre structure, and

the external factors such as object struck and location of impact.

2.6 Discussion

Surveys on literatures demonstrate that the frontal components of motorcycles

acquire high exposure rate of damage and may prove to be one of the useful tools in

analyzing the traffic crash. There is a common consistency between the studies that the

majority of the objects hit by motorcycles during road accidents are other on-road

vehicles. It is obvious that the object struck most frequently, in a half to two thirds of

33

collisions, is a car, and a quarter to a third of accidents where the struck object is known

does not involve impact with any other vehicle. According to the majority of the studies

carried out, mean motorcycle speed when a motorcyclist is confronted with a hazard is

usually not very high, normally within the range of 30 to 45 km/h.

In a collision with a passenger car, the reaction of the motorcycle-rider

frequently grasps the attention of most of the research works. A large number of studies

which are being carried out on motorcycle crash scenarios have pin pointed on a wider

or macro point of view, the interaction between the motorcycle and rider such as the

parameters affecting the kinematics of motorcycle and rider. The behaviour of a specific

component of a motorcycle during impact has never been put to investigation. However,

the Yettram et al., 1994 study has stated that the crash dynamics of the motorcycle and

the dummy depend initially on the collapsing characteristics of the front wheel. Breaking

down the whole motorcycle and investigating the individual major components

separately would also aid in preventing the underestimation of the energy absorption by

the motorcycle in the case of large deformations. Thus being said, in studying the

reaction of front wheel-tyre assembly of motorcycles in frontal impact, it is apparent that

separate investigation of the impact properties of the wheel-tyre assembly and the front

fork structure is necessary.

34

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This chapter is a detailed description about how the project was carried out to

fulfill the objectives required. Each aspect of project implementation is discussed. The

chapter begins with a description of overall implementation process. An outline of the

methodology is first presented in a flow chart to provide an overview of the process,

follow by detailed discussions of the outline and the elaboration of key procedures and

techniques employed in the study.

35

3.1 Introduction

The methodology flow chart shown in Figure 3.1 describes the method

sequences or steps implemented to complete the project. This study consists of two main

parts which are computational simulation and experimental testing. FEM consists of a

computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for specific results.

FEM allows detailed visualization of where structures bend or twist, and indicates the

distribution of stresses and displacements.

Therefore, the FEM is usually referred to develop and analysis the computational

model of aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel under impact response. The method of

the experimental is based quasi-static responses of model of aluminum cast spoke

motorcycle wheel under compression test. Therefore, the compression test determines

deformation of model under crushing loads. The specimen is compressed and

deformation with loads is recorded to providing recommendations based on the analysis

and interpretation data.

36

START

Preliminary Literature Survey i

Figure 3.1: Flow chart outlining the research methodology

Analysis on Simulation Data

Identification of Damage & Deformation Modes of Cast

Wheel

Examination on Design Spoke Motorcycle &

Photographs

Inspection on Real-world Crashed Motorcycles

COMPUTATIONAL EXPERIMENTALWheel Design Selection

Preparation for Test Specimen

CAD Modelling

Final Setup of Test

Analysis on Experimental Data

Comparison & Validation

Interpretation and Study on Dynamic Response of Spoke Cast Wheels

END

FEM Modelling

Run Simulation of Model Using LS-DYNA

Run the Experiment

Measurement & Examination on Geometrical Properties

37

3.1.1 Preliminary Literature Survey

Preliminary literature survey was studied to acquire an overview on the scenario

of motorcycle traffic collision in the real-world. Better understanding the phenomenon

being studied and also being able to recognize and clarify the problem in motorcycle

collision is important in this stage.

3.1.2 Identification of Damage and Deformation of Motorcycle

At this stage, an inspection was conducted on relevant motorcycles involved in

road crashes to obtain a real and clearer picture of conditions of deformed motorcycle

frontal structures. Besides that, the photograph of damaged spokes also was taken to

obtain a clearer picture of conditions of deformed motorcycle frontal structures.

Importance was given to the motorcycles that experienced frontal collision and sustained

significant deformations on front wheel-tyre assembly to identify the typical damage and

deformation modes that resided on the wheel-tyre assembly after the frontal crash.

38

3.1.3 Wheel Design Selection

For this study, aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel was selected as the

substance of experiment. Generally, cast wheels are easier to manufacture and assemble

ever lace up a spoke wheel, can take tubeless tires without special preparation, and are

generally more rigid and resist rim distortion better. Spokes are adding strength to the

rim and more durable compare to wire spoke wheel. Because of this, cast wheels was

used for this study to analysis the deformation modes that resided on the wheel-tyre

assembly after the frontal crash.

3.1.4 Computational Simulation

Beginning of this stage, the measurement and examination of geometrical

properties on the aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel will be conducted. The sample

of the aluminum cast spoke of the motorcycle was bought to use as a reference when

developed the CAD model of spoke. This is important to get exact information on the

dimension, size and design of aluminum cast spokes. The model spoke of the motorcycle

was developed using SolidWorks software. Components of cast wheel to be modeled is

made up of one solid element that are rim, hub and spoke and secondly the tyre and tube

39

and finally the bearing and shaft which form the full front wheel-tyre assembly of the

motorcycle. In order to compute a dimensional of front wheel-tyre assembly of the

motorcycle which represents the actual measurement characteristics of the cast wheel,

important parameters like fillet can be neglected.

Once the CAD model of front wheel-tyre assembly motorcycle is developed,

finite element method was used to reduce a continuum CAD model to a discrete

numerical model. This continuum was divided into relatively simple finite elements to

represent the cast wheel shape. The process is called meshing. Meshing of CAD model

of front wheel-tyre assembly motorcycle is done by the finite element software namely

MSC PATRAN. Meshing the CAD model such coarsely will eventually save a lot of

computation time during the impact analysis. After meshing, the files of FE model have

to be created so that the simulation can be run under LS-DYNA software.

Once the complete FE model was developed, the FE model was solved using LS-

DYNA and NASTRAN software for simulated the static compression and frontal impact

loading, respectively. In the impact simulation of front wheel-tyre assembly motorcycle,

parameters like contact interface, element property and impact speed need to be

carefully handled in order to run the simulation successfully. At the end of simulation,

the results of dynamic responses of cast wheel spoke motorcycle will be collected and

will be processed to analysis and interpretation the simulation data.

40

The simulation data was gathered and analyzed according to the response

variables which may have affected the crash dynamics and impact responses of the

motorcycle front wheel-tyre assembly which was selected for this study. This is

important to make sure the results of simulation on cast wheel spoke are reasonable and

accurate. Therefore, the experimental process on aluminum cast wheel spoke of

motorcycle will conducted to analysis and compare with simulation data.

3.1.5 Experimental Testing

For the experimental, method of compression test was choose to establish

deformation of model under crushing loads for predicting the quasi-static response of the

motorcycle cast spoke. The compression test on solid materials is probably the most

widely used method for determining the flow stresses at large deformation. ‘Universal

Testing Machines’ was used for the experimental testing. Figure 3.2 shows the picture of

‘Universal Testing Machines’.The specific model of test specimen selected for the

present study is the aluminium cast wheel tyre assembly for HONDA EX5 100cc

motorcycle. The specific model of the rim is Racing Boy, with the size of 1.40X17

inches and 6 curves spokes while the tyre model is Vee Rubber M/G 38P 70/90.

41

Figure 3.2: ‘Universal Testing Machines’

Beginning the stage, the tyre was then fixed onto the rim and after inflated it was

checked for the inflation pressure level using proper pressure gauge. The standard or

manufacturer recommended tyre pressure for the specific tyre model under investigation

which is 200 kPa. The wheel-tyre assembly, or the test specimen, was then being located

vertically on the compression plank in correct plane and was centered both side to

minimize the slipping that might occur during the compression process. Two video

cameras were incorporated as an imaging system. The camera was used for capturing an

overall progressive deformation of the wheel-tyre assembly.

42

After complete the setup of the test specimens, important parameter like velocity,

stroke time, length of area and displacement were carefully handled in computer that

linked to the machine in order to run the experimental successfully. The experiment runs

until the test specimen encountered the first fracture. Then, the experiment stopped and

the deformation of test specimen will be examined. The experimental data was gathered

and presented in a graph of force versus deflection for the aluminium cast wheel-tyre

assembly. Figure 3.3 shows that condition of test specimen while running the

experiment and Figure 3.4 shows that deformation of aluminum cast spoke motorcycle

wheel after the experiment.

Figure 3.3: Condition of test specimen while running the experiment

43

Figure 3.4: Deformation of aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel

3.2 Comparison and Validation

Data of the simulation were analyzed and compared against the experimental

data for validation purpose. The data were compared kinematics with deflection as

variable and also kinetics with strain energy as variable. Difference or deviation of both

data should be in range between ±5 and maximum range can reach between ±10. The

range of deviation should in order value to ensure the data collected are correct which

proved to develop the FE model for the motorcycle spoke assembly.

44

3.3 Interpretation and Study on Dynamic Response of Spoke Cast Wheels

At this stage, the satisfactory model of spoke cast wheel was achieved after the

validation process. Interpretation and study on dynamic response of spoke cast wheels

are very important according the parameter selected earlier of this study. Case study of

cast wheel was conducted in this stage to ensure that cast wheel response under impact

configurations. Based on the developed cast wheel models, result of parameters showing

the dynamic response as the fundamentals in analyzing and interpreting the impact

characteristics of the motorcycle frontal wheel-tyre assembly.

45 

CHAPTER 4

CAD AND FE MODELLING

This chapter provides the detailed descriptions of computational modeling of the

aluminium cast wheel-tyre assembly. The chapter begins with detailed description of

measurement and geometrical properties of each component follow by CAD and FE

modelling of the study.

46 

4.1 CAD Modelling

All components of the cast wheel-tyre assembly was developed using

SolidWorks software. The components to be modeled included the cast wheel which

made up of one piece rim-spoke-hub structure, tyre, tube, bearing and shaft.

Measurements of each component were measured firstly by using a vernier caliper and a

steel ruler where it was important to get the information on the key dimension of the

components.

4.1.1 Rim Component

Each part of the rim has been measured carefully and developed according to the

physical dimensions of the model. A component of rim was made up of a solid part

consisting of rim, hub and 6 spokes. Figure 4.1 shows isometric view of rim component

and Figure 4.2 shows cross section view of rim component.

47 

Figure 4.1: Isometric view of rim component

Figure 4.2: Cross section view of rim component

48 

4.1.2 Tyre

The CAD model of the tyre was developed as surface part. Figure 4.3 shows

isometric view of tyre part and Figure 4.4 shows cross section view of tyre part.

Figure 4.3: Isometric view of tyre part

49 

Figure 4.4: Cross section view of tyre part

4.1.3 Tube

The CAD model of the tube was developed as surface part. Figure 4.5 shows

isometric view of tube part and Figure 4.6 shows cross section view of tube part.

50 

Figure 4.5: Isometric view of tube part

Figure 4.6: Cross section view of tube part

51 

4.1.4 Bearing

The CAD model of bearing was developed as solid part. The bearing was

combined together with inner shaft because the simplification of drawing was not

significant to deformation of rim. Figure 4.7 shows isometric view of bearing part.

Figure 4.7: Isometric view of bearing part

52 

4.1.5 Shaft

The CAD model of shaft was developed as solid part. Figure 4.8 shows isometric

view of shaft part.

Figure 4.8: Isometric view of shaft part

53 

4.1.6 Full Assembly of Wheel

Once all the CAD parts of the components of aluminium cast wheel have

developed, then were assembled together to form the full cast wheel-tyre assembly. Each

part of wheel was mated using appropriate mating entities to ensure no overlap or

penetration among the components. Figure 4.9 shows isometric view of full assembly of

wheel and Figure 4.10 shows isometric view of cross section of full assembly of wheel.

Figure 4.9: Isometric view of full assembly of wheel

54 

Tyre

Tube

Spoke

Rim Shaft

Bearing Hub

Figure 4.10: Isometric view of cross section of full assembly of wheel

4.2 FEM Modelling

4.2.1 Meshing

Once completed developed the model of the frontal wheel-tyre assembly of the

motorcycle using SolidWorks software. All parts were saved in the respective way then

55 

imported to MSC Patran for developing FE models. The mesh is the input for the finite

element solver which computes the crash simulation. Mesh quality is a precondition for

the correctness of the simulation result. Therefore, the mesh is verified and corrected if

necessary. Highly curvature parts were first identified where it was important to put

mesh seed to capture the curvature and control the size element. Besides that, there are

two type of element was used for meshing which are Tetrahedron for solid element and

Quad for the surface element.

The material model “Isotropic” is selected as this material model option is used

for all parts that will only experience deflections in the elastic region of the stress-strain

curve. The reason isotropic material model is chosen is due to the fact that plastic

deformations that might be experienced by the motorcycle are not of interest in this

analysis. At this stage, material properties for all part of wheel were associated with their

respective value and standard of material such as density, modulus of elastic, yield

strength and poisson ratio. Table 4.1 shows the total element and node for each

components of wheel. Isometric view of all components of wheel after meshed was

shown as below.

56 

Table 4.1: The total element and node for each components of wheel

Component Element Property Total Element Total Node

Rim Solid

(Tetrahedron)

141166 38231

Bearing Solid

(Tetrahedron)

26240 5914

Shaft Solid

(Tetrahedron)

769 246

Tube Shell

(Quad)

1992 1992

Tyre Shell

(Quad)

2520 2640

Total 172687 49023

Figure 4.11: Isometric view of rim component after meshed

 

57 

Figure 4.12: Isometric view of bearing after meshed

Figure 4.13: Isometric view of shaft after meshed

58 

Figure 4.14: Isometric view of tyre after meshed

Figure 4.15: Isometric view of tube after meshed

59 

4.2.2 Material Property

Once imported the all components meshed properly according size element and

correct calculation value. Table 4.2 shows the material property for each components of

the wheel.

Table 4.2: The material property for each components of the wheel

Components Standard Material Material Property Respective Value

Rim Aluminum Alloy B443

Density 2.82E-6 kg/mm3

Modulus Of Elastic 7.24E7 kg/mms-2

Yield Strength 7.5E4 kg/mms-2

Poisson Ratio 0.33

Bearing

Mild Steel AISI1020

Density 7.86E-6 kg/mm3

Modulus Of Elastic 2.07E8 kg/mms-2

Yield Strength 3.45E5 kg/mms-2

Poisson Ratio 0.3

Shaft

Mild Steel AISI1020

Density 7.86E-6 kg/mm3

Modulus Of Elastic 2.07E8 kg/mms-2

Yield Strength 3.45E5 kg/mms-2

Poisson Ratio 0.3

Tyre Rubber

Density 1.0E-6 kg/mm3

Poisson Ratio 0.49

Stiffness A 5.541E3

60 

B 9.853E2

Tube Rubber

Density 1.0E-6 kg/mm3

Poisson Ratio 0.49

Stiffness A 5.518E2

B 1.370E2

4.3 Running Simulation

Once the completed FE model was developed, the FE model was solved using

LS-DYNA and MSC Nastran software for simulated the static compression and frontal

impact loading, respectively.

61 

4.3.1 Static Analysis

In this study, MSC Nastran is employed to simulate the static response for model

of aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel.MSC Nastran is a powerful general purpose

finite element analysis solution for small to complex assemblies. The FE model of rim

was import to MSC Patran to apply load at particular node where the total load was

taken 39kN according the experimental results.

Then, the FE model of rim was fix at bottom and important parameters such as

material properties and solution type need to be carefully handled in order to run the

simulation successfully. Finally, the Nastran files were created to run the simulation.

The results of static simulation was analyzed and compared against the experimental

result of quasi-static compression testing, which has been successfully conducted by

employing the Universal Testing Machines. Figure 4.16 shows the model setup of static

testing. 

 

 

62 

 

Figure 4.16: Model setup of static testing

4.3.2 Impact Analysis

In this study, LS-DYNA is employed to simulate the impact response for model

of aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel. LS-DYNA is a sophisticated program for

solving three dimensional, inelastic and large deformation structural dynamics problems.

Once completed meshed all part of model of aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel

using MSC Patran software. All part saved in format KEY files to import to LS-DYNA

where it was enables to simulate the model particularly in dynamic response analysis of

63 

crash simulation. At this stage, all part of wheel was associated with their correct

parameter such as contact interface, element property, initial velocity, time step size and

time change factor. Figure 4.17 shows complete model assembly after meshed and

Figure 4.18 shows cross section complete model assembly after meshed.

Figure 4.17: Complete model assembly after meshed

64 

Figure 4.18: Cross section complete model assembly after meshed

4.3.2.1 Contact Interface

Due to complicated large deformation dynamics which typically occur during an

explicit dynamic analysis, determining contact between components in a model can be

extremely difficult. For this reason, special features have been included in the LS-

DYNA program to make defining contact between surfaces as efficient as possible. For

this study, two basic types of contact were used to simulate the model. The first types is

a “Nodes To Surface” contact which involved two arbitrary surfaces such as a striker

hitting the aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel where the surfaces deform and

undergo large relative displacement. It is also worth mentioning that when assigning the

65 

nodes to surface contact for the above contact pairs, striker shall always be assigned as

master part whereas the motorcycle wheel as slave part. The static and dynamic

coefficients of friction are set to be of 0.75 and 0.5 respectively. Having these values of

coefficient of friction, the simulation can better represent real case scenario.

The second type is a “Single Surface Contact” which occurs when a surfaces fold

over itself to control crush structural members which involved the model of the front

wheel-tyre assembly of the motorcycle. It is also worth mentioning that when assigning

the single surface contact for the above contact where all part of the motorcycle wheel

shall always be assigned as slave part. Although the “Single Surface Contact” method

takes longer time to process, however, this method prevents nodes on both surfaces from

passing through other surfaces, thus giving more accurate results. The static and

dynamic coefficients of friction are set to be of 0.5 and 0.5 respectively. Having these

values of coefficient of friction, the simulation can better represent real case scenario.

4.3.2.2 Time Step Size

In any nonlinear analysis, the most critical parameter is the size of the time step.

It is always safer to use a time step smaller than required. It may sometimes be necessary

to reduce the time step by orders of magnitude during an analysis. Such time step

reductions are typical for high-speed impact problems involving "stiff" materials. For

66 

this impact analysis, the value is set to be for a time step size of 5.0E-9 s and time change

factor of 9.0E-1 makes the processor to converge on a solution more effectively.

4.3.2.3 Initial Velocity

The initial velocity for the motorcycle is determined as 3000mm/s or 10.8 km/h.

This initial velocity can be interpreted as the impact velocity too.

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CHAPTER 5

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

This chapter provides the detailed descriptions about result from the simulation

and experimental which used in carrying out the present study. The chapter begins with

the comparison between the results. Comparison involved the static and dynamic

analysis result where the aspect that compared is energy and displacement analysis.

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5.1 Energy Analysis

Energy is one of the fundamental principal of mechanics. From the motorcycle

collision, most of the energy will be representing as kinetic and internal energy.

However, there have others energy occurred such as thermal energy but can be neglected

using this approach under the assumption because they represent a small part of the total

energy. In this study, kinetic energy is the motion of the particles, wherever the internal

energy produces from distortion and displacement of the particles. The energy results of

impact simulation was analyzed and compared indirectly to the static compression

testing based on some assumption substantially and theoretical calculation by previous

researchers. The energy result of static compression testing was produced by generating

the graph of force versus displacement.

At the beginning of the curve, the value of force is increase constant until its

reach at about 2390 N. It is understood the aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel that

at this time interval has yet to deform plastically because just compressed the pressure at

the tyre. As can be observed, the curve starts to increase dramatically after the force

value at 2390 N where at this time interval the plastic deformation of the aluminum cast

spoke motorcycle wheel start to occur. Starting from that value, the motorcycle wheel

assembly undergoes permanent deformation without significant friction. The curve rises

continuously until it reaches the maximum force that is about 39000 N. After that value,

the curve tends to decrease downward shows that the test specimen breaks at the fracture

69 

stress. So, the internal energy value can be determined based on the area developed

under the graph. The internal energy was calculated by using numerical method;

E = ) (x1-x0) + ( (x2- x1) +….

The internal energy determined from the calculation until fracture region is

9.1732E5 N.mm which is required deforming the aluminum cast spoke motorcycle

wheel. Figure 5.1 shows that energy curve graph between force (N) versus displacement

(mm).

Max force = 39kN

Energy Absorb = 9.17E5N.mm

Inflation Tyre Pressure

Figure 5.1: Energy curve between force (N) versus displacement (mm)

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The energy result of static simulation was produced by generates the graph. From

the graph as below, the value of the maximum internal energy was 9.22E5 N.mm. Figure

5.2 shows that internal energy graph of static simulation.

Energy Absorb = 9.22E5N.mm

Figure 5.2: Internal energy graph of static simulation

The energy result of impact simulation was produced by generates the graph. At

the start of the collision, the kinetic energy is at a maximum value. After that, the impact

will transform kinetic energy into internal energy required to deform the aluminum cast

spoke motorcycle wheel. The others important thing is energy balance analysis. This can

be done by comparing the final energy and the initial energy in the model. In this study,

71 

the initial energy is mainly contributed to kinetic energy and final energy is mainly

contributed to internal energy. The relation between this energy is the time when

maximum internal energy occurred coincides with the time when minimum kinetic

energy occurred and on the other hand. The sums of the both energy are close to total

energy in the absence of significant friction effects.

From the graph as below, the value of maximum kinetic energy was 9.32272E5

N.mm however the maximum internal energy was 9.64311E5 N.mm. Figure 5.3 shows

that energy curve graph between kinetic and internal energy. However, maximum

internal energy for impact simulation result should not take as results. The internal

energy occurred at the elastic region which was not the real energy absorb of wheel

because there is no permanent deformation of wheel. Therefore, the internal energy

needed in impact simulation for deform the aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel was

7.8525E5 N.mm Figure 5.4 shows that internal energy graph of impact simulation.

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Max Kinetic Energy = 9.32E5Nmm Max Internal Energy = 9.64E5Nmm

Figure 5.3: Energy curve between kinetic and internal energy

Energy Absorb = 7.85E5 N.mm

Plastic Region

Elastic Region

Figure 5.4: Internal energy graph of impact simulation

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From both result, it can be observed that there is difference of internal energy

between the static compression testing and impact simulation. But the internal energy for

impact simulation needed to add with the energy absorb of tyre because the tyre not

linking compare to static compression testing. Inflated tyre can be imagined as a spring

between the rim and the striker, with the stiffness determined by inflation pressure. The

higher a tyre being inflated, the stiffer the tyre system and the less deflection resulted

from same impact loading and vice versa.

However, this effect became smaller as the impact speed change from low to

high level. Such interaction effect may be due to the energy absorbed by the inflated tyre

has become significant where the energy absorbed by the tyre was never more than 10%

of the total (Happian-Smith et al,1987). Therefore, the energy absorb of the aluminum

cast spoke motorcycle wheel was 8.725E5 N.mm after added the energy absorb of tyre.

Simple calculation of new energy absorption of the wheel was shown below;

New energy absorption of wheel;

0.9x = 7.85e5

x = 7.85e5/0.9

= 8.72e5

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So, the difference of energy absorb between both results was 0.55% and 4.9%.

Simple calculation for percentages error of the energy absorbs was shown in Table 5.1

as below;

Table 5.1: Simple calculation for percentages error of the energy absorbs

Compression Test

9.17E5 N.mm

Static Simulation = 9.22E5 N.mm

Impact Simulation = 8.72E5 N.mm

Static - Static Static - Dynamic

 

 

= 0.55 %

= 4.9 %

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5.2 Displacement Analysis

However, the response variable of displacement was analyzed and compared

between the simulation results against the experimental result of quasi-static

compression testing, which has been successfully conducted by employing the Universal

Testing Machines. For the static simulation, displacement for the aluminum cast spoke

motorcycle wheel was shown in Figure 5.5 as below. It can be observed that the

maximum displacement of wheel occurred was 1.39E1mm or 13.9 mm.

Figure 5.5: Maximum displacement of the static simulation

76 

For the quasi-static compression testing, displacement for the aluminum cast

spoke motorcycle wheel can be calculated manually. The maximum displacement of the

rim’s outermost deformed edge from its original shape after compression testing shown

in Figure 5.6. The measurements were taken using vernier caliper. It can be observed

that the maximum displacement of wheel occurred was 12.7 mm.

Original Edge of the Rim

Maximum Displacement

Figure 5.6: Maximum displacement of the quasi-static compression testing

However, the displacement result of impact simulation was produced by

generates the graph. From the graph, it can be observed that the maximum displacement

of wheel was 19.22 mm however the final displacement was 13.6 mm. Figure 5.7 shows

that graph displacement (mm) versus time (s) in impact simulation. However, maximum

77 

displacement for impact simulation result should not take as results. The displacement

occurred was not a permanent deformation of wheel because the rim will spring back at

the elastic region. Therefore, the final displacement was taken as displacement of the

aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel in impact simulation.

Final Displacement = 13.6mm

Max Displacement = 19.22 mm

Plastic Region

Elastic Region

Figure 5.7: Graph displacement (mm) versus time (s) in impact simulation

78 

So, the difference of displacement between both results was 9.45% and 7.09%.

Simple calculation for percentages error of the displacement was shown in Table 5.2 as

below;

Table 5.2: Simple calculation for percentages error of the displacement

Compression Test

12.7mm

Static Simulation = 13.9mm

Impact Simulation = 13.6 mm

Static - Static Static - Dynamic

 

= 9.45 %

= 7.09 %

79 

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter will further elaborate the conclusion perspective based on the

objective and problem statement of study. The data from the analysis will be used to

support the conclusion. The contrivance from the analysis and other alternative based on

objective can be proposed on recommendation for future design.

80 

6.1 Conclusion

This study reports to establish the plastic deformation of the aluminum cast

spoke wheel motorcycle was developed using the FEM. The FE model of the motorcycle

front wheel assembly was successfully conducted using LS-DYNA and MSC Nastran

software for simulated the static compression and frontal impact loading, respectively.

Besides that, static response of quasi-static compression testing has been successfully

conducted by employing the Universal Testing Machines. The objective of this study

was achieved which to develop a FE model for the motorcycle front wheel-tyre

assembly and validate the computational model of aluminum cast spoke motorcycle

wheel against quasi-static compression testing proven by results where the difference of

results in range ±10%.

Therefore the approach in this study may be replicated for other models and

designs of wheel, in order to analyze and validate the computational models for a variety

of motorcycle wheel assembly to gather knowledge of energy effect and the deformation

characteristics of wheel. Besides that, the problem statement of this study also was

achieved where the aluminum cast spoke motorcycle wheel was more concerns about

performance but not the safety aspects of the wheel based on the discussion was given in

Chapter 5. Therefore the approach in this study was gave more safety specification to

motorcycle rider about the motorcycle wheel.

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6.2 Recommendation

The recommendation for the improving and future design depends on human and

environment utility expediency. Therefore, further studies should look into how

substantial improvement can be achieved through the following recommendations:-

1. The experimental on the model of aluminum cast spoke wheel motorcycle under

the quasi-static compression testing was ended successfully. But the experiment

did not give any satisfying results on displacement characteristic because the

method not suitable to analysis the deflection of wheel. It could better to conduct

by employing a suitable impact test apparatus in order to get the satisfying results

on displacement characteristic.

2. The impact simulation that involves the striker and the model of aluminum cast

spoke wheel motorcycle was ended up successfully without any errors. But,

could be better to predict the impact response under different impact

configurations in order to get more satisfying results on energy effect and

displacement characteristic of wheel.

82 

3. CAD modeling of the aluminum cast spoke wheel motorcycle was successfully

developed. However, the dimension of the wheel was not too accurate according

to the actual dimension of model because it was measured used vernier caliper. It

could better to cut the model of wheel into small piece where it was measured on

the cross section part to gather greater accuracy and precision dimension of the

model which given more satisfying result at the end.

83  

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APPENDIX

RESEARCH SCHEDULING SEMESTER 1 (2008/2009)

NO ACTIVITY WEEK

1 2 3 4 7 1 2 35 6 8 9 10 1 1 1 14 15

1 Project Introduction

i) Brief on the topic chosen

2 Planning & Scheduling

3

Literature Research

i) Motorcycle Crash Analysis

ii) Motorcycle Collision Dynamics

iii) Factors Affecting Dynamic Impact Response

4

Methodology of Research

i) Preliminary Literature Survey

ii) Identification of Damage and Deformation of Motorcycle

RESEARCH SCHEDULING SEMESTER 2 (2008/2009)

NO. ACTIVITY WEEK

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1 CAD Modelling

2

FEM Modelling

i) Meshing

ii) Material Property

iii) Running Simulation

3

Result And Discussion

i) Energy Analysis

ii) Displacement Analysis

4

Conclusion And Recommendation

i) Conclusion

ii) Recommendation

5 Last Draft & Presentation