Note to Teachers"This is a book about that most admirable of human virtues—courage. 'Grace under pressure,' Ernest Hemingwaydefined it. And these are the stories of the pressures experienced by eight United States Senators and the grace withwhich they endured them."— John F. Kennedy

During 1954-1955, John F. Kennedy, then a U.S. Senator, chose eight of his historical colleagues to profile for theiracts of astounding integrity in the face of overwhelming opposition. These heroes include John Quincy Adams, DanielWebster, Thomas Hart Benton, and Robert A. Taft.

Awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1957, Profiles in Courage—now featuring a new introduction by Caroline Kennedy, aswell as Robert Kennedy's foreword written for the memorial edition of the volume in 1964—resounds with timelesslessons on the most cherished of virtues and is a powerful reminder of the strength of the human spirit. It is as RobertKennedy states in the foreword, "not just stories of the past but a hook of hope and confidence for the future. Whathappens to the country, to the world, depends on what we do with what others have left us."

Discussion Questions1. What definitions of courage emerge from these profiles? How would you define courage? Do you agree or

disagree with the extended definition of courage presented in the book's final chapter? Why? To what degree isKennedy's conception of courage relevant today?

2. In his "Foreword," Robert Kennedy wrote that his brother's book "is a study of men who, at risk to themselves,their futures, even the well-being of their children, stood fast for principle." (p. vii) Why might it be of primaryimportance in some instances to stand fast for principle regardless of the consequences?

3. Why might President Kennedy have judged courage to be "the most admirable of human virtues"? (p. 1) Whymight it be more admirable than such qualities as toleration, charity, or justice, for example? What other virtuesmight contend with courage as "the most admirable"?

4. Many of the acts of courage that JFK narrated involved refusal to compromise. Others, however, depended uponan ability to compromise. What is the role of compromise in today's political process, whether in the UnitedStates Senate or your town's governing council, or even in your own student council? What circumstances mightcall for compromise, and what circumstances might demand a refusal to compromise?

5. "Where else, " asked President Kennedy, "in a non-totalitarian county, but in the political profession is theindividual expected to sacrifice all . . . for the national good? . . . In no other occupation but politics is it expectedthat a man will sacrifice honors, prestige and his chosen career on a single issue." (p. 7) How accurate do youthink this statement is in today's world, for both men and women? In what other professions might men andwomen be expected "to sacrifice all" for the national—or other greater—good?

6. Referring to the political climate of 1955, JFK wrote, "Today the challenge of political courage looms largerthan ever before." (p. 17) In what ways might that same statement be made regarding politics in the UnitedStates today? What factors today intensify the need for political courage? How have some present-day politicalfigures met or failed that challenge?

7. To what extent might John Quincy Adams's decisions and actions have reflected an inflexible moral andintellectual righteousness rather than unalloyed courage? What might be the proper role or application, withinthe political context of our federal democracy, of Adams's "principle of Puritan statesmanship . . . 'Themagistrate is the servant not of his own desires, not even of the people, but of his God.'" (p. 40) Where mightsuch a principle, in fact, leave the people of a democracy?

8. "Great crises produce great men, and great deeds of courage," wrote JFK. (p. 51) What instances can you recallor have you observed of great crises (not necessarily political) producing great deeds of courage?

9. Kennedy quotes Daniel Webster as stating that "there is one sort of inconsistency that is culpable: it is theinconsistency between a man's conviction and his vote, between his conscience and his conduct." (p. 64) Howdoes that statement apply to Webster's own conduct in 1850 and the conduct of the other senators whomKennedy profiles? How might it apply to the conduct of present-day politicians and other public figures?

10. Thomas Hart Benton's "overbearing and merciless roughness, personal vindictiveness and uncompromisingenmity," wrote JFK, drove away many whose support he might otherwise have won by conciliation." (p. 84) Towhat extent was Benton's conduct in defense of his position a matter of stubborn rectitude, and to what extent amatter of bold courage? Might he have defended his position and reached a satisfactory end throughconciliation?

11. Why might "the contradictions in the life of Sam Houston a century ago [be] irreconcilable today"? (p. 98) Whatpublic figures of recent or present times display apparently irreconcilable contradictions?

12. Kennedy noted that the decades following the Civil War were marked by "easy money, sudden fortunes,increasingly powerful political machines and blatant corruption" and that "the Senate, as befits a democraticlegislative body, accurately represented the nation." (p. 112) In what ways did the Senate accurately represent thenation in the years between 1870 and 1900? In this same spirit, in what ways do both the Senate and the Houseof Representatives represent the nation today? How does your state legislature reflect the state of your state?

13. What comparisons and contrasts may be drawn between the impeachment of Andrew Johnson and theimpeachment of Bill Clinton? In what ways were the attitudes of Republican leaders in Congress similar? Inwhat ways were the actions of the House of Representatives and the Senate similar or different? To what degreedid Clinton's impeachment reflect "a struggle between Executive and Legislative authority," (pp. 115-116) as didJohnson's?

14. Compare the methods and tactics of party politics today with those during the times covered in Kennedy'sprofiles? To what extent have mudslinging, negative "advertising," personal attack, truth twisting, and otherdeplorable practices characterized partisan American politics during the past 200 years? To what degree havethings gotten better or worse?

15. Kennedy linked the courage of Lucius Lamar to his hope for making "the North realize that the abrogation of theConstitutional guarantees of the people of the South must inevitably affect the liberties of the people of theNorth." (p. 148) To what degree still does "the future happiness of the country . . . lie in a spirit of mutualconciliation and cooperation between the people of all sections and all states"? (p. 148)

16. Kennedy wrote that the political profession's loss of prestige at the turn of the century "was due in part to thepublic reaction to the new type of legislator who too often, in 1900, included the swollen corporation lawyer andthe squalid political boss." (p. 165) What types of legislators make up the present U.S. Senate and House ofRepresentatives? What impact have they had upon public opinion regarding the worthiness of politicalendeavor?

17. Of George Norris's opposition to the Armed Ship Bill in 1917, Kennedy wrote, "It is not now important whetherNorris was right or wrong. What is now important is the courage he displayed in support of his convictions." (p.178) And of Robert Taft's condemnation of the Nuremberg trials, he wrote that "we are not concerned today withthe question of whether Taft was right or wrong . . ." (p. 205) To what extent do you agree or disagree with thenotion that the question of right or wrong becomes secondary to the question of political courage or cowardice?Are there any instances in this book, or instances that you have observed or read about elsewhere, in whichcourage was wasted for a wrong cause?

18. In his final chapter, Kennedy enumerated the kinds of courage shown by the men he profiled and the differentways in which they demonstrated courage. What were some of those kinds of courage and some of the ways inwhich these Senators and others exhibited courage? In what similar ways might political figures todaydemonstrate courage?

19. What specific principles were important to each of the men profiled by Kennedy? What did these men have incommon in terms of principles, beliefs, and values? What were some of the significant differences among them?Are the same kinds of commonalities and differences observable among today's prominent political figures?

20. While Kennedy wrote exclusively about men, there have been many courageous women in American history.Discuss specific instances of courageous behavior on the part of American women, from Anne Hutchinson andSojourner Smith through Susan B. Anthony, Eleanor Roosevelt, Rosa Parks, and others.

21. "The true democracy, living and growing and inspiring, puts its faith in the people-faith that the people will notsimply elect men [and women] who will represent their views ably and faithfully, but also elect [those] who willexercise their conscientious judgment-faith that the people will not condemn those whose devotion to principleleads them to unpopular courses, but will reward courage, respect honor and ultimately recognize right." (p. 223)To what degree is this statement applicable to democracy in America today? How might American democracybe brought closer to this ideal?

Class Activities1. Construct and display in a prominent place an illustrated time line featuring acts of American men and women,

as described in Profiles in Courage and other books and on the Web, who have shown unusual courage, politicaland otherwise.

2. Research noteworthy speeches of men and women who have exhibited outstanding courage and, perhaps incostume, present those speeches to the class.

3. As a class, write to your senators, congressman or woman, governor, and state legislators, requestingnominations (with supporting reasons) for inclusion in your school's Hall of Courage. Display the outstandingnominations and nominees-with photographs, letters, and sample speeches and writings-on the class or schoolbulletin board or other prominent location.

4. Invite your senators, congressman or woman, governor, state legislators, and community leaders to speak to theclass or to the student body on the subjects of courage, integrity, and honor.

5. Assign one or two students to present the case for each of the men profiled by Kennedy, as to which was themost courageous. Moderate a class discussion on the merits of each presentation and of each man, allowing allstudents to present additional testimony pro and con. Conduct a final vote.

6. Prepare and "publish"—if only in a loose-leaf binder—a class Profiles in Courage, featuring the courageousactions of men and women of all ethnic, racial, and nationality groups throughout American history—black,American Indian, Japanese-American, Chinese-American, etc. Each student in the class should contribute one ortwo profiles.

7. The John F. Kennedy Library sponsors the annual John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Essay Contest, open tohigh-school students (grades 9 through 12) throughout the nation. Full information is available on the Web, atwww.jfkcontest.org/. Encourage those students who are interested in writing essays in accordance with thecontest rules, work with them to polish their essays, and assist them in submitting their essays to the contestand/or to local newspapers and community organizations.

8. The John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Contest website also includes curriculum ideas for teachers, atwww.jfkcontest.org/curriculum_teacher.asp/. These ideas may be of great assistance in stimulating classroomdiscussions and activities.

9. Put together a display of articles and photographs from magazines and newspapers (as well as other relevantmaterials) having to do with situations and events involving acts of moral courage. If feasible, invite one or moreof the persons featured to talk with the students.

10. Compile, in a loose-leaf binder, quotations and other writings—from the Web or other sources—having to dowith moral courage. The collected texts may also be illustrated with photographs, drawings, cartoons, and othergraphics obtained from the Web or print sources.

Assignments1. Referring to the subjects of these profiles, Robert Kennedy contends that "by how much the good of what they

did and deeded to us was cherished, nurtured and encouraged, by so much did the country and all of us gain."(p. xi) Have each student select one of the men profiled, conduct additional research into his life and career, andwrite an essay on the lasting effects of his actions on the nation and its citizens.

2. Have each student research more fully the life of one of the men profiled by JFK, of one of the men and womenprofiled by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Alan Steinberg in Black Profiles in Courage, and then submit an essayexplaining the circumstances and consequences of that person's most courageous act and/or present a report tothe class.

3. Kennedy noted that "by the end of the nineteenth century the Senate had come to very nearly its lowest ebb, interms of power as well as prestige." (p. 113) Have each student research and compare today's Senate, House ofRepresentatives, or Congress as a whole with that of one of the periods covered in Profiles in Courage.

4. Kennedy focused on Senators whom he considered to have exhibited extraordinary courage. Have each studentresearch and report on a Representative who exhibited the same kind of courage. Among the questions eachshould attempt to answer are: In what ways was the Congressman's or Congresswoman's conduct courageous?and What were the lasting consequences of that conduct?

5. Chapter X, "Other Men of Political Courage," presents brief accounts of others who have exhibited politicalcourage during the 186 years preceding Kennedy's book. Have your students research and write a report on oneof those men. Each report should be in a format similar to the individual profiles in Profiles in Courage andbegin with an appropriate quote from the subject's writings or speeches.

6. Dee Brown's Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee and other books and Websites (for example, KentuckyEducational Television and American West) about the experiences of American Indians present numerousexamples of exemplary courage shown by Sitting Bull, Chief Joseph of the Nez Perces, Joseph Brandt of theMohawks, Red Cloud of the Sioux, and others. Each student might research one of those American heroes andthen report, in writing or orally, on the character and circumstances of that hero's courageous actions.

7. Profiles in Courage for Our Time, edited by Caroline Kennedy, celebrates thirteen recipients of the John F.Kennedy Profile in Courage Award, administered by the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation. The recipients ofthat award are also profiled on the Web, at JFK Library. Assign each student—or have each student select—oneof these recent exemplars of courage and write an essay on the circumstances, reactions, and consequences ofthat person's act of courage.

8. Have each student describe a situation in which he or she exhibited moral courage or acted according toprinciple. What difficulties did he or she face? What did he or she accomplish? What did others thinkbeforehand and what did they think afterwards?

9. Have your students research the lives of courageous Latino Americans, Asian Americans, and other Americanminorities, and then prepare a written or oral report on the character and circumstances of individuals whodisplayed true courage.

10. Have your students research the lives of courageous women in America's past and present (for example: AnneHutchinson, Sojourner Smith, Prudence Crandall, Susan B Anthony, Mary S. McDowell, Eleanor Roosevelt,Marion Anderson, and Rosa Parks). They should then prepare written or oral reports on the character and actionsof the women they have researched, focusing on each woman's most courageous act.

Additional ReadingAmong the numerous and available individual biographies and other books having to do with the issues raised byProfiles in Courage, the following selection will perhaps be particularly interesting or important for junior and seniorhigh-school students.

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Alan Steinberg, Black Profiles in Courage (HarperPerennial, 2000).

David Eugene Price, The Congressional Experience (Westview Press, 2000).

Allida M. Black, Courage in a Dangerous World (Columbia University Press, 2000).

Peter H. Irons, The Courage of Their Convictions: Sixteen Americans Who Fought Their Way to the SupremeCourt (Penguin Books, 1990).

Caroline Kennedy, ed., Profiles in Courage for Our Time (Hyperion, 2002).

Stephen Crane, The Red Badge of Courage (various publishers).

Edmund Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt (Modern Library, 2001).

Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex (Random House, 2001 [Theodore Roosevelt]).

Harper Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird: The 40th Anniversary Edition (HarperCollins, 1999).

David McCullough, Truman (Simon & Schuster, 1993).

John McCain, with Mark Salter, Why Courage Matters: The Way to a Braver Life (Random House, 2004).

Kent Nerburn, ed., The Wisdom of the Native Americans (New World Library, 1999).

Internet Resources

American West: Native Americans/"Leaders of the Past"

Constitutional Center: A Lesson Plan on "The Declaration of Independence and Acts of Courage.")

JFK Library: "Curriculum Ideas for the Classroom" present four lessons and activities designed "to assiststudents in gaining a better understanding of the concept of political courage."

Kentucky Educational Television: An extensive collection of downloadable Teacher's Guides includes the fourin the "Great Native American Leaders Series."

Minnesota Public Radio: John F. Kennedy, Jr., reads an excerpt from his father's book and Macalester Collegeprofessor George Latimer talks with Morning Edition host Cathy Wurzer.

Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial Foundation: A link to a roster of "Profiles in Courage" that range from Ida B.Wells-Barnett to Jackie Robinson and Ella Fitzgerald.

TV Tome: Information, including episode plot synopses, on the 1964-65 NBC-TV series, which was based onJFK's book.

WNYC: National Public Radio's Brian Lehrer talks with Senator John McCain about his book, Why CourageMatters, and about courageous Americans.

This Teacher's Guide was prepared by Hal Hager (Hal Hager & Associates, Somerville, New Jersey). Hager has taught literature at severalcolleges, has been active for many years in editing, marketing, reviewing, and writing about books and writers, and is the author of numerousteacher's guides and reading group guides.