Professional Studies in the Foundation Phase 3: Social ... guides/F-PFS 223...Dear SANTS student, We...

F-PFS 223

Professional Studies in theFoundation Phase 3: SocialJustice and Current Issues

in Education

F-PFS 223

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE 3: SOCIAL JUSTICE AND CURRENT ISSUES IN EDUCATION

YEAR 2F-PFS 223

Level 6Credits 12

CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE

Copyright SANTS Private Higher Education Institution. Pty. Ltd.PO Box 72328, Lynnwood Ridge, 0040

2020

All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of research, criticism, or review as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, without permission in writing, from SANTS.

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE 3: SOCIAL JUSTICE AND CURRENT ISSUES IN EDUCATION CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE

BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) i

2020 Edition

Programme coordinator Prof Ina JoubertSANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Discipline coordinator Mr Hendri KrugerSANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Author(s) Prof Wayne HugoUniversity of Kwa-Zulu Natal

Dr Carin Stoltz-Urban VORTEX Education Solutions

Reviewer Dr Carin Stoltz-UrbanVORTEX Education Solutions

Language editor Ms Louise du PlessisUmoya Editing

Technical editor Ms Julie DorlingSANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Content editor Antoinette du PlessisSANTS Private Higher Education Institution

Graphic artist N/A

Printing BusinessPrint


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) ii

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING

1. WELCOME TO THE MODULE

Dear SANTS student,

We welcome you to the Professional Studies in the Foundation Phase 3: Social Justice and Current Issues in Education (F-PFS 223) module that forms part of the Bachelor of Education in Foundation Phase Teaching programme and wish you success in your studies.

The purpose of the Bachelor of Education in Foundation Phase Teaching programme is to offer a curriculum that develops teachers who can acquire and eventually articulate focused knowledge, skills and general principles appropriate for Foundation Phase teaching, as specified in the Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015).

The Bachelor of Education (BEd) qualification requires that teachers develop a depth of specialised knowledge, practical competencies (skills) and experience in a Foundation Phase context. As part of the BEd qualification, you will need to gain experience in applying what you are learning during a period of Workplace Integrated Learning (WIL). This means you will spend some time teaching Foundation Phase learners in an authentic (real) context.

The BEd qualification programme is aligned with the Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications, in particular Appendix C of the policy that outlines the Basic Competencies of a Beginner Teacher (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015, Government Gazette, No. 38487, p. 62).

2. OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAMME

At the end of the four-year Bachelor of Education Teaching programme, you must demonstrate the following competencies related to your own academic growth and potential to work with Foundation Phase learners:

Read, write and speak the language in ways that facilitate your own academic learning.Read, write, and speak the language/s of instruction related to Foundation Phase in ways that facilitate teaching and learning instruction in the classroom.


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) iii

Demonstrate competence in communicating effectively, in general and in relation to Foundation Phase specialised knowledge in order to mediate and facilitate learning.Interpret and use basic mathematics and elementary statistics to facilitate your own academic learning and to manage teaching learning and assessment.Use information and communications technology (ICT) in daily life and in teaching.Explain the contents and purpose of the national curriculum with particular reference to Foundation Phase.Demonstrate skill in planning, designing, and implementing learning programmes that are developmentally appropriate and culturally responsive to Foundation Phase context. Demonstrate competence in identifying and accommodating diversity in the Foundation Phase classroom, and in the identification of learning and social problems. This includes planning, designing and implementing learning programmes to accommodate diversity.Demonstrate an understanding of the theoretical and pedagogical fields of study that influence education and teaching, as well as learning decisions and practices.Demonstrate the ability to function responsibly within an education system, an institution and the community in which an institution is located.Demonstrate a respect for and commitment to the educator profession.Demonstrate an understanding of:

o the principles underpinning the disciplines for the various learning areas;

o pedagogical content knowledge of the learning subjects to be taught;

o planning and designing learning opportunities;o resourcing teaching and learning; ando reflecting on teaching.

Demonstrate competence in observing, assessing and recording learner progress regularly. Reflect upon and use assessment results to solve problems and to improve teaching and learning.Demonstrate competence in selecting, using and adjusting teaching and learning strategies in ways that meet the needs of both learners and context.Demonstrate competence in managing and administering learning environments and supporting learners in ways that promote social justice ideals.Conduct yourself responsibly, professionally and ethically in the classroom, the school and the broader community in which the school is located.


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Display a positive work ethic that benefits, enhances and develops the status of the teaching profession and of early childhood education more broadly.

3. PROGRAMME STRUCTURE

The BEd degree is presented on the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Exit level 7 with minimum total credits of 498, earned over the four years. The table below shows the curriculum implementation plan of the BEd degree you are studying. It also tells you how many credits each module carries. You will also see at which NQF level the study material has been prepared and which modules you need to pass each year. This four-year programme has been planned to strengthen the competencies you will need as a beginner teacher.

Outline of modules of the BEd (Foundation Phase Teaching) programme:Module name Code NQF L Credits Module name Code NQF L Credits

YEAR 1SEMESTER 1 SEMESTER 2

Academic Literacy B-ALI 110 5 10 Critical Literacies for Teachers B-CLT 120 5 10

Fundamental Mathematics B-FMA 110 5 10 Introduction to Mathematics Teaching in the Foundation Phase F-MAT 120 5 10

Computer Literacy B-CLI 110 5 10 Professional Studies in the Foundation Phase 1: Classroom Practice F-PFS 121 5 10

Education Studies 1: Theories of Child Development B-EDS 111 5 10 Education Studies 2: Theories of

Learning and Teaching B-EDS 122 6 12

Introduction to the Language and Literacy Landscape in the Foundation Phase

F-LLL 110 5 10 Introduction to Life Skills Teaching in the Foundation Phase F-LSK 120 5 10

Language of Conversational Competence: isiXhosa / isiZulu / Sepedi

C-LCX 120C-LCZ 120C-LCS 120

5 10

50 52-62Workplace Integrated Learning Year 1 F-WIL 101 5 18Sub-total credits for Year 1: 120 - 130


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) v

Module name Code NQF L Credits Module name Code NQF L Credits


English Home and First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the Foundation Phase 1

F-EHF 211 6 15English Home and First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the Foundation Phase 2

F-EHF 222 6 15

Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the Foundation Phase 1: Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu / Sepedi

F-HLA 211F-HLX 211F-HLZ 211F-HLS 211

6 12Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the Foundation Phase 2: Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu / Sepedi


6 12

Professional Studies in the Foundation Phase 2: School and Classroom Management

F-PFS 212 6 12Professional Studies in the Foundation Phase 3: Social Justice and Current Issues in Education

F-PFS 223 6 12

Education Studies 3: Curriculum, Pedagogy and Assessment B-EDS 213 6 12 Education Studies 4: History of

Education and Education Policies B-EDS 224 6 12

Life Skills Teaching in the Foundation Phase 1: Personal and Social Well-being

F-LSK 211 6 12 Mathematics Teaching in the Foundation Phase 1 F-MAT 221 6 12

English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the Foundation Phase 1

F-FLE 221 6 12

First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the Foundation Phase 1:Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu / Sepedi

F-FLA 221F-FLX 221F-FLZ 221F-FLS 221

6 12

48-63 60-63Workplace Integrated Learning Year 2 F-WIL 202 6 20Sub-total credits for Year 2: 128 - 146



F-EHF 313 6 15First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the Foundation Phase 2:Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu / Sepedi


6 12



6 12English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the Foundation Phase 2

F-FLE 322 6 12

Mathematics Teaching in the Foundation Phase 2 F-MAT 312 6 12 Mathematics Teaching in the

Foundation Phase 3 F-MAT 323 6 12

Life Skills Teaching in the Foundation Phase 2: Physical Education

F-LSK 312 6 12 Life Skills Teaching in the Foundation Phase 3: Creative Arts F-LSK 323 6 12

Education Studies 5: Sociology of Education B-EDS 315 7 14

Professional Studies in the Foundation Phase 4: Teacher Identity and the Profession

F-PFS 324 7 14

50-65 38-50Workplace Integrated Learning Year 3 F-WIL 303 6 22Sub-total credits for Year 3: 122 - 125


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) vi

Module name Code NQF L Credits Module name Code NQF L Credits



F-EHF 414 7 14First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the Foundation Phase 3:Afrikaans / isiXhosa / isiZulu / Sepedi


7 14



7 14English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the Foundation Phase 3

F-FLE 423 7 14

Digital Pedagogies for Teachers B-DPT 410 5 10 Mathematics Teaching in the Foundation Phase 4 F-MAT 424 7 14

Life Skills Teaching in the Foundation Phase 4: Natural Sciences and Technology

F-LSK 414 7 14 Life Skills Teaching in the Foundation Phase 5: Social Sciences F-LSK 425 7 14

38-52 28-42Research in Education B-RED 400 7 22Workplace Integrated Learning Year 4 F-WIL 404 7 26Sub-total credits for Year 4: 128 - 128Total credits for programme: 498 - 529

Language competencies will be assessed during the course of your programme.

The modules in the programme can be divided into four broad types of learning (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015, pp. 9-11). Each type of learning develops specific knowledge, values and attitudes, competencies and skills to achieve the overall exit level outcomes of the programme.

The different types of learning are:

Fundamental learning, which includes student personal and academic development:

This type of learning involves academic literacy, critical literacies for teachers, fundamental mathematics, computer literacy and digital pedagogies for teachers.

Disciplinary learning: This learning includes subject matter knowledge and includes the study of education and its foundations and specific specialised subject matter;knowledge of the child and how the child grows, develops and learns;

understanding of the processes of teaching and learning and the articulation between child development and teaching and learning; andunderstanding of the historical, socio-political, policy and curriculum contexts of education particularly in South Africa.


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Situational learning: Situational learning refers to knowledge of the varied learning situations of learners. This learning involves specifically learning about the context of the learner. These modules are called professional studies. Professional Studies focuses on:

o the complex context of teachers and teaching and learning in general and Foundation Phase in particular;

o multi-faceted and multi-layered positions and roles a teacher occupies; and

o relationships between teaching and learning in the context of the school and classroom and specifically the Foundation Phase classroom.

Pedagogical learning: This learning includes disciplinary general pedagogic learning knowledge referring to the study of principles, practices and methods of teaching; pedagogic content knowledge includes specialised pedagogic content or subject knowledge which includes how to present concepts, methods, strategies, approaches and rules of a specific discipline when teaching; andit also includes tools for implementing teaching and learning and assessment in context.

Types of learning and modules in the BEd (Foundation Phase Teaching) programme.Types of learning ModulesFundamental learningStudent personal and academic development

Academic LiteracyFundamental MathematicsComputer LiteracyCritical Literacies for TeachersDigital Pedagogies for Teachers

Disciplinary learningEducation studies

Education Studies 1: Theories of Child DevelopmentEducation Studies 2: Theories of Learning and TeachingEducation Studies 3: Curriculum, Pedagogy and AssessmentEducation Studies 4: History of Education and Education PoliciesEducation Studies 5: Sociology of Education

Situational learningProfessional studies

Professional Studies in the Foundation Phase 1: Classroom PracticeProfessional Studies in the Foundation Phase 2: School and Classroom ManagementProfessional Studies in the Foundation Phase 3: Social Justice and Current Issues in EducationProfessional Studies in the Foundation Phase 4: Teacher Identity and the Profession

Pedagogical learningPedagogy

FOUNDATION PHASE (FP)Introduction to the Language and Literacy Landscape in the FPIntroduction to Mathematics Teaching in the FP


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) viii

Types of learning ModulesMathematics Teaching in the FP 1, 2, 3 and 4 Introduction to Life Skills in the FPLife Skills Teaching in the FP 1: Personal and Social Well-beingLife Skills Teaching in the FP 2: Physical EducationLife Skills Teaching in the FP 3: Creative ArtsLife Skills Teaching in the FP 4: Natural Sciences and TechnologyLife Skills Teaching in the FP 5: Social SciencesLanguages:Five language options:

English Home and First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP 1, 2, 3 and 4 Choose another (additional) language at Home Language level OR First Additional Language level: Afrikaans, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi Only if Afrikaans is chosen as another language: choose between isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi as Language of Conversational Competence (LoCC)Afrikaans Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP 1, 2, 3 and 4 English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP 1, 2 and 3Choose between isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi as Language of Conversational Competence (LoCC)isiXhosa Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP 1, 2, 3 and 4English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP 1, 2 and 3

isiZulu Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP 1, 2, 3 and 4English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP 1, 2 and 3Sepedi Home Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP 1, 2, 3 and 4English First Additional Language and Literacy Teaching in the FP 1, 2 and 3

We call these four types of learning, the knowledge mix of a module (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015, p. 11). The level of knowledge for this module is set at level 6 and it carries 12 credits. For every credit you should spend approximately 10 hours mastering the content. You will thus have to spend at least 120 hours studying the F-PFS 223 material and doing the assignments and any assessments.

The knowledge mix of this level 6 module with the related credits is as follows:

Disciplinary learning, (Study of education and its foundations, 8 credits);Pedagogical learning, (General pedagogic knowledge, 2 credits and Pedagogic content knowledge, 1 credit); andSituational learning with 1 credit.


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4. PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE

PurposeThis module aims to provide student teachers with conceptual tools to understand, analyse, and respond to current issues in education from a social justice perspective.

Learning OutcomesAt the end of this module students should be able to:

Understand perspectives on social justice in education.Understand critical issues in South Africa that shape learners and their experience of school.Understand critical issues in South Africa that shape learning and teaching.Critically analyse factors shaping school and classroom practices in a localised context.Design and implement responses to localised school and classroom issues and challenges.Reflect on teacher’s role as an agent of change.

ContentUsing social justice theoretical and conceptual foundations, this module addresses issues of poverty and disease, language, and economic injustice and analyses how these shape the world of education in general and the lives of teachers and learners in particular. Students will not only gain insight into ways in which these social issues manifest and impact teaching and learning and the outcomes of education but also their role as change agents who can address these issues in schools and classrooms.

The content comprises:

Perspectives on social justice in education.Critical issues in South Africa that shape learners and their experience of school.Critical issues in South Africa that shape learning and teaching.Factors shaping school and classroom practices in a localised context.Designing and implementing responses to localised school and classroom issues and challenges.Teachers as agents of change.

CompetenciesDeveloped professional sensitivity and awareness of social issues and challenges as they affect teaching and learning;Research into social issues influencing schools and classrooms; andAddressing social injustices through responsive praxis.


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) x

5. WORKING THROUGH THE CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE (CLG)

We developed the CLG to help you master the content through a distance education mode. You will not have full time tutoring or support but the Student Orientation Booklet, accessible at MySANTS, offers guidelines for distance learning. Aspects such as plagiarism are also explained in this booklet. Make use of MySANTS as a support system for any academic queries.

These guidelines will help you to:

Work consistently throughout the semester;Manage your time efficiently;Complete assignments on time; andPrepare for tests and examinations.

As you read the CLG, draw on your own experiences and the knowledge you already have. The core text and recommended reading texts included in the CLG will also help you to deepen your understanding of the content and concepts you are working through.

In the CLG, you will find a glossary (word list). The word list will help you understand difficult concepts by providing the definitions (meaning) of such words.

You will also find icons (small pictures). The icons indicate the type of activity you must do. If you do each activity as suggested, you ought to advance and consolidate your understanding of the core concepts in the module. You will find a list of the icons used in this CLG on the next page.

Reading and writing activities have been designed to help you make connections with what you already know, master the content and reflect on what you have learnt. Scenarios (situations resembling an authentic (real-life) context) and dialogues provide background to what you are learning. The review / self-assessment questions are based on the learning outcomes.

Doing each activity will help you understand the content. Get a book or file in which you complete all your activities. Write full sentences and always use your own words to show your understanding. Working systematically through each activity, according to the estimated time for each activity as provided, will also help prepare you for assessments (assignments and the examination).

Try to find other students to work with. It is easier to share ideas and complete activities when working in a study group. Doing so, may help you to master the content more easily.


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) xi

Commentaries appear at the bottom of some activities. Commentaries are not answers but rather a reflection to guide your understanding of the activity and to assist you in knowing whether your own answer is appropriate or not. These commentaries alert you to aspects you need to consider when doing the activity.

WRITING ACTIVITYAn activity is designed to help you assess your progress and manage your learning. Sometimes you will have to define, explain, and/or interpret a concept. Scenarios and dialogues are often used to contextualise an activity. They will also help you bridge theory and practice by linking the concept and real life situations. When responding to the activities, use your own words to show your understanding. Do not copy directly from the text of the CLG. At the end of most activities, you will find commentary that aims to guide your thinking and assess how well you have understood the concepts. The activities are numbered for easy reference.READING ACTIVITYReading activities may require you to read additional material not printed in the Curriculum and Learning Guide. These readings will be either the full text or part of a core or recommended journal article. Journal articles will give you an expanded or alternative view on a concept. You might be required to explain the concept from a different perspective or compare what has been stated in the CLG with what you read in the journal article.STUDY GROUP DISCUSSIONAll study group discussion or peer activities require preparation BEFORE the discussion. Preparation includes reading and completing activities in writing. Study group discussions are an opportunity for reflection and for you to apply what you have learnt. Sharing your learning experiences may help you to learn with and from each other. Study group discussions can be done in your own study group or at the SANTS academic support sessions.REFLECTIONReflection means to think deeply or carefully about something. Reflection activities require you to review critically what you have learnt and link this with your personal experiences or what you have observed during Workplace Integrated Learning (WIL).


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REVIEW / SELF-ASSESSMENTOften questions are provided at the end of each unit to assist self-assessment. These questions are similar to the type of questions that you may be asked in assignments or examinations.

6. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

As a distance education student, it is your responsibility to engage with the content and to direct your own learning by managing your time efficiently and effectively.

We designed the following self-directed learning programme template so that you can plan your time carefully and manage your independent learning. The template will also help you to keep to due dates and thus complete the assignments on time. Careful time management and breaking the work up into manageable chunks will help you work through the content without feeling too stressed. Once you have worked through the activities you should be able to contribute to discussions in your study group and during the non-compulsory student academic support sessions with peers and academic tutors.

When completing the template, consider the following:

This module is offered in the second semester of your second year of study.The second semester is 15 - 20 weeks long. The module carries 12 credits and has been developed for NQF level 6. It should take you about 120 hours to work through this module.The 120 hours will be spent reading, studying, and completing the activities in this CLG, as well as the assignments. You will also spend time preparing and writing the examination. The estimated time to read for and complete each activity has been suggested.You will need 5 to 10 hours to complete each assignment. This means you will need to budget about 20 hours in total.You should plan to spend about 10 to 20 hours preparing for the examination in order to be successful.

Plan your studies and keep pace of your progress by completing the template below.It is not divided into specific weeks, but into the number of units in the CLG. Depending on the nature of the content, it is possible to complete two or more units in one week. Sometimes, you may only be able to complete one unit in a week. Use the template as a guide to help you plan and pace yourself as you work through the content, and activities in each unit.


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) xiii

Add dates to the template indicating when you plan to start working through a particular unit. In addition, using a SANTS academic calendar will also assist you to pace your learning. There is also space to indicate the due dates (deadlines) of the assessments.

UNIT IN CLG CONTENT IN CLG DATE PLANNED

UNIT 1SOCIAL JUSTICE IN

EDUCATION

Introduction to Social Justice

Social Justice in Education

UNIT 2CRITICAL ISSUES IN

BASIC EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

Challenges and constraints in the South African Basic Education System

Responses tochallenges and constraints in Basic Education

Teachers as agents of change

ASSIGNMENT 1

ASSIGNMENT 2

EXAMINATION

7. CORE READING

Core readings are an important part of your studies as you need to refer to these text(s) when answering some of the questions in the activities.

The text(s) for core reading is available on EBSCOhost. To access the core reading text(s) use the library tab on MySANTS and click on the EBSCOhost link. Core text(s) that is not on EBSCOhost, is attached as an Addendum in a CLG with the permission from the source.


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Social justice:

1. Spitzman, E. & Balconi, A. (2019). Social Justice in Action: A Document Analysis of the Integration of Social Justice Principles into Teaching. Journal ofthe Scholarship of Teaching & Learning, 19(5), pp. 1-17.Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=140966665&site=ehost-live

Critical issues in Basic Education:

1. Legotlo, M.W. (2014). Challenges and Issues Facing the Education System inSouth Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: Africa Institute of South Africa.Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=790625&site=ehost-live

2. Van der Berg, S., Spaull, N., Wills, G., Gustafsson, M. & Kotzé, J. (2016). Identifying Binding Constraints in Education, RESEP, Department of Economics, University of Stellenbosch. (Available online at resep.sun.ac.za) (Addendum A). Published with permission from the author.

8. RECOMMENDED READING

As a distance education student, you cannot only rely on your CLG. We recommend that you also study the following sources so that you have broader insight into the study material:

1. Hackman, H.W. (2005). Five essential components for social justice education. Equity & Excellence in Education, 38(2), pp. 103-109.Available at:http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=507800125&site=ehost-live

2. Mkhize, D. & Balfour, R. (2017). Language Rights in Education in South Africa. South African Journal of Higher Education, 31(6), pp. 133-150. Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=126103438&site=ehost-live

You can access the recommended reading texts by using the library tab on MySANTS and then click on the EBSCOhost link.


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9. ASSESSMENT OF THE MODULE

The SANTS assessment policy is included in the Student Orientation Booklet and is also available on MySANTS. The policy provides information regarding the types of assessment you will need to do. It includes information about progression rules, perusal of marks, or requests for remarking assessments.

In this module, both formative and summative assessments are done over a period of time (continuous assessment). The activities in the Curriculum and Learning Guide (CLG) are varied and are aimed at assisting you with self-directed learning through self-assessment. Reflecting or reviewing on what you are learning and discussing it in a study group is always helpful. The personal reflection or review is aimed at revision, reinforcement, and self-assessment while informal peer assessment takes place during the group discussions. The following table provides a summary of the assessment for this module:

9.1 Summary of assessment

Summary of assessmentTYPES OF

ASSESSMENTFORM OF ASSESSMENT WEIGHTING

Formative assessment Two written assignments (100 marks each)

60%

Summative assessment Examination (100 marks) 40%TOTAL 100%

9.2 Self-assessment

An activity aimed at self-assessment is included at the end of each unit. Before you complete the self-assessment activity, reflect on what you have learnt in the respective unit. Revise the main concepts and if there is any topic or concept you are unsure about, go back to the relevant unit and revise.

9.3 Assignments

To support you in your self-directed learning and to keep track of your own progress, we will provide guidelines or the memoranda on MySANTS after the assignments have been marked and returned.

In order to demonstrate that you have gained the knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes described in the learning outcomes of the module, you need to do the following:

Complete and submit each assignment (100 marks) before the due date.


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Submit both assignments that constitute 60% of your final promotion mark toqualify for admission to the examination.

The task brief (specific information regarding what to do and how to prepare for each assignment) will be explained in the assignment itself. These assignments are provided at the beginning of the first semester together with your CLG for this module. The assignments are also available on MySANTS.

9.4 Semester examination

At the end of the semester, you have the opportunity to sit for a formal summative assessment. This includes the following:

Write a formal examination, out of 100 marks that will constitute 40% of your final promotion mark. Please read the SANTS Assessment Policy that deals with all aspects of the general assessment and the examination policy. A minimum of 40% in the examination is required to qualify for a supplementary examination.

10. PLAGIARISM WARNING FOR STUDENTS

Plagiarism is a form of academic misconduct that can lead to educational or disciplinary action and has severe consequences - in some cases civil or criminal prosecution.

You are guilty of plagiarism if you copy from another person’s work (e.g. a book, an article, a website or even another student’s assignment) without acknowledging the source and thereby pretending it is your own work. You would not steal someone’spurse so why steal his/her work or ideas? Submitting any work that you have written but have already used elsewhere (thus not “original”), is also a form of plagiarism (auto-plagiarism). An example is when you submit the same assignment or a part of it for two different modules.

Avoiding plagiarism by being academically honest is not difficult. Here is what you should do:

Submit only your own and original work.When using another person’s actual words, sentences or paragraphs, Indicate exactly which parts are not your own (even if presented in the CLG). You must do this by referencing in accordance with the Harvard style - arecognised system specified by SANTS, and you must use quotation marks (“...”).


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You must also reference precisely when using another person’s ideas, opinions or theory. You must do so even if you have paraphrased using your own words. You must acknowledge any information or images that you have downloaded from the Internet by providing the URL link (web address) and the date on which the item was accessed (downloaded).Never allow any student to use or copy any work from you and then to present it as their own.Never copy what other students have done to present as your own.Prepare original assignments for each module and do not submit the same work for another module.Always list any student who contributed to a group assignment. Never submit the work as if only you worked on the assignment.

The Examination Regulations and Procedures policy contains the following in Section 7.10:

Students may not act in a dishonest way with regard to any test or examination assessment, as well as with regard to the completion and/or submission of any other academic task or assignment. Dishonest conduct includes, among other things, plagiarism, as well as the submission of work by a student for the purpose of assessment, when the work in question is, with the exception of group work as decided by the Academic Committee, the work of somebody else either in full or in part, or where the work is the result of collusion between the student and another person or persons.

All cases of suspected plagiarism will be investigated and if you are found guilty, there are serious consequences. Disciplinary action that may result includes:

You may lose marks for the assignment/activity. Your marks may be reduced by as much as 50%. You may even be given zero.The module may be cancelled and you will have to enrol again. This is a great waste of time and money. Your registration for that entire year may be cancelled. That means not all the marks you achieved in all the modules you enrolled for will count anything.In some cases, prosecutions in courts of law may be instituted.

Plagiarism is considered such a serious academic crime that you are required to sign the standard document (Declaration of Original Work) to every assignment that you submit by either using the assignment booklet or electronic submission. The Declaration of Original Work is printed on the cover of the assignment booklets.


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) xviii

CONTENTBACHELOR OF EDUCATION IN FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING .................... II 1. WELCOME TO THE MODULE...........................................................................ii 2. OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAMME ................................................................ii 3. PROGRAMME STRUCTURE............................................................................iv 4. PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE..........................................................................ix 5. WORKING THROUGH THE CURRICULUM AND LEARNING GUIDE (CLG) .. x 6. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING ..........................................................................xii 7. CORE READING ............................................................................................. xiii 8. RECOMMENDED READING...........................................................................xiv 9. ASSESSMENT OF THE MODULE...................................................................xv

9.1 Summary of assessment ..........................................................................xv 9.2 Self-assessment.......................................................................................xv 9.3 Assignments.............................................................................................xv 9.4 Semester examination.............................................................................xvi

10. PLAGIARISM WARNING FOR STUDENTS....................................................xvi

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE 3: SOCIAL JUSTICE AND CURRENT ISSUES IN EDUCATION................................................................ 1 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1 2. STRUCTURE AND OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE ....................................... 1 3. GLOSSARY....................................................................................................... 2

UNIT 1: SOCIAL JUSTICE IN BASIC EDUCATION ................................................. 3 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 3 2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 1 ................................. 3

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL JUSTICE .............................................. 4 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 4 2. DEFINING SOCIAL JUSTICE............................................................................ 5 3. THEORIES OF SOCIAL JUSTICE .................................................................... 6

3.1 Utilitarianism.............................................................................................. 6 3.2 Self-Perfectionism ..................................................................................... 7 3.3 Marxism..................................................................................................... 7 3.4 Existentialism ............................................................................................ 7 3.5 Rawls’ Theory............................................................................................ 8 3.6 Libertarianism............................................................................................ 8 3.7 Ambedkarism ............................................................................................ 8

SECTION 2: SOCIAL JUSTICE IN BASIC EDUCATION.......................................... 9 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 9 2. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN EDUCATION ................................................................. 10 3. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM 13 4. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN PRACTICE IN THE CLASSROOM................................ 14


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) xix

UNIT 2: CRITICAL ISSUES IN BASIC EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA ............. 17 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 17 2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 2 ............................... 19

SECTION 1: CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM ................................................................................ 20 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 20 2. ACHIEVEMENTS IN BASIC EDUCATION SINCE 1994 ................................. 20

2.1 Amenities and resources......................................................................... 21 2.2 Class size and teacher qualifications ...................................................... 21 2.3 Compulsory schooling ............................................................................. 21

3. KEY CHALLENGES IN BASIC EDUCATION .................................................. 22 3.1 Literacy.................................................................................................... 22 3.2 Numeracy................................................................................................ 22 3.3 Quality of NSC results ............................................................................. 22 3.4 Higher education ..................................................................................... 23

4. CONSTRAINTS IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM... 234.1 Legotlo’s categories of constraints .......................................................... 24

4.1.1 Learner related issues .................................................................. 24 4.1.2 Teacher related issues.................................................................. 25 4.1.3 Administrative / policy related issues ............................................ 27

4.2 Binding constraints in basic education .................................................... 28 4.2.1 Binding constraint 1: Management and administration ................. 29 4.2.2 Binding constraint 2: Teacher unions’ undue influence on the

provincial education departments ................................................. 36 4.2.3 Binding constraint 3: Weak teacher content knowledge and weak

pedagogical skills.......................................................................... 39 4.2.4 Binding constraint 4: Wasted learning time and not enough

opportunities to learn .................................................................... 43 4.2.5 Constructing a model of the inter-relationships between

constraints .................................................................................... 47 4.2.6 Recapping binding constraints...................................................... 47

5. EXTERNAL FACTORS IMPACTING THE BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM ..... 51 5.1 Socio-economic factors affecting education ............................................ 51 5.2 Financial factors affecting education (government spending).................. 52 5.3 Government policies................................................................................ 52

5.3.1 Language of learning and teaching (LoLT) ................................... 52 5.3.2 Efforts to achieve equality in education by increasing funding to

poorer schools .............................................................................. 55 6. THE IMPACT OF CONSTRAINTS ON LEARNING......................................... 56 7. SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 58

SECTION 2: RESPONSES TO CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS IN BASIC EDUCATION............................................................................................................ 591. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 59


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) xx

2. DIFFERENCES IN EDUCATION BETWEEN MORE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES AND LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES .................................... 59

3. SOLUTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF QUALITY IN LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES.................................................................................................... 60 3.1 Addressing the time spent on teaching and learning............................... 62 3.2 Addressing the quality of teaching and learning ...................................... 64

3.2.1 Essential requirements for effective learning ................................ 65 3.2.2 The importance of early childhood development .......................... 65 3.2.3 Teaching disadvantaged children ................................................. 65 3.2.4 Curriculum design for disadvantaged learners.............................. 67 3.2.5 The value of text books................................................................. 67 3.2.6 How to motivate teachers ............................................................. 68

3.3 South African case study......................................................................... 71 4. CONCLUSION................................................................................................. 75

SECTION 3: TEACHERS AS CHANGE AGENTS .................................................. 75 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 75 2. TEACHERS AS CHANGE AGENTS................................................................ 76 3. SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 79 4. CONCLUSION................................................................................................. 81

REFERENCES......................................................................................................... 82

ADDENDUM A: BINDING CONSTRAINTS ............................................................ 88

ACTIVITIES 1 TO 23

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Binding Constraints are inter-linked .............................................. 48 Figure 2: Constraints on learning................................................................. 56 Figure 3: Seven pillars for achieving basic skills for all ................................ 61 Figure 4: Instructional time calculation......................................................... 62 Figure 5: Intervention results ....................................................................... 74


BEd (FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHING) 1

1. INTRODUCTION

The term social justice is used often in our everyday language, especially by government officials and politicians. It is a very relevant term in the South African context in particular, in view of the history of apartheid and oppression. This curriculum and learning guide (CLG) is the third of the series of professional studies in the Foundation Phase and will explore the meaning of the term social justice, and also how it relates to education; in particular the school environment.

2. STRUCTURE AND OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE

The purpose of this module is to explore the concept of social justice as well as critical issues pertaining to social justice in the South African Basic Education system. It alsoaims to explore the role that the professional teacher has to play in striving towards social justice in the school and in their own classroom context.

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE 3: SOCIAL JUSTICE AND CURRENT ISSUES IN EDUCATION



This module consists of the following two units, outcomes and learning outcomes:

3. GLOSSARY

Understanding these terms will assist you when working through this module.

Accountability - The obligation to account for one’s actions, and accept responsibility for them.

Amenities - Something that contributes to physical or material comfort.Basic education - Compulsory fundamental education that all children have to

receive (school).Binding constraints

- Most important constraints holding us back. Only if they are removed, can one move forward.

Constraints - Limits or restrictions.Discourse - Written or spoken communication or debate.Higher education

- Tertiary education at a university or college.

UNIT 2Critical issues in Basic

Education in South Africa

Outcomes: At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Identify critical issues in South Africa that shape learners and their experience of school.Discuss possible solutions to challenges faced in the South African schooling system.Describe the role of teachers as change agents, in overcoming challenges.

UNIT 1Social Justice in Basic

Education

Outcomes: At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Define the concept social justice.Explain some of the main theories of social justice.Understand and discuss social justice in an education context.Explain the relevance of social justice to the South African Basic Education system.Describe ways in which professional teachers can promote social justice in their school and classroom context.

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES IN THE FOUNDATION PHASE 3:

SOCIAL JUSTICE AND CURRENT ISSUES IN EDUCATION



Justice - Fair or reasonable.Literacy - The ability to read and write in at least one language.

Numeracy - Numeracy is the ability to use numbers, to reason and to apply simple numerical concepts.

Quality (in education)

- Pedagogically and developmentally sound. Educating learners to become productive members of society.

Social - Affecting the community or society.

Social justice - All people in a society are treated fairly and with dignity, their rights are respected, and they have equal access to resources.

Society - All the people living together in a community.

Socio-economic - Relating to or concerned with the interaction of social and economic factors.

Theory - A set of assumptions, propositions, or accepted facts regarding a specific issue or phenomenon.

1. INTRODUCTION

In this unit we will explore the concept social justice and what this looks like in the school, and in particular in the classroom context.

2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 1Unit 1 consists of two sections, namely: Section 1: Introduction to social justice and Section 2: Social justice in Basic Education.

UNIT 1: SOCIAL JUSTICE IN BASIC EDUCATION



1. INTRODUCTION

The term social justice is a popular one in the education discourse, appearing in numerous public and academic texts (North, 2006). It is therefore easy to make the mistake of thinking that we all understand exactly what is meant by the term, and how it is relevant to education.

In this section we will aim to define the concept of social justice and unpack some of the theories of social justice, so that we can build an understanding of the relevance of this concept to the professional teacher and their work.

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL JUSTICE

UNIT 1SOCIAL JUSTICE IN BASIC EDUCATION

SECTION 1Introduction to social justice

Learning outcomes: At the end of this section, you should be able to:

Define the concept social justice.Identify and explain some of the main theories of social justice.

SECTION 2Social justice in Basic

Education

Learning outcomes: At the end of this section, you should be able to:

Explain the relevance of social justice in an education context.Explain the relevance of socialjustice in the South African Basic Education system.Describe ways in which professional teachers can promote social justice in their school and classroom context.

A discourse is a written or spoken communication or debate. Academics in particular, either speak at conferences or publish their work in journals or books, and in that way, they contribute to the ‘academic discourse’ on a particular topic or field.



2. DEFINING SOCIAL JUSTICE

Although the concept of social justice is much older and has been contemplated by ancient philosophers like Cicero and Plato, the term social justice was first used in 1840 by a Sicilian priest, Luigi Taparelli d’Azeglio (Novak, 2000). It has its origins in philosophy but is also widely used in ordinary language as well as in social science (Jost & Kay, 2010).

Jost and Kay (2010) provide a complex definition of social justice (see text box) that comprises of the following main elements: benefits and burdens are distributed according to specific rules and norms to protect the basic rights, liberties and entitlements of human beings, and to ensure that they are treated with dignity and respect.

Let us unpack the term in a different way. We will consider the word social first, and then consider the word justice.

The word ‘social’ in this context refers to two social elements of justice. The first relates to the skills required to inspire, work with, and organise others to accomplish a work of justice together. These are the elementary skills of civil society, through which free citizens exercise self-government by doing for themselves (that is, without turning to government) what needs to be done. The second social aspect of this type of justice relates to the fact that it aims at the good of the city, not at the good of one agent only (the term city in this context does not mean a specific city, but a collection of citizens). Citizens may band together, as in pioneer days, tobuild a school or clean up the streets. In other words, citizens working together for the greater good of society (Novak, 2000).

Now look at the word ‘justice’. Jost and Kay’s (2010) definition of social justice touches on three types of justice, namely distributive, procedural, and interactionaljustice. A theory of social justice should contain at least one of these three:

Distributive justice refers to the fair distribution of things that are distributed. It is about the decision around who gets what, and how fair that is.Procedural justice deals with the process of policy and decision making. It is not so much about the decision, as it is about the process followed to reach that decision.Interactional justice relates to the respect and dignity with which people affected by decisions are treated with dignity and respect (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 1995).

Social justice is a state of affairs (either actual or ideal) in which (a) benefits and burdens in society are dispersed in accordance with some allocation principle (or set of principles); (b) procedures, norms, and rules that govern political and other forms of decision making preserve the basic rights, liberties, and entitlements of individuals and groups; and (c) human beings (and perhaps other species) are treated with dignity and respect not only by authorities but also by other relevant social actors, including fellow citizens (Jost & Kay, 2010).



1240 minutes

1. What is your understanding of the word discourse?2. Write a short essay in which you:

1.1 Define social justice in your own words, and1.2 Explain why social justice is important in education and in particular to

the Foundation phase teacher.2 Consider the history of South Africa, and also the fact that South Africa still has

a very unequal basic education system. What are the main elements of social justice that requires attention in our society? Why do you say so?

3 Why do you think a professional teacher has to understand and implement social justice? Explain in your own words.

4 Name the three types of justice that form part of our understanding of social justice. Briefly describe each type.

We will now consider some of the theories of social justice.

3. THEORIES OF SOCIAL JUSTICE

There are a number of theories of social justice. We will consider the following seven key theories very briefly:

Utilitarianism;Self-Perfectionism;Marxism;Existentialism;Rawls’ Theory;Libertarianism; andAmbedkarism.

Note that this is not an exhaustive list but that we are trying to expose you to at least some of the main theories. We will now unpack these theories in a bit more detail.

3.1 Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is a theory that developed from the work of Benthem, Mill, Austin and Mill (son of the first Mill), in the late 1700s and early 1800s.

It basically considers practicality and utility (usefulness) as the measures of virtue and justice - in other words, the value of justice is related to how many people benefit

A theory is a set of assumptions, propositions, or accepted facts that attempts to provide a plausible or rational explanation of cause-and-effect (causal) relationships among a group of observed phenomenon.



from it, and to which extent it is useful in terms of the common interest. If it is not useful in serving the common interest of society, it is not considered ethical or justifiable.

In other words, in terms of this theory, the maximum good of the greatest number of individuals, is regarded as the basis of justice. It believes that justice must be demonstrated, and the welfare of the needy and the oppressed must be protected. Hence whatever is useless, painful, evil and unjust, must be reformed or changed in the interest of the greatest number of individuals (Jatava, 1998).

3.2 Self-Perfectionism

Bradley (1846 - 1924) was the father of the theory of Self-Perfectionism, which proposes that, if every member of society performs the duties of his or her station(place assigned to him or her as a teacher, worker, lawyer, etc.), it would make the establishment of a just and good society easier.

This theory takes into account that different individuals may have different abilities and capacities and also different places in society, and therefore they would have different duties.

Bradley basically believed that this was the best way of achieving both individual and social good.

3.3 Marxism

The Marxist view of social justice believes that economic structure plays a decisive role in establishing and maintaining the social justice.

Marxism considers the struggle between the haves and the have nots in society, and proposes that social justice can only be achieved in a society that is communistin nature, and therefore free from all traces of social and economic distinction(Rosenthal & Yudin, 1967).

Marxism proposes that true justice is not possible in a social system based on dominance of private property in which one is owner and other is labour. True equality is only possible if capitalism is overthrown and everyone is completely equal (no social classes).

3.4 Existentialism The existentialists believe that humans are fundamentally free, and create their own ideals with a view to bringing about a particular social system in future.

The basis of this theory is that, with great freedom, comes great responsibility.



As humans we are responsible for all our ideals, which we choose as free beings,whether these ideals are related to justice, morality, democracy, or economic welfare. Our just ideals or unjust systems inspire us accordingly to pursue our own course of action. Sartre said: “I am responsible for myself and also for others. In the spirit of my choice, I am creating a certain image (concept) of man…” (Sartre, 1948).

3.5 Rawls’ Theory According to Rawls (1972), inequalities in the allocation of goods are permissible if, and only if, they work to the benefit of the least well-off members of society.

According to him, everyone should have equal rights to all the basic liberties, and social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they give the greatest benefits to the least-advantaged.

3.6 Libertarianism Some authors, including Hayek (1976) and Nozick (1974), rejected the idea of social justice altogether, and argue instead for a return to the traditional understanding of justice as respect for law and established rights. They base their argument on the following three claims:

First, the notion of social justice assumes that there is some agency responsible for the distribution of benefits in society, whereas in fact, this distribution arises through uncoordinated activity of many agents, non-aiming at overall results.Second, the quest for social justice involves replacing the market economywith a stultifying bureaucracy that tries to exercise complete control over the flow of resources to individuals. Third, this quest also involves fundamental interference with personal freedom, in that people must be prevented from doing as they please with the resources they are allocated if the preferred distributive pattern is to be maintained.

This school of thought really sees justice as a process, rather than an outcome. It sees justice being served if resources are allocated according to the agreed process.

3.7 Ambedkarism Ambedkar (1987) views justice as equity. Equity in this sense means equality in terms of rules and regulations, right and righteousness. If all men are equal, all men are entitled to the same. Justice, for Ambedkar, means liberty, equality and fraternity (brotherhood).



Ambedkar therefore believes that social justice is dependent on a system of social democracy.

2 240 minutes

1. Explain in your own words, what the term ‘theory’ means.

2. Now reflect on what you have learnt about social justice theories, and complete the self-assessment activity below. You should be able to explain each of these theories in your own words. Make key notes or develop a mind map to guide your understanding of each:2.1 Utilitarianism;2.2 Self-perfectionism;2.3 Marxism;2.4 Existentialism;2.5 Rawls’ theory;2.6 Libertarianism; and2.7 Ambedkarism.

3. Which of these theories appeals to you the most (which one do you agree with most) and which one of these theories appeals to you least? Motivate your answers.

Now that we understand the concept of social justice theories a bit better, let us consider social justice and its relevance to education.

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of education in a democratic society should be the development of critical, democratic citizens who are able to make a meaningful contribution to society.

Education should therefore be aimed at developing people who are open-minded, tolerant of diversity, and capable of rational understanding, respect for truth and critical judgment (Macpherson, Robertson, & Walford, 2014).

SECTION 2: SOCIAL JUSTICE IN BASIC EDUCATION



This can only be achieved in an education system that respects diversity and encourages critical thinking – in other words an education system that is actively promoting social justice.

2. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN EDUCATION

In education, we associate social justice with the idea that all individuals and groups should be treated with fairness and respect and that all are entitled to the

(Shriberg, Bonner, Sarr, Walker, Hyland & Chester, 2008).

According to Nieto and Bode (2018) social justice in education is characterized by respectful communication and inclusive approaches to teaching and learning that can lead to more equitable educational outcomes.

In this discussion, we briefly consider the work of Dewey (1937), Fraser (1995, 2009), Gerwitz and Cribb (2002), Young (2000, 2006) and Bell (1997) as they have relevance to the education context.

Dewey (1950) proposed that the purpose of education should be the development of critical democratic citizens and that all institutions should strive towards contributing to the full personal development of learners. Education should, therefore, be aimed at developing people who are open-minded, tolerant of diversity, and capable of rational understanding, respect for truth, and critical judgment (MacPherson, Robertson & Walford, 2014).

Because this (fairness, respect, and equal resources and benefits) is not the case in the current schooling system, in South Africa or virtually anywhere in the world, it is the responsibility of every professional teacher to actively strive towards achieving social justice in education.For Fraser (1995, 2009) the ability to participate in an equitable way as full partners in interaction with others, and full members of society (participatory parity), is the ultimate goal of social justice. She identified three dimensions of social justice, namely distribution, recognition and representation:

1. Distribution refers to the fair distribution of material resources to all.2. Recognition speaks to the recognition of status (culture) of all – in other words,

respect for the culture and identity of all.3. Representation refers to inclusion as members of a community, and the right of

everyone to be represented.

Gerwitz and Cribb (2002) see social justice consisting of a variety of facets that entail the equal redistribution of socio-economic amenities, as well as the recognition



and promotion of difference and cultural diversity (Gerwitz and Gribb, 2002, p. 499; Taylor, 1997, p. 128).

Young (1990) has reasoned that to understand social justice as relating solely to the distribution of goods is restrictive. This is because this understanding of justice has been known to overlook institutional contexts and social constructs which have a profound influence on distributive arrangements. Young argues that it is in the interest of social justice to affirm, rather than suppress, the differences between social groups.

According to Bell (1997), social justice in education is a goal, as well as a process.The goal of social justice education is “full and equal participation of all groups in a society that is mutually shaped to meet their needs” (Bell, 1997, p. 3) while, “the process for reaching that goal, should be democratic and participatory, inclusive and affirming of human agency and human capacities for working collaboratively to create change” (Bell, 1997, p. 4).

Hackman (2005) summarises Bell’s goals of social justice education to include the following elements:

1. Learner empowerment;2. The equitable distribution of resources; and3. Social responsibility.

Hackman also summarised Bell’s process as follows:

1. Democracy;2. A student-centered focus;3. Dialogue; and4. An analysis of power.

The South African basic education system requires equity and redress, to address the wrongs of the past. The elements of inclusive education, reflexive praxis, critical pedagogy, communitarian liberalism, democratic and compassionate citizenship and collective agency, are the most important aspects of social justice that requires attention in our education system (Pillay & Tjabane, 2011).

We will now unpack each of these concepts, briefly:

Inclusive education - refers to the inclusion of all learners regardless of their challenges or special needs, in schools close to them, to receive high-quality instruction, interventions and the support that they may require to be successful(Alquraini & Gut, 2012).



Reflexive praxis – praxis means theory plus action – reflexive praxis therefore means to critically reflect on our own practice and to continuously improve it(Hara, 2020).

Critical pedagogy – teaching learners to be independently minded, in other words to think critically, ask questions, and form their own opinions (Farrow, 2017).

Communitarian liberalism – communitarian liberalism emphasises the connection between the community and the individual. Communitarians believethat a person's social identity and personality are largely moulded by community relationships. Liberalism on the other hand believes in the protection of the rights of the individual. The concept of communitarian liberalism is therefore about balancing the rights of the individual, versus the greater good of the group or community.

Democratic and compassionate citizenship – citizenship is the status of a citizen (member of a community) with its attendant duties, rights, and privileges. This concept therefore refers to the manner in which the community practices citizenship – in a democratic and compassionate manner.

Collective agency – collective means together as a group, while agency is the power to take action or make decisions (being in control). Collective agency is therefore when the group decides and works together towards an agreed goal (Hewson, 2010).

Before you go on, reflect on what you have learnt so far and complete the self-assessment activity below. If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of the criteria, go back to the relevant section to study it again. To help you with your understanding write short notes or develop mind maps for future reference.

3300 minutes

From what I have learnt so far in this section, Ican:

YES UNSURE NO

Explain the relevance of social justice in the education context.

(Write down your own explanation in 50 - 80words.)



Reflect on what you have learnt so far and answer the questions.

Explain the views of the following authors regarding social justice in education, in my own words:

Dewey (1937)Fraser (1995, 2009)Gerwitz (2002)Young (1990) Bell (1997)

(Write out your answer to test yourself –remember to explain each theory in your own words.)Explain the following elements of social justice in education, in my own words:

Inclusive educationReflexive praxisCritical pedagogyCommunitarian liberalismDemocratic and compassionate citizenshipCollective agency

(Write these out to test yourself – you have to explain each of these concepts in your own words.)

We will now look at the current reality in the South African basic education system, as it pertains to social justice.

3. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM

South Africa as a whole, and the education system of the country in particular, were profoundly shaped by the apartheid government’s racial ideology. Education was used as a tool to differentiate between the races, with the white population receiving more resources and a higher quality of education in general (Chisholm, 2015).

When the first democratic government came into power in 1994, it inherited a “deeply divided education system” that had to “wrestle with the shadows of apartheid” (Lolwana, 2015, p. 253). The newly elected democratic government immediately introduced a range of initiatives aimed at improving access, equity and quality.



Spending became oriented to the achievement of equity and ceased to be determined on a racial basis.

The South African Schools Act (1996) introduced school governing bodies to democratise control over schools. A teacher redistribution and deployment project in 1996 and the introduction of Curriculum 2005 in 1997 aimed to improve quality (Chisholm, 2015).

It is clear from the following words of Education White Paper 3 (1997) that the new, democratically elected government intended to deal with racial discrimination, which had been the most obvious, visible form of inequality in education, and to “provide a full spectrum of advanced educational opportunities for an expanding range of the population irrespective of race, gender, age, creed or class or other forms of discrimination” (Badat & Sayed, 2014, p. 132).

Despite the best efforts of government to develop and implement policies of redress, access, equity and equality, it is a sad reality that equality has not yet been attained and that poorer, and in particular rural schools, are still struggling to provide quality education to learners. Hence it is incumbent upon every teacher to strive towards achieving social justice in the school and in their own classroom environment.

We will now have a look at social justice in practice in the classroom.

4. SOCIAL JUSTICE IN PRACTICE IN THE CLASSROOM

Social justice can only be achieved in a classroom context where learners feel safe and where they are encouraged to speak openly about their experiences and beliefs (Blake, 2020).

Blake (2020) believes that the first way to promote social justice in the classroom is to create a “community of conscience”, where learners’ voices, opinions and ideas are valued and respected by their teacher and classmates. The teacher can create this community by setting rules that teach fairness in classroom discussions and behaviour.

Hackman (2005) proposes that teachers focus their teaching and efforts at working towards social justice in their classrooms, on the following five essential components:

1. Content mastery.2. Tools for critical analysis.3. Tools for social change.4. Tools for personal reflection.5. An awareness of multicultural group dynamics.



Blake (2020) believes that this can, in part, be achieved through enabling conversations during which learners are encouraged to question unjust situations in their own lives, or in the lives of those around them. These conversations can be stimulated by questions such as: Who makes decisions and who is left out; who benefits and who suffers; is this fair or unfair; what alternatives can we imagine; what is required to create change. These questions can be applied to specific scenarios in stories or the learners’ own lives, and will teach them to look critically at social issues.

Spitzman and Balconi (2019) developed a useful nine-question rubric rooted in the Teaching Tolerance Framework, which can be used as a guideline to assess the extent to which social justice is being pursued in the classroom environment. They ask the following questions about classroom practice, that highlights certain aspects of social justice:

1. Are multiple perspectives welcomed and respected? (Diversity; identity)2. Is curiosity about diversity encouraged? (Diversity)3. Are self-reflection practices integrated into the lesson? (Identity)4. Is story sharing included in the lesson? (Identity; action)5. Is dialogue part of the instruction? Are students taught explicitly how to engage

in an empathetic, open-minded dialogue? (Diversity; action)6. Is there any indication of insensitivity to diversity or hidden stereotypes / bias in

the lesson? (Justice)7. Are students’ prior learning experiences and background knowledge

integrated? (Identity; diversity). Is there an in-depth exploration of background knowledge / culture? (Avoiding oversimplification)

8. Are form-focused instruction and learning strategies included into the lesson in order to provide access to academic learning communities and foster positive identity development? (Identity; justice)

9. Does the lesson promote action against injustice?

Multi-cultural competence is the ability to cope well in a multi-cultural context. Mio, Barker-Hackett and Tumambing (2012) explain that multi-cultural competence consists of mastering three key skills, namely:

Developing an awareness of one’s own cultural values and biases.Learning to value others’ worldviews.Developing a set of culturally appropriate interpersonal skills.

It is clear that the concepts of cultural diversity, multi-cultural competence, and social justice are directly linked (Shriberg, Bonner, Sarr, Walker, Hyland, & Chester, 2008) and that social justice cannot be achieved without due consideration of, and careful attention to, how we deal with cultural diversity in the education context.



In the end, social justice is not something that can just be taught. The teacher has to constantly integrate this as a value in their teaching and classroom practice.

4300 minutes

Now complete the following questions:

1. Explain the relevance of social justice in the South African basic education system, in your own words (why is it important in South Africa in particular), in view of the historical (past) situation, as well as your own understanding of the current status of basic education in South Africa.

2. Read the following core reading carefully:

Spitzman, E. & Balconi, A. (2019). Social Justice in Action: A Document Analysis of the Integration of Social Justice Principles into Teaching. Journal of the Scholarshipof Teaching & Learning, 19(5), pp. 1-17.You can access and down load the full text of the article at:http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=140966665&site=ehost-live

2.1. Summarise the key message in the article, in your own words. What does this article mean to your daily teaching practice?

Now use the 9 questions used for rubric (to analyse lesson plans for the inclusion of social justice practices) that Spitzman and Balconi (2019) developed, to assess your own classroom practice. Draw the rubric in an exercise book and indicate next to each item (question) in the rubric, how you are currently implementing, or not yet implementing, that aspect. Also indicate what you would do differently in the classroom, now that you are more aware of the importance of social justice.

You came to the end of Unit 1. Complete the self-assessment activity.

590 minutes

Self-assessment activity: Unit 1

Before you go on, reflect on what you have learnt so far and complete the self-assessment activity below. If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of the criteria, go back to the relevant section to study it again.



Now that I have worked through this unit, I can:

YES UNSURE NO

Define the concept social justice.

Identify and explain some of the main theories of social justice, for example:

Utilitarianism;Self-perfectionism;Marxism;Existentialism;Rawls’ theory;Libertarianism; andAmbedkarism.

Explain social justice in my own words, and explain its relevance to education.

Name and explain various theories of social justice.

Practically apply social justice in my classroom, in the way that I interact with and teach learners.

You have completed Unit 1. In Unit 2, we will explore critical issues which impact basic education in South Africa.

1. INTRODUCTION

As stated in the previous unit, the South African Basic Education system faces many challenges.

Despite the best efforts of government to develop and implement policies of redress, access, equity and equality, it is a sad reality that equality has not yet been attained, and that poorer, and in particular rural schools, are still struggling to provide quality education to learners.

UNIT 2: CRITICAL ISSUES IN BASIC EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA



The Minister of the Department of Basic Education, Ms Angie Motshekga, however, wrote in The Sunday Times newspaper of 3 November 2019, that Basic Education has entered its “own season of hope”.

While it is important for teaching students to be familiar with the challenges, it is also important that we do not lose hope, and that we commit to addressing these challenges, in the interest of social justice.

In Section 1 of this unit, we will explore the current state of the system, including the progress made in the system since the dawn of democracy in 1994. We will also consider an overview of the challenges and constraints faced in the system.

In Section 2 of this unit, we will then move on to specific, major challenges faced in the system, and consider specific actions that could be taken to address those challenges.

In Section 3 we will investigate the role of teachers as change agents.



2. STRUCTURE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF UNIT 2

Unit 2 consists of the following three sections and learning outcomes.

UNIT 2CRITICAL ISSUES IN BASIC EDUCATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

SECTION 2Responses to challenges and constraints in Basic Education

Learning outcomes: To critically understand and discuss:

The research on overcoming challenges in education.Practical solutions that can be implemented in the South African system.

SECTION 1Challenges and constraints in

the South African Basic Education System

Learning outcomes: To critically understand and reflect on:

Achievements in Basic Education since 1994.Challenges in Basic Education. Constraints in Basic Education in SA.External factors impacting Basic Education.

SECTION 3Teachers as agents of change

Learning outcomes: At the end of this section, you will be able to

Understand and explain therole of the professional teacher as change agent.Identify and apply the values and pedagogy needed to become an agent of change.



1. INTRODUCTION

In order to understand the current state of basic education in South Africa, it is important to first understand the historical challenges faced by the system (prior to democracy) and also, the progress that has been made to date in the transformation of the system.

2. ACHIEVEMENTS IN BASIC EDUCATION SINCE 1994

As discussed in Unit 1, the apartheid system in South Africa excluded the majority of citizens from access to quality basic education for many years (Mncube, 2008). Exclusion comprised of an inferior curriculum for black learners, as well as the deliberate allocation of the majority of funds to whites only schools. Basic education was also not compulsory for black learners.

As a result, the basic education available to black learners was both of inferior quality and also distrusted and scorned by Africans, who had viewed schools as instruments of the apartheid government (Fiske & Ladd, 2004).

The first democratic government elected in 1994 had the huge task of transforming apartheid South Africa into a united democratic South Africa, which includes a dramatic transformation of the country’s education system.

In 1996, the newly elected democratic government published a White Paper on the Organisation and Funding of Schools, aimed at the democratic management of schools, including the introduction of school governing bodies. A new, inclusive national curriculum had to be developed as well.

By 1998, South Africa had a new constitution, a new parliament and nine new provinces. Education also had to be restructured to conform to this new administrative structure. This, too, was soon accomplished, and by the year 2000 education in South Africa seemed well on its way to being transformed.

Some of the achievements in basic education, since the dawn of democracy in 1994, are listed below.

SECTION 1: CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN BASIC EDUCATIONSYSTEM



2.1 Amenities and resources

Since 1994 there have been significant improvements in education in a number of areas. Over the past two decades many black, rural and township schools which had few or no amenities or resources now have running water, electricity, telephones, printing facilities, computers and functioning toilets. There are still far too many schools which do not have these, but improvements have been made.

2.2 Class size and teacher qualifications

Class sizes have, in general, been reduced, but classes remain too large in many black primary schools. The problem of under-qualified and un-qualified teachers is also being addressed. Teachers in black schools are now much better qualified than they were in 1994 when 36% of black teachers lacked proper qualifications. This figure had come down to 26% by 1998 and has been reduced further since then. It is now a requirement that all teachers entering the system have a university degree.

2.3 Compulsory schooling

The problem of children, of school-going age, not attending school is also being dealt with. Education is now compulsory for all children in South Africa until the end of Grade 9, when the General Education and Training band ends. Ninety percent of all children who should be at school are now at school. Unfortunately, there is a significant drop-out rate after the end of compulsory schooling. Only about 50% of those children who start school in Grade 1 carry on to write the National Senior Certificate (NSC)examination at the end of Grade 12.

Greater numbers of learners are writing the NSC Examinations, and the pass rate and results have improved. In 1994 about 496 000 learners wrote the Senior Certificate examinations; 58% passed and 18% achieved a university entrance pass. In 2015, just under 800 000 wrote the NSC examinations. Of these, 71% passed and 30% obtained a Bachelor’s (university entrance) pass. In 2019, an all-time record of an 80% pass rate was achieved.

Along with these developments, government spending on education has been increased, which is now the biggest item by far on the national budget. In 1994 the budget allocation for education was R32 billion; by 2016 this has increased to R297,5 billion. Of this amount, basic education received R205,8 billion and the universities received R28 billion; R813 million was allocated to Early Childhood Development (ECD) Centres and R14,3 billion went to the National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS).

However, the transformation of education, despite some improvements, has not been as successful as everyone had hoped.



3. KEY CHALLENGES IN BASIC EDUCATION

Despite the enormous amounts of money being spent on education, there are still significant areas where the system is not delivering the quality of education that is expected.

In this section, we unpack the fact that our education system is not operating as well as it should be, and we note the major development areas (gaps) in basic education.

The two fundamental aspects of education are literacy as relate to language andnumeracy as related to mathematics, yet it is here that the key problem in the system lies. Linked closely to that is the quality of the National Senior Certificate (matric) results, and the readiness of learners to enter into higher education. We will consider each of these aspects briefly.

3.1 Literacy

In the initial (foundation) phase of their education, learners should learn to read properly so that they may go on to benefit from more advanced levels of education. However, it has been determined that 60% of all learners at the end of Grade 3 cannot read for meaning: In other words, while some of them may be able to sound out the words, they are not grasping the content adequately. The majority of these learners are poor, black children in township and rural schools. This means that, although by the end of Grade 3 they cannot read properly in their home language (mother-tongue), in Grade 4 they are expected to continue their education in English, a language which many of them cannot read or even speak. It is clear that this is a huge obstacle to further educational progress.

3.2 Numeracy

The other area of concern is numeracy (mathematics). The country is in serious need of professionals who are proficient in mathematics, yet here too, the foundations are not being properly laid. Research has shown that 80% of Grade 6 mathematics teachers do not understand mathematics well enough to teach it properly at Grade 6 level. Again, this applies mostly to black, township and rural schools and has seriously negative implications for the education of the majority of black youths. The same is applicable to Foundation Phase teachers’ whose own mathematical knowledge does not meet the required standards. This will be discussed further in the next Unit.

3.3 Quality of NSC results

These short-comings of the system in the Foundation Phase have negative consequences for the end-product of education. One of these is that the quality of the



NSC results has been questioned. While an 80% pass rate is reasonably satisfactory, many learners pass at very low levels and very few learners pass mathematics and physical science – subjects which are necessary for a wide range of professional and technical careers. This means that these career opportunities are effectively closed to many black matriculants.

3.4 Higher education

The basic education short-comings in basic education also have a negative impact on higher education. Many matriculants, particularly from black schools, are not properly prepared for university. The universities, therefore, have to provide bridging courses for many students to help them acquire the basic skills needed for tertiary education. Nonetheless, the failure rate at the universities is unacceptably high, as many students have not been adequately prepared for higher learning and cannot cope at university.

This section aimed at providing you with an overview of the challenges experienced within basic education. Naturally, these challenges do not exist in isolation, but are also affected by the macro environment and the challenges that we face as a nation. We will now consider the financial and socio-economic factors affecting education in South Africa.

4. CONSTRAINTS IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM

The South African basic education system faces many challenges and constraints.

In fact, there is a danger of becoming overwhelmed by all of the problems and issues facing South African education. There are so many difficulties, at so many different levels, within education that it could be tempting to give up on trying to change the system and to just accept the way things are.

We will therefore consider only a number of key constraints (constraints being understood as factors that hold us back from making progress), and also consider ways of addressing these key constrains.

But first, we have to get a good overview of the issues. For that purpose, we will consider the work of Legotlo (2024) and Van den Berg et al. (2016), as both these authors provide a good overview of the constraints faced in the basic education (schooling) system.

Legotlo’s three categories provide a useful frame for us to consider some of the key challenges in the system, but are not exhaustive. We will therefore consider these



categories first and will then look at the so-called binding constraints in the system as identified by Van der Berg et al. (2016).

4.1 Legotlo’s categories of constraints

Legotlo (2014) lists three main categories of constraints, namely:

1. Learner related issues;2. Teacher related issues; and3. Policy / administrative issues.

First do the next activity, then you will learn more about these.

6240 minutes

Before you go on, read Chapter 2-5 of the following core reading carefully. Keep a notepad next to you as you read, and make notes of the key challenges that Legotlo has identified.

Legotlo, M.W. (2014). Challenges and Issues Facing the Education System in SouthAfrica. Pretoria, South Africa: Africa Institute of South Africa.Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=790625&site=ehost-live

4.1.1 Learner related issues

One of the key learner related issues identified by Legotlo (2014) is the issue of rural and farm schools. Poverty and school violence are also considered key learner related issues. Poverty will be discussed together with rural schools as these two challenges are interlinked.

Rural and farm schools (poverty)

Rural occupation in South Africa is directly linked to apartheid and the colonial policies of dispossession (Hlalele, 2012). People living in rural areas in South Africa are often far away from the nearest town, and the condition of roads are often poor, making travelling even harder. Unemployment levels are high, as are illiteracy levels, and poverty. There is also often a lack of services such as running water, electricity, sanitation and health facilities.

Illiteracy: not being able to read or write.



Schools in these areas suffer from a lack of infrastructure; the lack of basic services such as water and electricity. Hlalele (2012) also notes that the rural environment may struggle to attract well-qualified, motivated teachers.

Research has found that the socio-economic status of learners had a major impact on the eventual outcome of children’s schooling, with very large differences in matriculation rates linked to the income measures of poverty of the households (Timaeus, Simelane & Letsoalo, 2013).

School violence

Violence in South African schools includes threats of violence, psychological abuse, robbery, physical assaults, gang violence, corporal punishment, sexual violence and bullying. The majority of violent incidents happen in the classroom, and have a severe negative impact on teaching and learning (Burton & Leoschut, 2013).

The Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention (CJCP) conducted a National School Violence Study (NSVS) in 2008 and again in 2012, with over 12 000 participants (learners in both primary and secondary schools). Both studies found that around 22% of all learners and teachers had been victims of violence at school. The majority of school violence is learner-on-learner violence (Burton & Leoschut, 2013).

The Department of Basic Education introduced the National School Safety Framework, together with the Regulations for Safety Measures in Public Schools, to combat this challenge. These regulations require every school to implement the following policies: A School Safety Policy; a School Safety Plan; a Policy on Non-Violent Discipline; and a Code of Conduct for Learners. School Safety Interventions are monitored by the Safe School Committee in every school (CJCP, 2016).

4.1.2 Teacher related issues

According to Statistics SA’s 2013 general household survey, most households cited teacher-related issues as the top challenge facing public schools.

Teacher related challenges include a lack of qualified teachers, teacher absenteeism, lack of time management, teacher morale and motivation, and a lack of teacher accountability (Legotlo, 2014; Taylor, 2011).

We will now discuss each of the above challenges in a bit more detail.



Lack of qualified teachers

The Southern and Eastern African Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality(SACMEQ) (2007) found that 60% of mathematics teachers, educating learners from Grade 1 to Grade 6, failed to pass tests for maths at the grade level.

(Note: The Department of Basic Education is actively working to address this, amongst others, through a bursary scheme for deserving students. In the 2018/9 financial year, more than 13 000 teaching bursaries were awarded to deserving students for initial teacher education, and a total of 3 741 bursary graduates were placed.)

Teacher absenteeism

The SACMEQ III report (2007) also showed that South Africa had the highest rate of teacher absenteeism, as compared to 14 other countries that participated in this survey. In addition, even when teachers are present at school, they are not always in class, teaching, as they should be (Taylor, 2011).

Teaching time management

The National School Effectiveness Study found that in many schools, fewer than half of the official curriculum was being covered by the end of the year and fewer than half of the officially scheduled lessons were being taught.

Teacher morale and motivation

Shalem and Hoadley (2007) report that low morale, frustration and anger and a growing desire to leave the profession are prevalent amongst South African teachers. This is ascribed to schools being under resourced, the workload of teachers, as well as learner related factors, such as poor discipline, in some schools.

This lack of motivation is concerning, especially in view of the fact that several studies have linked the motivation levels of teachers with improved pass- and throughput rates, and improved educator job satisfaction (Iwu, Gwija, Benedict & Tengeh, 2013).

Teacher accountability

In South Africa, teacher accountability is governed under Resolution 8 of 2003 of the Education Labour Relations Council.

Teachers’ day-to-day work is regulated through sets of curriculum management instruments. This includes quarterly work schedules and pace setters, as well as their preparation file, a record of learners’ assessment a diagnostic analyses of learners’ performance and remediation programmes. Teachers are required to report to their



heads of department regarding their progress on a regular basis (Shalem & Hoadley, 2009).

4.1.3 Administrative / policy related issues

The lack of proper management and administration at some schools and also at provincial level is a major challenge. Research has shown that stronger administration and accountability have a direct impact on the success of schools, as evidenced in their matric results.

Administrative and policy related issues include the lack of resources that schools may need to function properly, including poor school infrastructure, poor learning conditions and lack of learning material.

7300 minutes

Legotlo’s three categories of constraints – learner related issues, teacher related issues and administrative/policy related issues – help us to think about the kinds of problems that originate from different sources and impact education. In this section we have touched on just a few of the issues in each of these categories.

While you may have limited experience in the education system as teacher, you have had many years of experience as a learner. For this activity, draw on your knowledge and insights as a student teacher, as a former learner and as a member of society who observes how education works within your community. Then ask other teachers during you WIL or in your community for their perspectives.

Let’s look first at learner related issues:

1. Learners can encounter many barriers to learning that come from within themselves (such as a physical, psychological or cognitive disability) or from their home environment. The issues of poverty at home and school violence were raised in this section. What other barriers to learning can learners experience which come from themselves or their home environment? What have the other teachers you know observed? Make a list of these.

2. You may be a student-teacher for the Foundation Phase, but you also need to know about the development of learners in the Intermediate Phase.

During the Intermediate Phase, learners begin the developmental process of going through puberty. This brings about dramatic physical, social, emotional and cognitive changes which can be difficult and confusing.



What issues can you think of which arise from this developmental stage which might become a constraint to teaching and learning? Make a list.What issues can you think of which arise from this developmental stage of learners in the Foundation Phase which might become a constraint to teaching and learning? Make a list (refer to what you learnt from Piaget’s stages of child development from other modules e.g. Education Studies 1: Theories of Child Development (B-EDS 111).

Now let’s look at teacher-related issues:

3. In this section we looked at the lack of qualified teachers, absenteeism, time management, accountability and lack of motivation and morale. What other teacher-related issues have you observed as a learner or as a student teacher? What have other teachers you know observed? Ask teachers in your own community and during WIL. Make a list.

Let’s look at administrative/policy related issues:

4. In this section the lack of resources and poor learning conditions that many schools face were raised. What other administrative/policy related issues have you observed as a learner or as a student teacher? What have the other teachers you know observed? Make a list.

Commentary:Thinking about these categories and constraints in the light of your own experience and the professional experience of other teachers that you know will help you to make meaningful connections that can help you take effective action in your teaching practice.

4.2 Binding constraints in basic education The key term to understand in this section is binding constraint. When something is bound then it is restricted and held back. Imagine binding someone to a tree with rope. They would not be able to move very much. A constraint is something that limits and restricts you. So, a binding constraint is something that limits and restricts you by tying you up.

We want to identify the ropes that are tying education down. If we can identify these constraints and break them, then we can release education from its current low performance and start the process of improvement. In this section we will outline four binding constraints that are holding back education in South Africa.



8300 minutes

Before you go on, read the following core reading carefully. Keep a notepad next to you as you read, and make notes of the constraints that Van den Berg et al. (2016) identified:

Van den Berg, S. et al. (2016). Identifying Binding Constraints in Education, RESEP, Department of Economics, University of Stellenbosch. (Available online at resep.sun.ac.za). Please see Addendum A.

Van den Berg et al. (2016) identify four binding constraints in basic education;factors that hold basic education back.

These four constraints are, according to their research, the ones that should receive priority as they prevent progress in resolving most of the other issues. In other words, if these four issues are addressed, they believe that progress in addressing the other issues, will be made more effectively.

As we look at them, consider how they relate to Legotlo’s categories of restraints that we looked at in the previous section. You may find that you identified some of these constraints when you considered issues in Activities 7 and 8.

1. The first binding constraint is the lack of proper management and administration at schools and also at provincial level. Research has shown that stronger administration and accountability have a direct impact on the success of schools, as evidenced in their matric results.

2. The second binding constraint is that teachers’ unions have undue (too much or inappropriate) influence in teaching and learning decisions, including the accountability of teachers.

3. The third binding constraint is that many teachers lack content knowledge and pedagogical (teaching) skills.

4. The fourth binding constraint is the wasted learning time and insufficient opportunity to learn. This links to challenges already discussed, such as teacher absenteeism and poor time management.

We will now consider these four binding constraints in more detail:

4.2.1 Binding constraint 1: Management and administration

According to Van den Berg et al. (2016), one of the constraints holding back real improvements in education is poor management and administrative support provided



to schools and teachers by some of the provincial departments of education. It is the responsibility of each department of education to ensure that schools within the province are functioning as well as possible. This support should take place at district level. However, research indicates that, in general, schools are poorly supported by district curriculum advisers. This is particularly the case in primary schools where there is a serious lack of support.

Some departments of education, such as Gauteng and the Western Cape, perform very well. Schools within these well-run provincial departments of education tend to perform better than schools within poorly run departments of education. Research also showed a direct link between the improved support for schools, and the performance of those schools (for example when schools were transferred to better-performing provinces).

We will now explore two case studies that show how important provincial departments of education are to improving the quality of education in South Africa. Please read through the case studies carefully and answer the questions in the Activity that follows.

The first case study deals with the role of monitoring visits by curriculum advisers to schools:

CASE STUDY 1:COMPARING READING PROFICIENCY AT THE END OF THE FOUNDATION PHASE WITH NUMBERS OF VISITS BY CURRICULUM ADVISERS

Numerous research studies have shown that reading proficiency in Grades 4 and 5 in South African schools is very poor compared with learners in other southern African countries and in the wider world. It is clear that South African primary schools are failing in their main purpose, which is to produce literate and numerate learners.

Research conducted in 2011 revealed that 29% of Grade 4 learners are illiterate in their home language and 58% cannot read for meaning. The survey further revealed that only 57% of South African learners had acquired basic reading skills compared with an international figure of 95%.

When broken down into areas, the statistics showed that 80% of urban learners had basic reading skills, but only 28% of township learners and 26% of rural black learners had these. Only 34% of Grade 5 learners in South Africa could actually understand what they were reading while internationally 80% of Grade 4 learners tested at the same level, could understand.

More recent research carried out by the National Education Evaluation and Development Unit (NEEDU) has shown that 41% of South African Grade 5 learners are functionally illiterate and 11% could not read a single word in English although



it was their language of learning and teaching. The reading levels of Grade 5 learners in South Africa are at the same level as those of Grade 1 learners in the state of Florida in the United States of America – a state where there are many second language learners.

Children who do not learn to read in the first four years of primary school are seriously handicapped throughout their education and possibly throughout their lives. The poor reading levels in South Africa are obviously a very serious educational problem and people who are involved in education in this country know this. One would therefore expect that the problem would be receiving the urgent attention of the provincial departments of education. This is not the case, as the following table illustrates.

What the table shows is a reasonable correlation between two sets of figures: The provinces where more support is given to teachers by curriculum advisers have lower rates of illiteracy. It is therefore reasonable to conclude that the education of many children in South Africa, mainly poor, black children, is being severely handicapped by the lack of support given to primary schools by the district officials in their provincial departments of education.

Table 1 Curriculum adviser visits to foundation phase teachers and literacy levels in seven of the nine provinces

Province

% Foundation Phase Teachers reporting at

least one visit by curriculum adviser

during 2011

% Grade 4 learners illiterate in home

language(2011 pre-PIRL survey)

Western Cape 83 11Gauteng 62 21

Free State 60 Not included in survey figures

North West 56 29Mpumalanga 43 32Northern Cape 41 Not includedKwa Zulu Natal 34 26Eastern Cape 33 32Limpopo 22 50National Average 45 29



9300 minutes

Read the above case study (Case Study 1) again very carefully. Consider the facts presented in the case study, and answer the following questions:

1. Which two provincial departments have the highest percentage of curriculum advisors visiting Foundation Phase teachers?

2. Which two provincial departments have the lowest percentage of curriculum advisors visiting Foundation Phase teachers?

3. Which two provinces have the lowest percentage of illiteracy in their home language?

4. Which three provinces have the highest levels of illiteracy in their home language?

5. Read the following statements and indicate whether the statement is true or false. If it is false, motivate your answer. 4.1 The provincial departments that have the highest percentage of curriculum

advisors visiting Foundation Phase learners also have the highest percentage of illiteracy in their home language (True/False).

4.2 The provincial departments that have the lowest percentage of curriculum advisors visiting Foundation Phase learners also have the highest percentage of illiteracy in their home language (True/False).

4.3 The provincial departments that have the highest percentage of curriculum advisors visiting Foundation Phase learners also have the lowest percentage of illiteracy in their home language (True/False).

4.4 The provincial departments that have the lowest percentage of curriculum advisors visiting Foundation Phase learners also have the lowest percentage of illiteracy in their home language (True/False).

6. Write a short essay about the case study and what it proves. What conclusions do you make based on the case study? Do you agree with the conclusion of the researchers regarding the importance of curriculum visits? What other factors could have had an impact on the results?

The second case study deals with the administration and support given to schools, by the provincial Department of Education. Read the case study and answer the questions in the next activity.



CASE STUDY 2:

North West Province and Gauteng: Evidence that a change of Provincial Department of Education can make a difference to the performance of schools

Graeme Bloch in his book The Toxic Mix (2009, p. 111) states:

“The other significant place where government has not performed is at the district level. The education district provides services to a cluster of schools and is probably the best place to organize administration, supervision and curriculum advice. For a number of reasons, including vacancies, inexperienced staff and inadequate prioritisation, districts have not functioned well as sources of support to schools.”

Often they have been the source of paperwork and compliance control, trying to assert authority rather than win respect through the useful exercise of genuine authority in relevant teaching areas.”

In other words, district officials spend too much time making sure that all the correct forms are filled in, rather than providing real help and support to teachers.

In support of this view we can consider the research described in the RESEP report (Van den Berg et al., 2016, p. 7) with regard to schools which were transferred from North West Province to Gauteng in 2005:

“Owing to an administrative change in 2005, some schools were re-allocated to different provinces. Some provincial boundaries were changed in 2005 to ensure that no municipality was split between two provinces. As a result of the re-drawing of the provincial boundaries, 158 high schools were effectively placed under new administrations. For example, 29 schools ‘moved’ from the North West Province, a traditionally under-performing province, into Gauteng, a traditionally better-performing province. The researchers found that the schools that ‘moved’ to a more functional province showed significant improvements in NSC results within five years. The researchers noted that the improvements brought about were considerable.”

The researchers who carried out the study concluded that:

“What did seem to matter was more efficient use of non-personnel funds by the authorities, with a special focus on educational materials, the brokering of pacts between stakeholders, including teacher unions, schools and communities, and better monitoring and support by the district office” (Van den Berg et al., 2016, p. 33).

POSSIBLE REASONS FOR THE LACK OF DISTRICT SUPPORT



Anecdotal evidence suggests that there are several reasons why district curriculum advisers are not able to provide the expected support to teachers:

Lack of planning and coordination between the national Department of Basic Education and the provincial Department of Education disrupts the programmes of district advisers.

Lack of planning within provincial Department of Education also disrupts district advisers’ programmes, as they are often called to attend meetings and workshops at short notice.

Lack of proper management at district level to ensure that district advisers fulfil their main task which is to provide support for teachers.

Too few curriculum advisers, with vacant posts left unfilled for several years in some cases.

Using curriculum advisers to carry out a number of other tasks which are not related to their main function, for example: Monitoring school attendance and functionality at the beginning and end of terms; supervising and invigilating examinations.

This all points to a lack of effective management in the provincial departments of education – with the exception of the Western Cape and Gauteng which have taken steps to ensure that Department of Education officials in these provinces keep their focus fixed on their main priority, which is the education of the learners. Gauteng, for example, has moved to a system of employing senior public officials on fixed-term contracts rather than on permanent appointment.

By 2014, 60% of the top 100 officials in the Gauteng provincial government were employed on this basis. The aim of this is to improve accountability and flexibility at the senior management level. Those officials who do not perform satisfactorily do not have their contracts renewed.



10180 minutes

Consider the facts presented in the above case study, and answer the following questions:

Imagine the Department of Education representatives are visiting your school and ask you for advice on addressing this issue (district support):

1. What would you say to them? Make your own notes in order to have well-prepared answer ready.

2. What kind of support does your school need? Think of schools in general but also the specific school where you did your WIL.

3. Prepare a slide show (either in PowerPoint or just draw the slides on A4paper), with 10 slides outlining your school’s current challenges, and the kind of support that your school needs from the district and provincial offices. This can include training, resources, or any other form of support. HINT: First prepare this answer in tabulated form.

Take your responses to the above activity to the next academic support session or your own study group meeting.

11120 minutes

At your next academic support session or your own study group meeting:

1. Discuss your responses with your peers.2. Share ideas on the following:

The current challenges at schools.The kind of support that your schools need from the district and provincial offices.

3. Write down the ideas from others that you have not included in your own response.

Now read the summary below.

1



Summary of binding constraint 1

Provincial departments of education are responsible for implementing education policy and ensuring that public schools function properly.The very poor reading proficiency of Grade 4 and 5 learners in South Africa is a serious educational problem.The levels of support provided by district curriculum advisers to Foundation Phase teachers seems to correlate with the levels of reading proficiency in the province – i.e. the more support provided, the higher the level of reading proficiency.More efficient provinces have better performing schools.Possible reasons why districts are failing to support schools include:o Lack of coordination between national and provincial education departments.o Lack of proper planning by provincial departments of education.o Lack of proper management at district level.

4.2.2 Binding constraint 2: Teacher unions’ undue influence on the provincial education departments

The RESEP report Binding Constraints (Van den Berg et al., 2016), and Graeme Bloch’s book The Toxic Mix (2009), both mention that interference by teachers’ unions in the operations of the provincial departments of education is a major problem in some provinces. They state that the South African Democratic Teacher’s Union (SADTU) in particular tries to use its power to influence the departments of education in ways which are not appropriate. SADTU has, for example, tried to prevent teachers from being held accountable for their performance.

SADTU’s inappropriate use of its power is obviously a sensitive topic, as SADTU is a large and powerful organization. It is by far the largest teacher union in the country and represents the majority of teachers. It is also the largest union within the Congress of South African Trade Unions (Cosatu). As such, it has close links with the ruling party – the African National Congress (ANC). It has committed and responsible members and much of its work is admirable and worthwhile. However, the RESEP Report claims that there is significant evidence showing that SADTU has gone beyond its role of representing the interests of its members with regard to conditions of service, and has used its power to the detriment of education in a number of provinces.

There are a number of factors which have made it possible for SADTU to work its way into positions of power in most of the provinces.



SADTU’s size and strength

SADTU dates back to the last years of the struggle against apartheid. In the late 1980s a number of progressive teachers’ unions were formed as part of the general anti-apartheid movement in South Africa. In the early 1990s these unions amalgamated to form SADTU, which today represents the vast majority of black teachers in the country, with a membership of about 250 000. This makes it the largest public service union in the country and gives it enormous influence at the provincial and national levels of government.

The problem of accountability

In 1990-1991 black teachers staged a campaign to chase the last of the school inspectors out of the black schools. The inspectors were seen as representing the last of the old Bantu Education authority. Since then SADTU, and some of the teachers they represent, have fiercely resisted any attempts to impose accountability systems and controls on them.

This resistance seems to go hand-in-hand with a general lack of accountability with regard to public service officials at all levels of government in South Africa:

“This lack of accountability and service-delivery is especially acute in the basic education sector in South Africa and can be seen all the way from provincial offices down to schools and classrooms” (Van den Berg et al., 2016, p. 25).

The researchers claim that SADTU still resists any attempts by the education authorities to make teachers in South Africa accountable for their performance. For example, SADTU has resisted plans to introduce electronic, biometric monitoring of teachers’ times of arrival at, and departure from, school. SADTU has also resisted the establishment of an inspectorate to monitor the performance of teachers and management in schools. SADTU’s success with actions which undermine education is made possible by the general weakness of the provincial departments of education.

The weak state of administrative in the majority of provincial departments of education

Certain provincial departments of education are weaker than others, and there are elements of inefficiency and corruption, which makes it difficult to withstand unreasonable pressure from unions like SADTU.

Let us look at the implications for education in South Africa next.



The implications for education in South Africa

Teacher accountability

Undue union influence affects the provincial departments of education’s ability to hold teachers accountable. Research shows that the majority of teachers in township and rural schools teach about 50% of the lessons they are scheduled to teach in a year.

Through SADTU these teachers have been are able to escape any consequences. Minister of Basic Education Angie Motshekga stated in 2015 that “…in the majority of provinces some unions run, and to a certain extent, appear to control Government for selfish reasons, which doesn’t benefit learners or the country.” In such an environment, teacher performance and curriculum coverage cannot be effectively tracked and managed, as “... any attempts to hold teachers accountable for their performance, are actively resisted by the majority union”.

Employment of teachers

According to the research, weak administration, coupled with the inappropriate involvement of SADTU, has resulted in more teachers being employed by the provincial departments of education than the government has approved. Money is diverted which was allocated for other uses in order to pay these extra teachers’ salaries, leaving the provincial departments of education with very little money to spend on the improvements to schools. In provinces such as the Eastern Cape and Limpopo the teacher wage-bill has swelled to such an extent that in those provinces the ability to spend on non-personnel items like text books, infrastructure and teacher-training has been seriously compromised. The education departments in these provinces are seen first and foremost, by both teachers and officials, as a source of employment for teachers (because of undue union influence), to the detriment of students and learning outcomes (Van den Berg et al., 2016, p. 29).


SADTU’s harmful involvement in the provincial Departments of Education is a sensitive topic because it is such a large and powerful organization in South Africa.

The circumstances which have made this possible:

SADTU’s size and strength.The problem of accountability.Weak administration in the majority of provincial Departments of Education.

The implications for education in South Africa:

Provincial Departments of Education cannot hold teachers accountable.Too many teachers are hired, leaving little money for improving schools.



12240 minutes

Access this newpaper article from the City Press (2016-05-15) through the following link: https://www.news24.com/citypress/News/break-sadtus-power-20160514

NEWSPAPER ARTICLE:‘Break SADTU’s power’Sipho Masondo

Read the newspaper article and then answer the following questions:

1. Which departments of education does SADTU have control of, according to the 2016 report?

2. Name three recommendations the Ministerial Report made to help address the issue of SADTU’s dominance and discuss why you think the three recommendations will work or not.

3. The big issue we are dealing with in this topic is accountability. Do you think that a professional teacher is accountable to the learners, the parents, and/or the Department of Education that pays your salary? How can you balance these various accountabilities?

You should now be ready to look at the third binding constraint.

4.2.3 Binding constraint 3: Weak teacher content knowledge and weak pedagogical skills

It is common knowledge that the South African education system is under-performing. Large numbers of primary school children are not learning to read or understand mathematics and the system is not producing quality results with regard to the National Senior Certificate. Furthermore, when South Africa is compared to neighbouring countries in southern and East Africa it ranks considerably below average, and behind countries much poorer than South Africa.

One of the huge problems within the system is the very weak subject knowledge of South African teachers. This poor level of knowledge, combined with their inability to teach their subjects properly and their limited skills in the classroom, all present a serious constraint on education in South Africa.

Of course, this is looking at the general situation. There are many good teachers in South African schools (both well-resourced and poorly-resourced), who are performing at the highest standards. Nonetheless, the fact remains that the average teacher performance in South Africa is extremely low.



Types of knowledge a teacher should have

“Teachers cannot effectively teach what they do not know” (Van den Berg et al., 2016,p. 44)

To teach effectively a teacher must have professional knowledge of three different types:

1. Disciplinary knowledge. This is the content knowledge of the subject (discipline), for example: history, geography, mathematics, life sciences, physical science, natural sciences and so on.

2. Subject knowledge for teaching (pedagogical content knowledge). This includes the theory and methods related to the teaching of a particular subject. Aphysical science teacher must know the subject and he/she must also know how to teach physical science, i.e. the best ways to explain the facts and concepts to the learners; how to structure a theory lesson or a practical lesson for physical science; how to set assignments and assessment tasks for physical science, amongst many other things.

3. Classroom competence. This is the knowledge and practical ability required to teach a class under any circumstances, also known as classroom management skills. This includes: how to present a lesson; how to manage the learners during the lesson; how to assess the effectiveness of the lesson. These are some of the more significant skills required, but there are others.

In practice, this means that a teacher who does not know much about mathematics cannot teach it. However, even if a teacher has a good grasp of mathematics (has disciplinary knowledge), if she lacks the other kinds of knowledge she will not be able to teach mathematics as effectively as she should. On the other hand, a teacher with limited mathematical disciplinary knowledge but with reasonably good teaching knowledge and skills will also struggle to teach mathematics with a certain amount of success. Improving teaching is not as simple as only improving content knowledge or only improving teaching techniques. In South Africa we have to ensure that our new teachers entering the system understand that they have to know the content of their subject and also how to teach it.

How do South African teachers compare with teachers in other Southern and East African countries?

The Southern and East African Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality(SACMEQ) carried out a study of Southern and East African teachers in 2007. This study throws some light on where South African teachers stand in relation to teachers



in other countries and it also highlights the differences between the provinces in SouthAfrica.

The 2007 SACMEQ study showed that only 32% of Grade 6 learners in South Africa were being taught mathematics by teachers who had a proper understanding of mathematics: 79% of Grade 6 teachers had a mathematics content knowledge level below Grade 6 level. In other words, they were unable to achieve 60% on Grade 6 level assessments. This means many of them did not properly understand the content they were teaching (Van den Berg et al, 2016, p. 44).

While this poor figure of 32% is troubling, it becomes even worse when one looks at the figures for some of the other African countries included in the survey. Kenya has a score of 90%, Zimbabwe 76% and Swaziland 55%.

There are also big differences between the provinces in South Africa. Mpumalanga’s score of 4% indicates that the province had almost no teachers equipped to teach mathematics in the primary schools. The top province in South Africa was Western Cape with 64%, which still does not compare favourably with Kenya’s 90%.

However, the SACMEQ survey also shows that the weak content knowledge of South African teachers is not the only cause of the poor results of South African learners. Researchers found that South African learners performed worse than learners in other countries even when taught by teachers with similar levels of knowledge. (RESEP, p.46) This suggests that there are other factors in South African schools which are responsible for the poor performance of learners. These could be poor teaching skills and too little teaching time.

The vast majority of the poorly-performing teachers are in the poorest schools. This means that the majority of poor learners are not taught mathematics properly at primary school, crippling their ability to succeed with mathematics at high school. Consequently, tertiary education courses and jobs requiring knowledge of mathematics are effectively closed to them.

A possible solution to this problem is for teachers themselves to improve their knowledge and skills. Many teachers have enrolled at universities for Advanced Certificates of Education/Teaching (ACE/ACT) courses on a variety of subjects. However, the number of teachers doing so has not been enough to make a real difference in the system as a whole, and in some cases the success rate is quite low.The other problem is that without accountability systems in place there has been no real incentive for teachers to change. In response to this problem, the education authorities introduced a system of Continuing Professional Development (CPD). From 2016, all teachers are required to attend courses, or engage in activities, which will promote their professional development.




Teachers cannot teach what they do not know.Teachers need three kinds of knowledge: o Disciplinary knowledge – subject content.o Pedagogical content knowledge – how to teach a subject.o Classroom competence – how to manage a classroom competently so that

teaching and learning take place in a meaningful way.Most South African teachers have poor content knowledge and poor teaching knowledge, as shown in the SACMEQ survey 2007 which compares South African teachers with teachers in other Southern and East African countries.Teachers can enrol for ACE/ACT courses in various subjects.With no accountability systems for teachers, there is no real incentive to change.From 2016 all teachers are required to undertake CPD.

13 300 minutes

Study the graph and answer the questions that follow:

The graph represents the percentage of Grade 6 students with access to teachers with desirable levels of mathematics subject knowledge.

(SACMEQ, 2007; Van den Berg et al., 2016)

1. Compare the position of South Africa against other African countries as well as against the average. You will see that South Africa is considerably below the average of all the countries. Can you think of possible reasons why South Africa, which is a far wealthier country than all the others in the survey, is so far behind Kenya and only slightly better than Mozambique, one of the poorest countries in the world? Make a list of possible reasons.

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2. Try to find at least two or three other newspaper articles or reports (this may include reports from the Department of Basic Education) about the state of basic education in South Africa. Then summarise these articles or reports (key messages). Compare the key messages to this graph – does it tell the same story?

3. What can you, as a future teacher, do to change this situation in some small way? Think of possibilities.

4. If you were made Minister of Basic Education in South Africa what possible changes could you make to improve teacher knowledge and teaching skills?

4.2.4 Binding constraint 4: Wasted learning time and not enough opportunities to learn

Van den Berg et al (2016) indicate that a number of South African studies have found that in many schools, less than half of the official curriculum for the year is covered, and fewer than half of the officially scheduled lessons are actually taught.

This is clearly a very serious problem. Many learners, mostly in township and rural schools, are again being denied the opportunity to learn in a meaningful way. This problem also highlights the need for a proper system of ensuring teacher accountability.

Research showing lessons are not taught

Not enough teaching time

A study conducted in 2012 of 58 schools in Northwest Province and 58 schools across the border in Botswana found that, of the 130 Grade 6 mathematics lessons scheduled for the year, the teachers in Northwest Province taught only 50 (40% of the lessons)(Carnoy, Chisholm & Chilisa, 2012). In contrast to this, the teachers in Botswana taught 78 of the lessons (60% of the lessons).

Teacher absenteeism

A study carried out in 2010 by the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) found that the average teacher takes 20 to 24 days of sick leave per year. Just over three quarters of all this leave is taken one or two days at a time which means that the teacher does not have to present a medical certificate.

Disturbingly, it also found that Mondays and Fridays are the most popular days for `sick leave’. The SACMEQ study (referred to in the previous section) also showed that teacher absenteeism is much higher in the poorer schools than in the wealthier schools (Van den Berg, et al., 2016).



It must be pointed out that 20 to 24 days is the equivalent of a full working month. That amounts to a lot of missed teaching time. It must also be remembered that this is an average figure. Many teachers are taking more than this. The general indication is that sick leave is being abused and being taken to supplement ordinary leave.

Not enough opportunities to learn

The RESEP report (Van den Berg et al., 2016) quotes from four important studies carried out in South African schools on the amount of written work done by primary school learners in South African schools.

1. National School Effectiveness Study (NSES) Mathematics

This study was carried out in 2007 - 2009. In this study teams of researchers investigated 15 000 learners in 268 schools across South Africa. The study started in 2007 when the learners were completing Foundation Phase (Grade 3) and followed them through Grades 4 and 5 in Intermediate Phase. The researchers found that the learners’ Intermediate Phase teachers covered less than a quarter of the mathematics topics for the year when the learners were in Grades 4 and 5. Only 12% of teachers covered more than 35 (39%) of the 89 prescribed topics. Put simply, most of the intermediate phase teachers did not cover most of the topics.

2. NSES Language

This study found that Grade 5 teachers gave their learners written work to do in their language books only once a week or less. Only 3% of Grade 5 learners did written work in their language books every day. In addition, half of the written work given by Grade 4 and 5 teachers involved single word exercises – there was no sentence construction involved. In fact, nearly half (44%) of all Grade 4 learners in the study did not write a single paragraph in their books during the whole year. In the Northern Cape and Northwest provinces this figure was even higher: nearly two thirds of the Grade 4 learners in the study did not write a single paragraph during the year. This indicates that Intermediate Phase teachers included almost no writing in their Grade 4 and 5 language lessons.

3. School Monitoring Survey, Use of exercise books

In 2011 the DBE surveyed 2000 schools across the country, both primary and high schools. This survey found that only 53% of learners had covered the bare minimum of exercises for curriculum coverage. Differences in the provinces were again found. In Gauteng 85% of learners had done the bare minimum, 76% in the Western Cape, 27% in the Eastern Cape and 24% in Northwest Province. It must be noted that the survey refers to the bare minimum of exercises, not all or most of them.



4. National Education Evaluation and Development Unit (NEEDU), Writing Activities

In 2011 NEEDU surveyed 218 rural primary schools across South Africa and did an in-depth study of four schools per province (36 schools). This survey found that only 24% of the writing activities prescribed by CAPS were completed in the 36 schools studied in depth. In five schools no extended writing was done at all and in another five schools only one or two pieces of writing had been done. This survey confirms the results of the other research projects mentioned above. Little or no writing is being done by primary school learners in South African schools.

Possible reasons for, and solutions to, the limited amount of teaching and learning in many South African schools

One of the major reasons for limited teaching time is teacher absenteeism. The SACMEQ III report (2007) showed that South Africa had the highest rate of teacher absenteeism, as compared to 14 other countries that participated in this survey. What they also found, was a lack of teaching activity even when the teachers were present. This brings us back to the problem discussed in Section 6 – the lack of teacher knowledge, skills, and confidence to carry out meaningful teaching activities. Even if teachers are in the classroom teaching, this does not mean that they know what they are teaching or teaching it properly.

The second reason is one that has been discussed in previous sections: lack of teacher accountability. Because there is no effective monitoring of teachers there is no real incentive for teachers to improve their performance. The only person in a position to attempt this is the school principal – if she has the support of the school governing body. In a number of cases energetic principals have managed to transform their schools. However, experience indicates that once that principal moves on, the school lapses back to its old ways. It seems to be very difficult to change the deeply entrenched culture of a school without high levels of monitoring and support by the district education officials.

The DBE has attempted to address the problems of teacher knowledge and confidence by producing and distributing workbooks for mathematics and languages. However, the workbooks serve very little purpose if they are not used. The NEEDU survey of 2013 looked at the use of workbooks in the 218 schools surveyed. The researchers found that more than 80% of children had completed less than one page per day in their mathematics and language workbooks.

A research project quoted in RESEP 2016 concludes that;

“… emphasising opportunity to learn … could be an effective strategy to increase learning, especially in poorly performing schools…To accomplish



this, teachers need to acquire more content knowledge and should be held accountable for teaching their class. Were such a strategy added to the current effort to provide, and use efficiently, a well-structured and carefully designed textbook and workbook series… it could greatly improve student learning… This is provided that teachers actually use the books purposefully” (Van den Berg et al, 2016, p. 50).


Research shows:o There is not enough time spent teaching.o There is high levels of teacher absenteeism.o Learners are not given enough opportunities to learn:

- NSES, mathematics – a very small number of teachers are covering more than the bare minimum.

- NSES, language: Grade 4 and 5 teachers are requiring almost no written work from learners.

- School Monitoring Survey, exercise books: Apart from Gauteng and Western Cape, very little work is being done in exercise books.

- NEEDU, writing activities: Very little is being done in primary schools with regard to writing activities.

Possible reasons and solutions:

o Lack of teaching activity even when teachers are present.o Lack of teacher knowledge, skills, and confidence.o Lack of teacher accountability.o Responsibility falls on principals.o It is difficult to change the culture of a school.o Workbooks for mathematics and languages could make a difference – but only

if teachers use them properly. The majority of teachers are not doing so.

14240 minutes

A number of statistics, gathered from research into this problem (not enough time learning), have been quoted in this section.

1. Read the statistics again carefully, and make sure that you fully understand what the statistics indicate. Make a list of all the statistics from this section.

2. Write a brief report explaining how the lack of teaching activity, as highlighted by these research studies, will affect the academic progress of learners in the poorer schools.

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3. Why do you think is it so difficult to change the culture of a school?

4. What would you do differently if you were appointed as the principal of your school today?

4.2.5 Constructing a model of the inter-relationships between constraints

Many different projects implemented over the years have tried to bring about changes and improve the general level of education in South Africa. Some projects have been initiated by national education departments, some by provincial education departments and some by non-government organizations (NGOs).

Unfortunately, it seems that none of them have made any lasting difference. The RESEP report, on which this unit has been based, is an attempt to understand why this is the case and what needs to be done to bring about meaningful changes in education in South Africa. Pay careful attention to how the model makes not learning to read for meaning by the end of Grade 3, the core problem that has to be dealt with for meaningful reform to happen. Also carefully look out for how this problem, of not being able to read properly by the end of Grade 3, is inter-linked with other constraints, forming a web of problems that need to be solved together and not separately.

4.2.6 Recapping binding constraints

The RESEP report (Van den Berg et al, 2016) identifies four constraints as binding constraints. In other words, four major problems which have to be dealt with before any real progress can be made in improving the over-all quality of education in South Africa.

These four binding constraints have all been discussed in this unit, along with two others. These four are:

1. The lack of proper management and administration at schools and also at provincial level. Research has shown that stronger administration and accountability have a direct impact on the success of schools, as evidenced in their matric results.

2. The teachers’ unions undue (too much or inappropriate) influence in teaching and learning decisions, including the accountability of teachers.

3. The lack of content knowledge and pedagogical (teaching) skills.

4. The wasted learning time and insufficient opportunity to learn. This links to challenges already discussed, such as teacher absenteeism and poor time management.



The RESEP report sets out to show how these four binding constraints are all linked and how they affect the most important objectives of primary education, which is to produce literate and numerate learners who are properly prepared to move on to high school.

Diagram illustrating how the binding constraints are inter-linked

The diagram below, reproduced from the RESEP report, shows how the binding constraints work together to constrain or hold back education in South Africa (Van den Berg et al., 2016).

Figure 1: Binding Constraints are inter-linked



Explanation of the diagram

1. The central problem is the fact that most learners do not learn to read for meaning by the end of Grade 3. Notice that this problem is located at the centre of the diagram.

2. Not learning to read for meaning has two basic direct causes:Weak teacher content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge (Binding Constraint 3)Wasted learning time (Binding Constraint 4)

Notice that these two constraints also have arrows between them, showing how weak teacher content knowledge is related to wasted learning time. If you think about it, this link is obvious. Teachers who cannot teach properly are going to waste learning time in their classrooms.

3. Little can be done to improve poor teacher knowledge because of the weak support provided by the provincial education departments (Binding Constraint 1). If you think about this, it also makes sense. In order to improve weak teacher knowledge you need a strong provincial department that helps put conditions in place for teachers to improve. If the department is weak then it is hard to change the schools the department is in control of.

4. Very little can be done to reduce wasted learning time because of the lack of teacher accountability which is reinforced by undue union influence (Binding Constraint 1). Do you see how all of these reasons connect with each other? If you have a teachers’ union that is taking up learning time through strikes and meetings, and protecting its members from being disciplined for not teaching properly, then it is going to be very hard to reduce wasted learning time.

5. Weak provincial departments of education open the way to undue union influence which in turn makes the departments of education weaker.

6. Weak teacher knowledge leads to more wasted learning time. Spend some time following the arrows around the diagram and think about how all these factors combine together to constrain and limit attempts to reform and improve education in South Africa.

7. The diagram is further divided into four quarters:

The top half relates to administrative matters – i.e. the departments of education and the unions.The bottom half relates to instructional matters – i.e. teachers and teaching.



The left side relates to capacity – i.e. matters relating to the ability of teachers to teach.The right side relates to accountability – i.e. matters which relate to holding teachers accountable for their performance in the classroom.

By following the arrows and reading the information in the blocks, it is possible to see how the central problem of learners, not learning to read, is the result of an inter-related network of causes and problems.

The diagram helps us to understand that tackling South Africa’s education problems in a piecemeal fashion – that is, doing little bits here and little bits there – it is not going to achieve any significant change.

The task of solving South Africa’s education problems needs to be handled in a very organized way. The constraints need to be dealt with in a systematic way that focusses on core issues.

15 300 minutes

1. Study the diagram in Figure 1 very carefully again and read the notes which explain the diagram.

2. This diagram is very important. Make sure you understand the relationship between the various parts of the diagram (you have to explain each of the concepts as well as the links between them, clearly in your own words):

The central problem – what is the central problem according to the diagram?The four binding constraints.The administrative issues.The instructional (teaching) issues.The capacity (ability to teach) issues.The accountability issues.

3. What is the link between the undue union influence, and the weak provincial departments?

4. What is the link between undue union influence, and the lack of teacher accountability?

5. What is the link between teacher knowledge and skills, and them not being in class teaching?

6. Think about the four binding constraints. Put them in what you think is their rank order, from the most important problem which needs to be tackled first, down to the one which can be tackled last. Problems: Think of possible problems which

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can be dealt with at the same time (simultaneously). You will need this information to do the activity at the end of the next section.

The above listed issues – learner issues, teacher issues as well as administrative issues, are all internal issues that contribute to what is called the national reading crisis, which refers to the lack of adequate levels of literacy (language) and numeracy(mathematics), and also to poor matric results and the lack of readiness of learners for higher education.

We will now consider the external factors that impact the functioning of the basic education system in South Africa.

5. EXTERNAL FACTORS IMPACTING THE BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM

We have noted before that an education system always reflects the type of society in which it exists. Apartheid education therefore reflected apartheid South Africa. The wealthier white minority enjoyed good, well-equipped and well-resourced schools. The poorer black majority were forced to accept an impoverished, poorly-resourced education system.

Two decades after the collapse of apartheid this situation has only changed slightly. With the removal of racial barriers in employment, housing and education, a number of black people have moved up the socio-economic ladder and have become middle-class. Many of them live in the formerly white suburbs and send their children to the formerly white schools. However, the majority of black people still live in the black townships on the outskirts of the towns and cities and in the rural areas. Despite thegood intentions and efforts of the post-apartheid government, many of the schools in these areas are still run-down, poorly-equipped and poorly-resourced.

5.1 Socio-economic factors affecting education

Education is seen as the key to change in South Africa. Many believe that education can provide a way to raise the standard of living of millions of poor, mainly black, people in the country. However, the government finds itself in a difficult situation. We have already noted, in Section 1, the huge amount of money which the government spends annually on education. Yet, despite this expenditure, many black, township and rural schools lack the facilities which are found in the suburban schools.

At one end of the socio-economic scale are the former white government schools. These schools get a small subsidy from the government but they rely on school fees to fund their operating expenses. It was common in 2016 for high schools to charge R40 000 to R50 000 per annum; primary schools charged slightly less. This enables



them to maintain, or even improve upon, their standards with regard to class sizes, subjects offered, resources and amenities.

At the other end of the scale are the black, township and rural schools. The families of many of these learners cannot afford to pay school fees. In many cases the children live in child-headed households or subsist on a grandparent’s government pension. School feeding schemes are vital to their survival in many cases. As in the days of Bantu Education most of these schools still lack the facilities and resources that the wealthier schools have.

5.2 Financial factors affecting education (government spending)

Public government schools in South Africa vary enormously in terms of their facilities and resources, but the government does not have the financial resources needed to bring all schools up to the same level in terms of facilities and resources.

There are many other demands on government finances which are also a high priority, such as health services, social welfare, roads and law-enforcement, to name a few. Consequently, the government cannot afford to provide all schools with the resources and facilities everyone wants to have, such as libraries, laboratories, computer rooms, sports fields and swimming pools. In fact, as noted previously, many still lack basic amenities such as electricity, running water and proper toilets.

5.3 Government policies

Many policies of the South African government are designed to address past injustices and promote equal access to resources and services. Some of these do not target education directly but still impact education. The Department of Basic Education hasdeveloped many policies to directly address the ways in which socioeconomic inequality continue to affect education. We will look briefly at two of these: the choice of language used for learning and teaching and the increase of funding to poorer schools.

5.3.1 Language of learning and teaching (LoLT)

The policy of the Department of Basic Education in South Africa is that children should learn in their home language during Foundation Phase in order to build a solid foundation of language skills. They can then, in theory, build content knowledge on this foundation through Intermediate Phase, even if they are taught this knowledge in another language – which is usually English.

Spaull (2016) explains that children in the Foundation Phase (Grades 1 to 3) are ‘learning to read’ because, from Grade 4 onwards, they are meant to be ‘reading to learn’. This means they will be using the skill of reading to acquire new information.



Many schools thus use an African language as their language of learning and teaching (LoLT) in Foundation Phase. However, this does not mean that all children are in fact learning in their home language, because in many schools and classrooms many different home languages are represented. There are thus many children who are seriously disadvantaged during the first years of school when they should be building a strong base of language skills in their home language which they can then use to bridge across to another LoLT in Intermediate Phase. Due to the many constraints we have considered, even those learners who are learning in their home language are not developing their language skills adequately during Foundation Phase.

In Intermediate Phase, most schools switch to English as the LoLT. Data from 2013 showed that while about 70% of learners were learning in an African language during Foundation Phase, about 90% of learners were learning in English in Intermediate Phase (Spaull, 2016). This means that learners who were already struggling to learn in their home language or an African language were now required to start learning a wide range of content in a second or third language.

The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) is a reading assessment that is conducted across several different countries every 5 five years. Data from the PIRLS assessment in 2011 revealed that 29% of Grade 4 learners in South Africa could not read at all in any language and 58% could read the words but could not understand what the text meant (Spaull, 2016). This showed that the education system had failed to teach language skills adequately in Foundation Phase. The assessment also tested Grade 5 learners at schools where the LoLT was English or Afrikaans.

While the learners were in Grade 5, the test was given at a Grade 4 level. This assessment found that only 57% of South African learners had acquired basic Grade 4 reading skills in their new LoLT by Grade 5. In contrast, 95% of Grade 4 learners internationally had acquired basic reading skills by Grade 4. Only 34% of Grade 5 learners in South Africa could actually understand what they were reading while internationally 80% of Grade 4 learners tested at the same level could do so When broken down into areas, the statistics showed that 80% of urban learners had basic reading skills, but only 28% of township learners and 26% of rural black learners had these.

More recent research carried out by the National Education Evaluation and Development Unit (NEEDU) has shown that 41% of South African Grade 5 learners are functionally illiterate and 11% could not read a single word in English although it was their language of learning and teaching. The reading levels of Grade 5 learners in South Africa are at the same level as those of Grade 1 learners in the

Functional illiteracy: not having adequate reading and writing skills to be able to manage daily living or working tasks.



state of Florida in the United States of America – a state where there are many second language learners.

This means that teachers in the Intermediate Phase face the double challenge of teaching many learners who have not developed basic language skills in their home language, and trying to introduce these ill-prepared learners to a wide range of new subjects in a new language of learning and teaching.

16 240 minutes

You should do all the following questions on your own. However, these questions could all make for an effective group discussion in your next support group or in your own study group.

1. Reflect on your own experience as a learner and write a paragraph in response to each of the following questions:

1.1 Did you do your Foundation Phase schooling in your home language? If not: how do you think this impacted your learning and your experience of school in Foundation Phase?

1.2 If so: can you think of learners who were in your class who had a different home language from the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) or from the majority of learners in the class? How do you think this impacted their learning? How were they perceived by you and others who were learning in their home language?

1.3 If you can recall any negative aspects of your experience, how could you, as a teacher, manage this issue to minimize any negative experience for any of your learners?

1.4 Did your teacher speak the same language? If not, how do you think this impacted your learning?

1.5 When you started Intermediate Phase, did you change to a new LoLT? 1.5.1 If so: How did you experience this? How do you think it impacted your

mastery of your subjects compared to other learners who spoke the new LoLT at home (for example, learners from English speaking homes who continued their schooling in English in both Foundation and Intermediate Phases)? How has this impacted how comfortable you are reading and writing in your home language and the LoLT today, as an adult?

1.5.2 If not: Ask a friend the question above and write down his/her answer.

2. Discuss the following questions with teachers at your WIL school and write a paragraph summarising their responses to each question:

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2.1 What challenges do they face with regard to the language backgrounds of learners?

2.2 Which learners experience the greatest barriers to learning due to home language?

2.3 How do they address these challenges on the classroom level?2.4 What strategies or policies do they think would help to resolve these

challenges at the school or departmental level?

3. Write a paragraph discussing each of the following questions:

3.1 What is your opinion of the Department of Basic Education’s language policy?

3.2 Do you think it is the most just, or fair, way to handle the language issue? 3.3 Are there any learners who are advantaged or disadvantaged by this

policy?3.4 If you were in a position of authority in the Department of Basic Education,

what recommendations would you make to try to ensure that learners from all language backgrounds are given an equal opportunity to learn?

5.3.2 Efforts to achieve equality in education by increasing funding to poorer schools

In 1998, in an attempt to provide equitable education for all learners, the education authorities grouped schools into quintiles according to the income levels of the communities in which they are situated. A quintile means a fifth, and the schools weredivided into five equal groups – quintiles. The poorest 20% of schools were designated as Quintile 1. The wealthiest 20% of schools were designated as Quintile 5. The government subsidy given to Quintile 1 schools is about six times the amount per learner than the amount given to Quintile 5 schools. For example, Quintile 1 schools might receive R1 080 per learner per year, but Quintile 5 schools might only receive R180 per learner per year. Quintiles 2, 3 and 4 are subsidized on a sliding scale in between the Quintile 1 and 5 schools.

Initially, the lower quintile schools tried to charge school-fees, but many learners’ families could not afford them no matter how low they were. As a result, in 2011 the government declared the Quintile 1, 2 and 3 schools to be no-fee schools: These schools are not allowed to charge school fees.

Despite these considerable differences in state funding, the gulf between the suburban schools and the poorest township and rural schools remains very wide. This is due to the richer schools being able to charge high school fees that enable them to provide higher quality education. That unfortunately means that the children of parents who can afford to send them to better schools, generally will receive a better education than those in a no-fee school.



6. THE IMPACT OF CONSTRAINTS ON LEARNING

We have explored a number of different binding constraints and external factors which impact the effectiveness of basic education in achieving its primary aim: learning. We can model this in a simple diagram, as follows, where the dark grey circles represent external factors and the light grew circles represent internal constraints:

Figure 2: Constraints on learning

Each of these factors and constraints have a negative impact on learning. These factors often have a direct impact on each other as well.

17300 minutes

Let’s explore how these factors impact each other.

1. Draw the following table and for each factor in the diagram of Figure 2, consider if and how it might impact each of the other factors. You might find strong relationships between some factors, and weak relationships between others. In some cases, you might not see any impact by one factor on another factor.

LEARNINGis compromised

Financial factors

Government policy

Weak teacher expertise

Wasted learning time

Excessive influence of

teachers' unions

Weak management

and admin

Socio-economic

factors



2. In the right hand column, write down whether you think the factor in bold has a STRONG influence, a WEAK influence or No influence on the factor you are considering (below it, in the left hand column). Then write down all the ways you can think of that it influences that factor.

(We have started the table with three factors, you have to complete it for all the other factors.)

Impact of socio-economic factors on:Financial factorsGovernment policyWeak mgmt. and adminInfluence of unionsWeak teacher expertiseWasted learning time

Impact of financial factors on:Socio-economic factorsGovernment policyWeak mgmt. and adminInfluence of unionsWeak teacher expertiseWasted learning time

Impact of Government policies on: Etc.Socio-economic factors etc.

3. Now draw the diagram shown before this exercise in your book. Using information from your table, add arrows to show all of the relationships you noted between factors. Use a heavy arrow for STRONG influence and a light or broken arrow for WEAK influence. Some arrows might point in both directions, where two factors influence each other.

4. Now try to identify the factors which have the most influence on other factors. Do this by looking for the circles which have the heaviest arrows going out from them.

5. Try to identify chains where one factor influences another which influences another. Write down these chains in your book.

6. Looking at these chains, what is your opinion about which factors should be tackled first, or given highest priority?

7. Present your work and your opinion to your peers. Listen carefully to their presentations. Did any of them identify influences you missed? Did they reach different conclusions about which factors should be tackled first, or given highest priority? If you find their arguments convincing, modify your diagram, chains or opinion to reflect this.



You have now spent time thinking about the connections between different factors and how together they have a negative impact on learning. We have seen that the key aspect of learning which lays the foundation for all other learning is language skills, and that the switch from one language of learning and teaching to another language of teaching and learning in Intermediate Phase makes this massively more challenging. You have probably noticed that poor management by the education department results in weak teacher content knowledge, which in turn results in poor teaching which translates to wasted time, and thus ineffective learning, in the classroom.

If you have a teachers’ union that is taking up learning time through strikes and meetings and protecting its members from being disciplined for not teaching properly, then it is going to be very hard to reduce wasted learning time. This helps us to see that solutions are needed on the biggest level – from the top down. This does not mean, however, that as an individual teaching you cannot bring some positive change ‘from the bottom up’ by having a positive influence in your school and by committing to meet the needs of their learners whether anyone makes them or not.

7. SUMMARYIn this section we have looked at different categories of constraints – learner related, teacher related and administrative/policy related – several internal constraints and some of the external factors that impact basic education.

We have seen how the biggest problem that results from all of these factors is the failure of the basic education system to develop learners’ language and mathematicsskills by the end of Foundation Phase so that they are ready for the expanding subject content they encounter in Intermediate Phase. In addition, in many schools learners are expected to transition to a new language of learning and teaching (LoLT) when they begin Intermediate Phase while their Foundation Phase education failed to equip them with a firm foundation in their home language which they can build on.

As a Foundation Phase teacher you will have to start being an agent for change. In this capacity you can play a key role to bring about change. You have to address the challenges that are being experienced by Intermediate Phase teachers with deficit in their learners’ language and mathematics skills. It is crucial that you don’t fail your learners in this phase by adding further constraints through your own action or inaction – such as absenteeism. However, there are also ways you can have an impact at a wider level on your school to help to address the constraints that undermine effective learning in all of the phases. We will consider these in the next section as we explore approaches to address these challenges.



1. INTRODUCTION

As discussed in the previous section, the South African Basic Education system faces many challenges and constraints. In fact, there is a danger of becoming overwhelmed by all of the problems and issues facing South African education. There are so many difficulties at so many different levels within education that it could be tempting to give up on trying to change the system and just accept things the way they are

The problems in South African education are serious, but there are many people –researchers, teachers, reformers, concerned citizens – who have spent a lot of time and money trying to understand and solve the problems discussed in the previous sections. However, it is important to understand that these problems and ‘binding constraints’ are common to many developing countries. You must not think that South Africa is the only country in the world that has these problems. If you travelled through Africa, South America and Asia you would find many countries are dealing with the same issues.

This section will look at research conducted in a number of developing countries and possible solutions to the problems in education in South Africa.

First, we have to understand the differences between education in developed countries and less developed countries.

2. DIFFERENCES IN EDUCATION BETWEEN MORE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES AND LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

Education in more developed countries deals with different issues and problems to education in less developed countries. It is important to recognise that the problems and solutions found in education in developed countries are quite different to the issues encountered in education in developing countries. More developed countries tend to have well-funded and functioning education systems that enjoy both qualified teachers and high levels of participation by the learners.

Many of these more developed countries also invest heavily in resources and help for disadvantaged children. They provide longer teaching hours, remedial teaching, small classes, teaching assistants and specialist consultants. The problems that these kinds of schools have are very different to the kinds of problems experienced by schools in

SECTION 2: RESPONSES TO CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS IN BASIC EDUCATION



less developed areas. It is dangerous for a less developed country to look towards the solutions which more developed countries use to solve the problems of improving the quality of education.

Most developing countries cannot provide the same level of investment or expertise. Furthermore, developing countries have many more poor families and learners to work with who need more initial educational investment than wealthier families in developed countries who have already invested in the education of their children at home. For example, in more developed countries schools do not have to think about issues such as children coming to school hungry or not having a place where they can study at home. So, it is important for schools in less developed countries to look for solutions that work in their own context, which could be different from those used in developed countries.

3. SOLUTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF QUALITY IN LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

Helen Abadzi has researched this topic and tried to answer the question in her book, Efficient learning for the poor (2006). Her research found that there are seven pillars which help to achieve basic skills for all in developing countries.

The seven pillars are:

1. Support children’s brain development and health.2. Use available instructional time effectively.3. Ensure that all students have textbooks which they can take home.4. Teach fluent reading and calculation in the early grades.5. Teach basic skills in home language.6. Base teacher training on a few simple and effective learning strategies that work

in developing contexts.7. Ensure effective teacher incentives, goals, and oversight.



Figure 3: Seven pillars for achieving basic skills for all

(Abadzi, 2006)

The pillars identify the basic problems that impact on the functioning of the education system. If children are hungry and sick it is very difficult for them to focus on learning. If teachers are not teaching in the classroom, then learning is not happening. If there are no textbooks for children then how are they going to learn? If fluent reading and calculation skills are not taught and mastered in the early grades, then every single year thereafter is going to be a struggle as they rely on reading and calculation as a basic skill.

At the heart of these suggestions lie two basic strategies to improve education in developing countries:

Improve teaching and learning in the classroom.Improve the quality of teachers and their performance in the system.



To improve learning inside the classroom, two key issues must be improved – the amount of time spent learning; and the quality of this learning.

3.1 Addressing the time spent on teaching and learning

Waste of instructional time is a problem in many less developed countries. The following diagram illustrates how much time can be lost before the learner actually learns something in the classroom. The length of each line represents the time available.

Figure 4: Instructional time calculation

(Abadzi, 2006)

We can see that, of the initial 1 000 hours allocated to teaching, very few hours are actually used for the purpose of teaching.

It is important for those working to solve the problems in South African education to understand that teacher absenteeism is not just a South African problem. Chaudhury et al. (2006) made unannounced visits to primary schools in Bangladesh, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Peru and Uganda. It was important to do the visits without telling the school so the schools could not fake teacher attendance. The researchers found that:

Around 19% of teachers were absent on average. The study also noted frequent instances where only about half of the teachers present were actually in their classrooms.Other tendencies noted were that absentee rates increased in poorer regions; that absence was not limited to a few abusers of the system but was widespread



across teachers at school; and that the higher the rank, the higher the absenteeism, with principals - especially male principals – being the most frequently absent.The study goes on to observe that “while official rules provide for the possibility of punitive action in the case of repeated absence, disciplinary action for absences is rare. Teachers…are almost never fired” (Chaudhury et al., 2006, p. 93).The rates of absence in developing countries observed were far higher than in more developed countries, where around 5% was average. The more developed the region or province, the better the attendance; the poorer the region the poorer the attendance.

So what can be done to solve this issue of absenteeism of teachers?

The following factors were found to reduce absenteeism:

hiring teachers who live near the school;improving school infrastructure;increasing monitoring by (and presence of) ministry officials; andhigh literacy rate among parents.

The paper ends with the following observation “quality starts with attendance.” (Chaudhury et al., 2006, p. 114).

18120 minutes

1. In you group, discuss how you think the seven pillars of achieving basic skills for all can be addressed in the Foundation Phase in the South African context:

Support children’s brain development and health.Use available instructional time effectively.Ensure that all students have textbooks which they can take home.Teach fluent reading and calculation in the early grades.Teach basic skills in home language.Base teacher training on a few simple and effective learning strategies that work in developing contexts.Ensure effective teacher incentives, goals, and oversight.

Make notes for future reference.



2. A few suggestions were provided to reduce teacher absenteeism. In your group discuss more ideas. Add at least two more ideas from the discussion with your group.

3.2 Addressing the quality of teaching and learning

While the presence of teachers in the classroom is a necessary condition for quality education, it is not enough. The crucial issue is what happens inside the classroom when teachers and learners are there. There has to be effective teaching within a developing context. We saw in Unit 1 that it doesn’t work well to force poorly-trained teachers to suddenly try new, learner-centred types of teaching methods. It is better to work more carefully with the structured methods that they are used to.

The Education for All Report (UNESCO, 2015, p. 26) on improving the quality of education in developing countries puts this as follows:

“On the spectrum running from traditional ‘chalk-and talk’ teaching to ‘open-ended’ instruction, many educators argue for structured teaching – acombination of direct instruction, guided practice and independent learning. Typically, teachers should present small amounts of material, then pausing to make sure students understand and encourage active participation by the learners. Much evidence suggests that structured teaching works far better than open-ended approaches for children from disadvantaged backgrounds, those with learning difficulties and those in large classes.”

Classrooms should be learning-centred rather than learner-centred. In a learning-centred classroom, the person who knows (the teacher) actively teaches the person who does not know (the learner) a key area of knowledge, while obtaining feedback to ensure the learner understands what is being taught. Learning can then proceed in a structured way to the next area of focus. If we take this as the core sequence of teaching and learning, it is clear that a number of basic elements must be in place.

Firstly, the learners must experience a curriculum that demands a lot from them. They need to be healthy and they need to participate continually, or the demands of the curriculum will be too much for them.

Secondly, teachers need to know the curriculum and know how to teach it so that learners move from where they are to where the curriculum demands they should be. Apart from knowing how to do this, teachers must of course actually do it.

Thirdly, the curriculum must be clearly structured and sequenced to ensure that maximum gain in knowledge, skill and attitude is achieved.



Fourthly, management structures at school, district, provincial and national levels should be directed at ensuring that this core activity of teaching and learning happens effectively in the school, the district, the province and the country.

3.2.1 Essential requirements for effective learning

No matter what school interventions are attempted, if the learner does not arrive at school ready to learn, not much can be achieved. Here research from cognitive psychologists on the cognitive damages caused by starvation provides crucial insight. Poor nutrition in the womb and during the first three years of life causes direct and irreversible damage to cognitive ability and performance. There is no catching up or miraculous recovery. No teacher, curriculum or school feeding scheme can reverse the damage inflicted by stunted growth and short-term memory impairment that comes from starvation as a baby. Education is tied to health by the umbilical cord.

3.2.2 The importance of early childhood development

Health interventions in the first three years of life show a direct and continuous benefit in schooling performance (Fleisch, 2008). Early childhood care is a non-negotiable part of schooling as it ensures that children are able to perform from their first day at school, rather than having to repeat Grade 1 because they were not used to the demands of school. Nor can early childhood care be a form of warehousing where young children are just left in a room to do what they want.

Early childhood education has to stimulate the child. This means getting the child’s body and mind used to the social world of schooling while improving confidence, self-esteem and the fine motor-skills needed at the school desk. This takes time. The first day of schooling is not in Grade 1: It begins on the day of conception with the mother’s own state of health and education.

Ensuring teachers are in the classroom teaching, and that learners who arrive at school have not been stunted as babies and have had a worthwhile pre-school education, provide some very basic conditions for improving the quality of education in less developed countries. Once these basics have been established, then it is possible to concentrate on the teaching techniques that work best in less developed contexts.

3.2.3 Teaching disadvantaged children

Teachers within developing countries need to know and use teaching methods that work in poorer contexts. Some teaching methods will have a positive effect on learner performance and some will have a negative effect. It is important to know which methods are the most appropriate to use when teaching disadvantaged learners from poor contexts – which will improve learner performance or which will damage it.



In the next paragraph you will learn more about teaching strategies that are suitable for disadvantaged learners.

Teaching strategies that are suitable for disadvantaged learners

Interventions that are known to have a direct and good impact on improving learner performance in disadvantaged communities across developing nations, as described by Abadzi (2006) are:

using phonics to teach reading;spending the maximum class time possible on learning activities;withdrawing the use of home language slowly and introducing bilingual education gradually;quiet, attractive classrooms with lots of light and moderate temperatures (not hot or cold); andsupportive health programmes.

Teacher training in a developing context should be based on the teaching principlesthat have been found to work within such contexts. It should focus on building skills to teach language and mathematics, developing good, basic content knowledge and follow a clear curriculum. Teaching in the home language should be done by teachers who share that home language.

A clear and structured curriculum is vital to support teachers. It should carefully map the learning that is planned across the grades and subjects. Each lesson, day, week, term, and year should be clearly set out so that teachers know exactly what they need to teach at any given time.

The CAPS curriculum which is currently used in South Africa was very carefully planned. All across South Africa, learners in the same grade are doing the same lesson in the same week, because CAPS has specified what needs to be taught week by week throughout the term and year.

Teaching strategies that are not suitable for teaching disadvantaged children

Using a foreign language for basic skills of reading and mathematics is not a good idea. It is vital to use a learner’s home language when teaching basic skills in the early grades.Using discovery learning to teach basic skills (where the learner is given space and time to explore and discover what needs to be learnt) does not work well. It is better if the teaching is structured.



Expecting learners to take notes and find their own sources is unlikely to work well.Teacher training which focusses on advanced degrees (e.g. Master’s degrees) rather than focussing on good basic training for teachers from poor backgrounds, is not productive (Abadzi, 2006, p. 139).

These kinds of interventions should be actively discouraged within a developing context. It has been shown that they do not work well or are not the best use of resources.

3.2.4 Curriculum design for disadvantaged learners

The problem with CAPS is when teachers and learners cannot keep up with the demands of the curriculum and start to fall behind. By the end of the week the teacher finds that she has not been able to teach all the lessons and then she has a choice –either slow down or miss a couple of lessons. Either way, the curriculum does not get completed. Abadzi, (2006) warned against this. This is how she put it:

“Curricula often reflect the learning needs and rhythms of the urban middle class. Thus, they are loaded with myriad activities for the first few years. Predictably, few schools serving the poor reach the end of the textbook - if they have one”(Abadzi 2006, pp. 95-96).

When designing the curriculum, or writing a text book, it is very hard to leave subject content and activities out, because these seem to be very valuable. So instead of simplifying the curriculum and text books to make the curriculum more manageable for learners and teachers from poor contexts, the curriculum planners and text book writers pack them with content and activities, and then give exact days on which each must be done. This failure to simplify the curriculum results in teachers falling behind and becoming frustrated.

This is a complex problem. The need to simplify the curriculum and identify core areas that must be mastered by all has to be juxtaposed (contrast/compared) with the need for a curriculum that enables entry into university and is internationally competitive. It is also politically risky not to have middle class buy-in to the national curriculum. An over-simplified curriculum could result in the middle-class parents taking their children out of public schools and putting them into private schools.

3.2.5 The value of text books

One strategy is to identify failing schools that are not managing to teach the curriculum at all and provide them with a stripped-down core curriculum as well as extensive support and guidance in mastering it.



Using a core curriculum with essential lessons per subject in every grade becomes a manageable task for a failing school, especially if these lessons are carefully designed and come with all the necessary support materials, as well as training for the teachers and external assessment at a specified time.

In this approach, the curriculum is contained in one key document that reaches the teacher and the learner – a textbook. Here the work of the national department, curriculum committees and subject specialists can reach into the heart of the teaching and learning environment.

The textbook is also the learner’s take-home resource that extends learning beyond the classroom. It supports the teacher who is unsure of a particular section. It structures the work of the year into a coherent whole that builds on the previous year and prepares for the next one. Good textbooks for all are one of the cheapest and most effective ways to get quality into the classroom and the home. Unfortunately, research into the actual quality of textbooks is scarce, but we do have enough research to help us identify what a good textbook looks like.

The basic features of good textbook (Abadzi, 2006, p. 91) are as follows:

1. Serious focus on content comes first, with rich and extensive explanation andelaboration of concepts.

2. Secondly, there should be extensive use of pictures, drawings, diagrams and figures that capture the essence of important concepts. These are not cartoons or illustrations, but visuals which capture clearly the patterns, relationships and logic of a specific content area.

3. Thirdly, there should be room for practice and exploring outward from the topic. This can be provided either in the textbook or in an attached workbook.

4. Fourthly, the topics should be organised clearly in the textbook and be simple to read, without too many things crowding the page.

5. Fifthly, the text should explain clearly how the current topic connects with topics that were covered previously.

That textbooks must be of a very high quality is non-negotiable. To select textbooks, experts should rate them through a formal process that doesn’t allow room for corruption. In Senegal, there are two textbook evaluation committees for each textbook to reduce the possibility of corruption.

3.2.6 How to motivate teachers

We have seen throughout this unit and module that teachers are the crucial factor determining quality within education systems. Key questions are: How to get good



teachers into the system? How to motivate teachers to do their jobs well? How to enable them to continually improve their skills and performance?

Motivational strategies that do not work

Rewarding teachers by paying them extra if their learner performance improves does not work. It results in all sorts of practices that target short-term improvement without any long-term benefit. For example, a random set of teachers in Kenya were offered a pay bonus if their learners’ test scores improved. The test scores did improve – but not for other subjects or for the rest of the year. The teachers had simply focussed more on teaching the material that was going to appear on the test. There was no improvement in teacher attendance, in homework given or marked, in preparation or teaching style (Abadzi, 2006, p. 116). Similar results have been seen in other countries – with teachers sometimes going as far as to change learners’ scores so as to get the bonus (Levitt & Dubner, 2005).

Motivational strategies that do work

Teachers already inside the system need to have a combination of internal and external motivators as well as internal and external forms of accountability. Teachers who are never visited in their classrooms by other teachers, the principal, or an inspector have only their own inner drive to keep them going. Structures are needed on three levels to hold teachers accountable. At the level of the school, there needs to be structures for accountability between teachers, the head of department and the principal.

At the level of the district, schools need to be inspected regularly. At the level of the community, teachers need to be held accountable through structures such as the School Governing Body. Members of the SGB could make short visits to the classrooms to check that specific objectives are met at specific standards –for example, learners must be able to read, write and calculate to certain standards by the end of Grade 3.

19 60 minutes

1. Do you often hear complaints about the South African schooling system? If so: 1.1 How does that make you feel?1.2 How can the quality of education in South africa be addressed?.

2. Do you think the teachers at your school (or the school where you did WIL)are motivated to do their best? Write a paragraph to explain.

3. Read the above section about teacher motivation again. Do you agree with that? Motivate your answer.

1



4. What motivates you to do your best?5. How can the teachers at your school (or the school where you did WIL) be

motivated to do better?

Teacher accountability in developed contexts

The type of accountability and motivation teachers need depends on the nature of the education system. As we have seen throughout this module, less developed education systems need different kinds of interventions to more developed systems. Finland, for example, has a more developed education system. Finland gives teachers and schools a great deal of freedom when it comes to the curriculum and assessment. Teachers get together to decide what to teach during the year.

There are no external evaluations of teachers or inspections in the classroom. This means that teachers have an enormous amount of responsibility to design and deliver quality education. This is possibly because they come from a highly developed and educated society and, in general, they are motivated to teach, not to receive a salary or a position of power but because they are passionate about education. In less developed education systems, it would be very dangerous to put this much responsibility on teachers.

20240 minutes

In this unit you have found out about some of the constraints binding the South African education system. You have also learnt about research that shows how to improve the quality of education in less developed contexts.

1. Redraw and complete the following table by filling in solutions to each of the binding constraints. Refer to your answers of the activities at the end of the previous sections in this unit to do this activity.

Binding constraints of South African Education

What can be done to overcome the constraint and improve the quality of

education in South AfricaSocio economic, financial and language issues. Major problem of reading for meaning. The constraint of poor support provided to schools by most



2. Use your completed table to write an essay in which you outline each constraint and then provide suggestions about what can be done to overcome the constraint and improve the quality of education in South Africa. Do not only write about what you have learnt in the CLG, please use your own ideas as well.

provincial education departments.The constraints caused by improper union influence on the operations of provincial education departments.The constraints presented by weak teacher content knowledge and weak pedagogical skills.The constraint of wasted learning time.

Let us look at a South African case study next.

3.3 South African case study

The central problem in South African education is learners are not learning to read for meaning by the end of Grade 3. If there is one central problem we should focus our energies on, it should be trying to improve reading in our schools.

There have been a number of attempts to improve reading in the South African schooling system over the past years, and in this section we are going to explore which kinds of attempts to improve reading, are better than others. In 2017 the Department of Basic Education published an account of three different interventions to improve reading, along with clear results, (and) about which intervention was best. The research study was called the Early Grade Reading Study (EGRS) (DBE, 2017) and it tested three different intervention models over a two-year period in 150 different schools. Another 50 schools were used as a control group where no intervention was done. The learners in these schools were tested for the ability to read for meaning at the beginning and end of the year, over a two-year period. The interventions were carried out in North West province and the materials were used to improve the home language of the learners (Setswana). The EGRS study started in 2015 with Grade 1 learners and then followed the learners into Grade 2 in 2016.

The first intervention (teacher workshops) was implemented in 50 schools and consisted of providing teachers with lesson plans on reading that were aligned to CAPS as well as lots of additional reading materials for the learners. The teachers



went to two training workshops a year to learn how to teach the lessons and use the reading materials.

The second intervention (coaching teachers) was implemented in 50 other schools that were similar in kind to the first intervention. These schools were provided with the same lesson plans and the same additional reading materials, but the teachers did not go on training workshops. Instead each teacher was provided an on-site coach who knew how to teach for meaning. These experienced teacher / coaches would sit in the lessons and help the teacher to teach reading. The teachers would also attend small cluster training sessions with other teachers from the school and schools nearby.

The third intervention (parental help) was implemented in 50 schools that were also similar to the other schools. No extra lesson plans or extra materials were provided. Instead weekly meetings were held with the parents of the learners to discuss the importance of reading in the early grades and to provide the parents with the knowledge and tools to become more involved in helping the children read.

The fourth group of schools had no intervention and just carried on as they had always done. The learners in these schools were tested at the same time as the learners in the other schools to see how much their reading had improved. The fourth group is called a control group because they do not receive anything extra / no interventions over the two years that the other schools all received one of the interventions. The control group can be used to see how much improvement in reading happened without any intervention. The control group can then be used to check how much the other schools improved in comparison to them.

Stop and think

Before we look at the results of the study to see which intervention was the best, stop and ask yourself which intervention you think was the most successful? Why?

21240 minutes

Before we go on to provide you with an account of which intervention was the best, read the EGRS case study again carefully, and answer these questions:

1. Which intervention you think would be the best and why?

2. Have you had any similar interventions at your school? Ask other teachers about their past experience with interventions to support reading.

2



3. Do you think they were effective? If not, which intervention would you prefer? Why do you say so?

4. Do children at your school have access to books? How? Do you have a library at school? In which other ways can you make books accessible?

5. How could you make more books accessible to your learners? Ask otherteachers for their ideas for books in the various home languages of learners. Think about how families, members of the community, or organisations might help.

6. How can you get the parents more involved in helping to address this challenge (reading)?

7. How could you get parents more involved to help develop their childrens’reading and language abilities in both their home language and in the language of learning and teaching?

8. What opportunities might there be to get members of the community –pensioners, youth, NGOs, church members, for example – involved with supporting the development of your learners’ reading and language skills, in both home language and language of learning and teaching?

9. Write a memo to the Provincial Department of Education, in which you motivate for such an intervention at your own school.

10. Regardless of the response of the Provincial Department of Education, what could you and your colleagues do to organise coaching for teaching reading for teachers in your school? Think of resources you have within your school or district (for example, highly experienced teachers, or teachers whose learners have shown higher results with reading and language skills) and resources in your community (for example, university or NGO programmes, retired teachers who were successful in teaching reading).

Now, we will have a look at the results of the interventions mentioned in the case study. In fact, all three kinds of interventions were successful and improved reading in comparison to the control group of schools which didn’t have any intervention. But the most successful of all was the coaching intervention where experienced teachers went into the classroom to help teachers improve their teaching.

At these schools, learners got about 40% of a year of learning further ahead with their learning than learners at the schools with no intervention. This is really significant. At the schools where teachers were sent away for training, learners got about 19% of a year of learning further ahead with their learning than learners at the schools with no intervention. And at the schools which engaged the parents in helping with reading, learners got about 13% of a year of learning further ahead than those at the schools with no intervention.



Figure 5: Intervention results

Source: https://blogs.worldbank.org/impactevaluations/latest-quantitative-research-education-south-africa-and-what-it-tells-us-about-rest-world

This showed that it was more effective to bring experienced coaches into the classroom to work alongside teachers than to send teachers away to workshops. The workshops did have some benefit, though. But funds would be better spend on in-class support than sending teachers to workshops. And it is also very significant that the involvement of parents brought about a substantial gain for students. This is an intervention that requires no funding and that teachers or schools can initiate without departmental support.

What makes the EGRS study and its findings so important to the South African education system is that it tried out three different interventions and had a control group to see how much improvement actually happened in comparison to those that received no intervention. It is considered to be one of the best studies ever done in South Africa to work out how to improve reading for disadvantaged learners. You can read more about this study by following the links on the website as listed below:

https://nicspaull.com/2017/08/16/egrs-probably-the-most-important-education-researchintervention-post-apartheid/

Research across the developing world is coming out with a message that speaks directly to the South African project of improving educational quality for all. (A good example from the SEIA is Working Paper 128 - Curricula, Examinations, and Assessment in Secondary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, 2008). In essence it advises: get the basics, such as reading, right before attempting complex reforms (Spaull & Pretorius, 2019).



Start off with what is possible rather than with a glorious dream. Take a long-term view. Start with small steps, working from what the system can currently handle towards what it can achieve. Look for ideas and solutions from educational systems in countries that have similar constraints rather than from those in developed countries.

4. CONCLUSIONDealing with, and solving the problems in the education system in South Africa is obviously not simple or straight-forward and is clearly not going to be achieved quickly. Instead, it will require consistent hard work over a longer period.

The aim of this unit was to help you understand the educational problems in South Africa and the enormous challenges they present. Hopefully, one day you will be able to play some part in bringing about the necessary changes to ensure that every learner, no matter what their socio-economic background may be, or where they maylive, will receive the education they need and are entitled to.

1. INTRODUCTION

In Unit 1 of this module we learnt about social justice, and in the first two Sections of Unit 2, we learnt about the challenges and constraints facing the Basic Education system.

It is important to understand that we are not powerless against the challenges that the system is facing, but that we can overcome many of these if we all work together. To achieve social justice and overcome the challenges we face, all teachers are required to be change agents.

Due to a long history of inequality and racism, South African Basic Education is expected to bring about change and to promote social justice, democracy, and social cohesion. While policies were changed and curricula and textbooks were re-written after apartheid, teachers play the most important role in effecting social change (Cappy, 2016).

How could you as a teacher contribute to transformation and change in your own school’s context? The intention of this section is to briefly introduce you to the concept of teachers as change agents, and to consider the characteristics that you will require to be an effective change agent. Many of the issues we have looked at in this unit need

SECTION 3: TEACHERS AS CHANGE AGENTS



to be addressed at a national level in order to bring improvement in all of the schools in South Africa.

This does not mean, however, that as an individual teacher you are powerless to bring positive change to your class, your school and even the education system. You have agency – the power to impact the situation around you. If you use your agency effectively, your impact could even bring positive change on a district, provincial or national level.

The concept of teachers as agents of change is also covered in more detail in Professional Studies in the Foundation Phase 4: Teacher Identity and the Profession (F-PFS 324), and as such, we will not cover it in a lot of detail here – it is only meant to introduce you to the concept of teachers as change agents and their role.

2. TEACHERS AS CHANGE AGENTS

Bandura (2001, p. 2) states that “to be an agent is to intentionally make things happen by one’s actions”. He sees teachers as change agents who are open to change and act accordingly, while being self-conscious of the complexity of change processes in their schools.

Teachers are seen by most societies around the world, as the individuals who can help to bring about positive changes in the lives of people. They are seen as natural leaders who can give advice on various affairs in the community (Bourn, 2016).

Bourn (2016) lists three distinct locations where teachers can act as change agents: Within the classroom; within the wider school; and within society as a whole. It is however in the classroom, in their daily interaction with learners and in effective teaching practice, that teachers probably have the biggest impact.

Bourn (2016) found that teachers who saw themselves as agents of change tended to incorporate three forms of pedagogy in their teaching and learning:

1) They took the time to explain what learners should do carefully and clearly. This helped the students to feel supported (scaffolding was provided) and competent, as they were clear about what they needed to do.

2) They used stories and examples from their own life in their teaching. This helped to build a bond of respect and trust with their learners and engage their learners emotionally in what they were learning, deepening their learning experience.

3) They encouraged discussion and debate among their students on issues of social justice. This helped to develop their critical thinking skills and their

The term ‘agency’ means a person or group’s ability, competence and power to critically shape their responses to problematic situations (Pillay, 2017).

The term change agent means a professional who influences innovation or changes decisions in a direction that is deemed desirable (Rogers & Shoemaker, 1971).



awareness of social justice issues. This also enabled the teacher to model a concern for and commitment to social justice, creating a good example for the students to follow and letting them know that their teacher cared about gender, socioeconomic or other issues that they or their families faced in their own lives.

Teachers who recognised their role as agents of change primarily practised three pedagogical forms: Narrative instruction on what students should do, use of personal stories and materials to elicit emotional responses, and encouragement of debate on social issues (Bourn, 2016).

The kind of teacher that can contribute to the transformation of education through effective teaching as someone who is a well-qualified, competent, dedicated,caring, mediator of learning, designer of learning programmes, administrator, assessor, researcher, subject specialist and lifelong learner (Quan-Baffour & Arko-Achemfuor, 2009).

Van der Heijdena et al. (2015) found that the following characteristics are associated with teachers who are successful change agents: Lifelong learning (being eager to learn and reflect), mastery (giving guidance, being accessible, positive, committed, trustful, and self-assured), entrepreneurship (being innovative and feeling responsible), and collaboration (being collegial). These four key values explained:

1. They believed in lifelong learning. They did not think that formal training prepared them for life but continued to seek new knowledge and skill and question their existing ways of teaching. By reflecting on their experiences they were able to gain new insights which they could use to improve their teaching.

2. They valued mastery. They felt that it was important to be an expert in their work and be committed to their discipline, giving guidance to their learners in an accessible, positive and confident way.

3. They had an entrepreneurial attitude. This means they were always open to new ideas and new opportunities and they were willing to experiment and innovate. They didn’t wait for others to solve their problems or give them what they needed: they saw themselves as capable of finding a way forward and took responsibility for doing so.

4. They valued collaboration with other teachers. This means working with your colleagues by discussing problems and sharing ideas, observing and giving feedback on each other’s teaching, and asking or offering help when needed. These teachers wanted to grow in their expertise and were willing to share and receive, and their students reaped the rewards.

All four of these values are important values for you to teach your learners as well because they will enhance their commitment and ability to keep learning throughout their lives, promoting success in whatever they do. In your module on Classroom Practice you explored some of these values and your attitude towards them.



In 2011, Jansen and two of his journalism students at University of the Free State, Nangamso Koza and Lihlumelo Toyana, published an appeal in the newspaper to the public to send in stories about the teachers who had changed their lives. They published these stories in their book, Great South African Teachers: A Tribute to South Africa's Great Teachers from the People Whose Lives They Changed.

They noticed that there were seven different main ways in which the teachers who were written about had been ‘great’ (Hayward, 2012). As you read this list, think about whether you had any teachers with these characteristics. Also think about whether you would like to be described in this way as a teacher.

1. Subject artist: Some teachers were exceptional in the way they taught their subject. They were passionate about it and made it come alive for their students, showing them how it was relevant to their lives outside of the classroom.

2. Courageous activist: Some teachers were activists, who linked what they were teaching to the issues of social justice in their learners’ lives and in society.

3. Inspiring mentor: These teachers inspired their students by giving them kind words of encouragement and sharing insight and wisdom. Some of these teachers personally sponsored some of the needs of their students.

4. Life performer: These teachers did not just show up and teach from the front of the class. They lived out their lives with passion and drama with their learners, making the classroom an exciting place to experience life on a bigger scale than they would otherwise and be challenged to look at things in new ways.

5. Soft disciplinarian: These teachers had excellent discipline in their classrooms, but achieved it with a gentle touch – treating each learner with respect and earning their learners’ respect and cooperation in return. They never bullied, humiliated or threatened their learners.

6. Tough love coach: These teachers were strict and no nonsense: the learners knew there would be consequences if they didn’t cooperate. But what also came through strongly from these teachers was how deeply they cared about their learners: their strictness came from their belief that their learners had great potential and their determination to help their learners fulfil that potential.

7. Extended parent: Some teachers cared for their learners as a loving parent would, so the learner moved between home and school always feeling cared for.



While many of the teachers did not just fit in one of these descriptions, what they all had in common was that they were not interested in what was the minimum required by the department or the union. For them, teaching was their life, and they went above and beyond what they had to do for their learners (Hayward, 2012).

The world needs great teachers, may you become one of them.

3. SUMMARY

In this section you were briefly introduced to the concept of change agents, and the role of teachers as change agents, in preparation for further work in this regard, in Professional Studies 4: Teacher Identity and the Profession (F-PFS 324).

22240 minutes

1. Write the definition of a change agent, in your own words.2. Why do we need change agents in Basic Education?3. Considering the first two units of this module, which dealt with Social Justice and

the challenges and constraints faced in the South African Basic Education system, what do you think is the role that teachers can play in bringing about change in our Basic Education system?

4. Think back to the teachers you have had throughout your life. Was there one –or more than one – that you think has left a lasting impact on you? They might have given you support at a time when you most needed it or influenced the way you saw yourself, your values, or your life choices – including your career choice to become a teacher. Choose one teacher and ask yourself what qualities that teacher had that made them an agent of change. Make a list of the qualities you can identify and write a description and some examples next to each quality.

5. Now go through the four values that Van der Heijden observed, the three pedagogies that Bourn noted and the seven characteristics that Jansen, Koza and Toyana identified one by one. Which of these do you think fit most naturally with your own personality? There may be some which you wish you had but sound difficult to you. How could you develop your skill with using these?

6. Now think about your own class or your WIL class. Identify at least three things that need to change.

6.1 Write a paragraph describing how you could become an agent for change using the approaches discussed in this section as well as other you may



have identified in the teacher you selected from your own experience as a learner.

6.2 How would you introduce the change and work together with the principal, other teachers, and learners to ensure success?

Now that you have come to the end of this module, reflect on Unit 2 by doing the nextself-assessment activity.

2360 minutes

Self-assessment activity: Unit 2If your answer is UNSURE or NO on any of the criteria, go back to the relevant section to study it again.

Now that I have worked through this unit, I can: YES UNSURE NOCritically understand and reflect on:

Achievements in Basic Education since 1994.Challenges in Basic Education.Constraints in Basic Education in SA.External factors impacting Basic Education.External factors impacting Basic Education.The research on overcoming challenges in Education.Practical solutions that can be implemented in the South African system.

Understand and explain the role of the professional teacher as change agent.

Identify and apply values and pedagogy to become an agent of change.



4. CONCLUSION

In this module we first explored how formal education developed in South Africa and looked at how education is intricately tied up with political, economic and cultural forces.

We saw how the South African education system was developed to systematically enforce racial discrimination for the benefit of whites and how this brutal system was resisted, opposed and ultimately defeated.

We then explored how the system of education works in South Africa post-apartheid, by detailing the principles, policies and laws of South African education as well as the organisational and financial way education works.

We also looked at how our educational system is still struggling with the weight of apartheid and the legacy of inequality it has left us with, resulting in our current education system having some key binding constraints that are preventing us from moving forward as fast as we would like. By understanding what these key binding constraints are, we can start the process of solving these problems and moving our education system and the future lives of our learners forward.

Finally, we considered solutions and we also introduced the concept of teachers working as change agents in the system, to bring about positive change.

We hope that this module empowered and inspired you to address social justice and the current issues in education in South Africa. In the next module in the series: Professional Studies in the Foundation Phase 4: Teacher Identity and the Profession (F-PFS 324), you will learn more about your own teacher identity and how it relates to the teaching profession.



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ADDENDUM A: BINDING CONSTRAINTS

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