Product Life CycleProduct Life CycleProduct Life Cycle

Mining

Manufacturing

Use PhaseEnd of Life

ReadingsReadingsReadingsReadings

1. Sullivan, J., et al, “Life Cycle of US Sedan…..” 1999, p 1-14. (handout)

2. Allen and Shonnard, Ch 13 “Life Cycle Concepts…” by Rosselot and Allen, in Green Engineering. (click here for PDF)

3. Graedel, Evaluating the LCA Process, pp 69 -86 (handout)

4. Graedel, Appendix A SLCA (handout)

5. Leontief, Input/Output Economics, pp19 – 24 (handout)

6. CMU I/O website• Tutorial: http://www.eiolca.net/tutorial.html

• Economic Input-Output LCA: http://www.eiolca.net/

Additional ReadingsAdditional ReadingsAdditional ReadingsAdditional Readings1. (alternative to Allen and Shonnard) LCA 101, (41 pages, but less than 26 of

text) see http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/lcaccess/lca101.htm

2. (discussion of hybrid analysis with extensive example) Joshi, S., “Product Environmental Life Cycle Assessment Using Input-Output Techniques” , J. Industrial Ecology, Vol 3, Number 2 & 3, 2000, p 96-120 (from VERA).

3. (review of alternative methodologies and sources of errors) Suh and Huppes, “Methods of Life Cycle Inventory of a product”, J Cleaner Production, 13 (2005) pp 687-697 (available on line)

4. Toffel and Horvarth, “Environmental Implications of Wireless Technologies: News Delivery and Business Meetings” 2004, ES&T, 38, 11 2961-2970

5. Mokhtarian, “Telecommunications and Travel”, 2003, JIE, 6,2, 43-57

OutlineOutlineOutlineOutline

1. Introduction

2. Streamlined Life Cycle Analysis (SLCA)

3. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

4. Input/Output Models (I/O)

5. Product Examples

6. LCA Critique

Mining Primary Mfg Distribution Use Disposition

0m& 8m&

kipm& kopm&

0m& 8m&

kipm& kopm&

0m& 8m&

kipm& kopm&

0m& 8m&

kipm& kopm&

0m& 8m&

kipm& kopm&

0m& 8m&

kipm& kopm&

Recycle, Remanufacture, Reuse

Life Cycle AnalysisLife Cycle AnalysisLife Cycle AnalysisLife Cycle Analysis

Light Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and Mercury

Allen and Shonnard

Light Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and MercuryLight Bulbs and Mercury

Allen and Shonnard

Life Cycle PerspectiveLife Cycle PerspectiveLife Cycle PerspectiveLife Cycle Perspective

• boundaries start from earth as the source, and

return to earth as the sink

• evaluation is often focused on a product or

service

• tracking is of materials

• time stands still

• some analyses look at land use

2. Streamlined Life Cycle 2. Streamlined Life Cycle 2. Streamlined Life Cycle 2. Streamlined Life Cycle AssessmentAssessmentAssessmentAssessment

• qualitative assessment

• value judgments by experts

• for each stage of the life cycle

• in broad categories of impact

• “first cut” at the problem

• See SLCA by T. Graedel 1998

Evaluation Matrix for SLCA, Evaluation Matrix for SLCA, Evaluation Matrix for SLCA, Evaluation Matrix for SLCA, MMMMijijijij

5554535251Refurbishment, Recycling, Disposal

4544434241Product Use

3534333231Product Delivery

2524232221Manufacturing

1514131211Extraction andRefining

Gaseous

Residues

Liquid

Residues

Solid

Residues

Energy

Use

Materials

Choice

Life Cycle

Stages

Graedel

Scoring M21 (mat’ls used in mfg)

• M21 = 0 when product mfg requires relatively large amounts of restricted mat’ls(limited supply, toxic, radioactive) and alternatives are available.

• M21 =4 when mat’ls used in mfg are completely closed loop and minimum inputs are required.

Automobile Example; Automobile Example; Automobile Example; Automobile Example; Manufacturing Ratings 0Manufacturing Ratings 0Manufacturing Ratings 0Manufacturing Ratings 0----4 (best)4 (best)4 (best)4 (best)

Small amounts of volatile hydrocarbons emitted3Volatile hydrocarbons emitted from paint shop125Gas residue

Some liquid residues from cleaning and painting3Substantial liquid residues from cleaning and painting224Liq. Residue

Some metal scrap and packaging scrap produced3Lots of metal scrap and packaging scrap produced223Solid residue

Energy use during manufacture is fairly high3Energy use during manufacture is high122Energy use

Good materials choices, except for lead solder waste3Chlorinated solvents, cyanide021Matls. choice

Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: 1990s Auto1990s Auto1990s Auto1990s Auto

Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: Element Value & Explanation: 1950s Auto1950s Auto1950s Auto1950s Auto

Element DesignationElement DesignationElement DesignationElement Designation

taken from Graedel 1998

Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Generic Generic Generic Generic 1950s1950s1950s1950s Automobile [Automobile [Automobile [Automobile [GraedelGraedelGraedelGraedel 1998]1998]1998]1998]

Environmental Stressor Life Cycle Stage Materials

Choice

Energy

Use

Solid

Residues

Liquid

Residues

Gaseous

Residues

Total

Premanufacture 2 2 3 3 2 12/20

Product

Manufacture

0 1 2 2 1 6/20

Product

Delivery

3 2 3 4 2 14/20

Product Use 1 0 1 1 0 3/20

Refurbishment,

Recycling,

Disposal

3 2 2 3 1 11/20

Total 9/20 7/20 11/20 13/20 6/20 46/100

Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Product Assessment Matrix for the Generic Generic Generic Generic 1990s1990s1990s1990s Automobile [Automobile [Automobile [Automobile [GraedelGraedelGraedelGraedel 1998]1998]1998]1998]

Environmental Stressor Life Cycle Stage Materials

Choice

Energy

Use

Solid

Residues

Liquid

Residues

Gaseous

Residues

Total

Premanufacture 3 3 3 3 3 15/20

Product

Manufacture

3 2 3 3 3 14/20

Product

Delivery

3 3 3 4 3 16/20

Product Use 1 2 2 3 2 10/20

Refurbishment,

Recycling,

Disposal

3 2 3 3 2 13/20

Total 13/20 12/20 14/20 16/20 13/20 68/100

Target plotTarget plotTarget plotTarget plot of the estimated SLCA impacts for of the estimated SLCA impacts for of the estimated SLCA impacts for of the estimated SLCA impacts for generic automobiles for the 1950s and 1990sgeneric automobiles for the 1950s and 1990sgeneric automobiles for the 1950s and 1990sgeneric automobiles for the 1950s and 1990s

4

3

2

1

0

(1,1)

(1,2)

(1,3)

(1,4)

(1,5)

(2,1)

(2,2)

(2,3)

(2,4)

(2,5)

(3,1)

(3,2)(3,3)(3,4)

(3,5)

(4,1)

(4,2)

(4,3)

(4,4)

(4,5)

(5,1)

(5,2)

(5,3)

(5,4)

(5,5)

1950s

1990s

[Graedel 1998]

Mfg: Mat’l choices

Use

Primary Mat’ls

Mfg

distribution

End of Life

energy

gas residues

3. Life Cycle Inventory3. Life Cycle Inventory3. Life Cycle Inventory3. Life Cycle Inventory

• counting up inputs and outputs

• define the “activity”

• establish the boundaries

• get the data

Process Models for InventoriesProcess Models for InventoriesProcess Models for InventoriesProcess Models for Inventories

Inputs

“Activity”

1

2

3

4

5

Sullivan et al 1998Sullivan et al 1998Sullivan et al 1998Sullivan et al 1998

• “family sedan”

• 120,000 miles life time

• estimate from 644 parts

• 23 mpg

• total mass 1532 kg

• solvent based paints with controls

1.Material Production2.Manufacturing3.Use4.Maintenance & Repair5.End of Life

Inputs

Output and Energy Use

Total Energy Use by Lifecycle Stage

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Material

Production

Manufacturing Use Maintenance

and Repair

End of Life

Lifecycle Stage

Total Energy Use Per Car (GJ)

Sullivan 1998

Total Energy 973 GJ/car

Use phase of the automobileUse phase of the automobileUse phase of the automobileUse phase of the automobile

• products design factors

• human behavior

• prepared by Lynette Cheah

A majority of the environmental burden of an auto occurs during the

use phase

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

CO2 emissions (lb)

Material

Prodn

Mfr &

Assembly

OperationMaintenance EOL

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900HC & SOx emissions

(lb)

Material

Prodn

Mfr &

Assembly

OperationMaintenance EOLSource: Sullivan & Cobas-Flores (2001),Full Vehicle LCAs: A Review, SAE 2001-01-3725

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Energy value (MMBTU)

Material

Prodn

Mfr &

Assembly

OperationMaintenance EOL

87%

87%

79%

Less than 15% of input energy is useful

Source: Pinkus and Wilcock, The Role of Tribology in Energy Conservation, Lubrication Engineering, 34 (11), pp. 599-610 via www.chevron.com

Factors affecting automobile fuel use and emissions during the use

phase (1)• How well the automobile is maintained

– 5-10% of vehicles (gross polluters) account for > 50% of the CO and NMHC emissions from the fleet

• Driving patterns/conditions

– Fuel economy decreases at

• High speeds

• Low temperatures

– Oil viscosity � friction

– Greater aerodynamic drag

– Idling to warm up interior

Source: Beaton et al (1995), On-Road vehicle emissions, Science 268, 991-993

Factors affecting automobile fuel use and emissions during the use

phase (2)• Technology

– Fuel type

• Diesel-powered cars achieve 20-40% better fuel economy than gasoline powered equivalents

– Transmission

• Manual transmissions are lighter than conventional automatic, and suffer fewer energy losses

– Powertrain

• Hybrids vs. conventional SI gasoline cars

50

Honda Civic

28555628MPG

Regular

Accord

Toyota Prius

Honda Insight

Honda Accord

MY 2006

hybrids

Factors affecting automobile fuel use and emissions during the use

phase (3)• Vehicle design

– Drag (aerodynamic, tires)

– WeightVehicle weight-fuel consumption relationship for US

vehicles

y = 0.0059x + 1.2346

R2 = 0.7303

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000

Curb weight (kg)

Fuel consumption (L/100km)

Factors affecting automobile fuel use and emissions during the use

phase (4)• And, of course, distance traveled!

Source: FHWA, US DOT

Average annual miles traveled per car in the US

8,000

8,500

9,000

9,500

10,000

10,500

11,000

11,500

12,000

12,500

13,000

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

The New York Times March 30, 2006

ElectronicsElectronicsElectronicsElectronics

• References

– Williams, E. et al, The 1.7 Kilogram Microchip,

– Kuehr, R, and Williams, E. “Computers and the Environment” Kluwer Press 2003

– Murphy, C. F. Electronics, in “Environmentally Benign Manufacturing” Gutowski et al 2001

available at http://web.mit.edu/ebm/

1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip

Williams et al

Production of HyperProduction of HyperProduction of HyperProduction of Hyper----Pure SiliconPure SiliconPure SiliconPure Silicon

Extraction

Reduction to Silicon Metal

SiO2 + C → Si + CO2

Conversion to Trichlorosilane,

distillation

Si + 3HCl → HSiCl3 + H2

CVD to produce polycrystalline Si

(Polysilicon)

HSiCl3 + H2 → Si + 3HCl

Formation of monocrystalline

Si ingot

Cutting and polishing to produce Si

wafers

S. Paap

1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip

Williams et al

1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip1.7 kg microchip

Williams et al

Materials and Environmental Concerns - Integrated Circuits

Wafer fabrication

Product materials: Si, SiO2, Al, ± CuEBM Issues: Water, energy, gas emissions (especially PFCs - perfluoro compounds)

Chip packaging

Product materials:Polymers, Ceramics, Ni/Au alloys, Cu, Au

EBM Issues: Energy, metal-bearing liquid waste, flame retardants, material waste

C. Murphy

Materials and Environmental Concerns - Printed Wiring Boards

PWB fabrication

PWB (board-level) assembly

Product materials: Ceramic, epoxy-glass, or other polymers; Cu, Pd, Pb, Au

EBM Issues: Water, energy, flame retardants, Pb finishes, plating solutions

Product materials: Pb/SnEBM Issues: Energy, Pb

C. Murphy

Materials and Environmental Concerns - Computer System

Product materials: NiCdEBM Issues: Cd, life/efficiency

CRT

Batteries

Storage Media

Final Assembly

Product materials: Glass, Pb, phosphors, steel, Al, CuEBM Issues: Energy, Pb

Product materials: Al or glass, Ni, MgEBM Issues: recyclability

Product materials: Al or glass, Ni, MgEBM Issues: recyclability

C. Murphy

Materials Inventory for Fabrication of a Materials Inventory for Fabrication of a Materials Inventory for Fabrication of a Materials Inventory for Fabrication of a 15.5 kg monitor and a 9 kg CPU.15.5 kg monitor and a 9 kg CPU.15.5 kg monitor and a 9 kg CPU.15.5 kg monitor and a 9 kg CPU.

Kuehr and Williams

chips onlychips onlychips onlychips only

Williams et al

Target Plot of the Environmental Impact of a

Desktop Computer and CRT Display

4

3

2

1

0

(1,1)

(1,2)

(1,3)

(1,4)

(1,5)

(2,1)

(2,2)

(2,3)

(2,4)

(2,5)

(3,1)

(3,2)(3,3)(3,4)

(3,5)

(4,1)

(4,2)

(4,3)

(4,4)

(4,5)

(5,1)

(5,2)

(5,3)

(5,4)

(5,5) Toxic mat’ls used, few recycled

Mfg

Distribution

Use

End of Life

Primary Mat’ls

4. Input/Output Analysis4. Input/Output Analysis4. Input/Output Analysis4. Input/Output Analysis

• f = “demand” for activity

• x = quantity produced to meet the demand

• x-αx = f

• x = f/(1-α)

“Activity”

1

2

3

4

5

115154143132121111 fxxxxxx =−−−−− ααααα

Simplified inputSimplified inputSimplified inputSimplified input----output table for a threeoutput table for a threeoutput table for a threeoutput table for a three----sector economysector economysector economysector economy

Table 2.1 from Leontief, Oxford Press ’86

100bushels of wheat

552025Sector 1:

Agriculture

300 man-

years of labor

4018018Sector 3:

Households

50 yards

of cloth

30614Sector 2:

Manufacture

Total

Output

Sector 3:

House-

Holds

Sector 2:

Manufacture

Sector 1:

Agriculture

to

:

From:

Rewrite as table in dollarsRewrite as table in dollarsRewrite as table in dollarsRewrite as table in dollars

Mfg

Ag

x2f2x22x21

x1f1x12x11

Total(pro-

duction)

House(demand)

Mfg.Ag

In matrix formIn matrix formIn matrix formIn matrix form

(x1 – x11) – x12 = f1

-x21 + (x2 – x22) = f2

or using coefficients aij = xij/xj

(1 – a11)x1 – a12x2 = f1

-a21x1 + (1 – a22)x2 = f2

or [I – a] {x} = {f}

let {e} = environmental let {e} = environmental let {e} = environmental let {e} = environmental emissionsemissionsemissionsemissions

[I – a] {x} = {f}

{x} = [I-a]-1 {f}

{e} = [R]{x}

{e} = [R] [I-a]-1 {f}

CMU I/O websiteCMU I/O websiteCMU I/O websiteCMU I/O websitehttp://www.eiolca.net/

Click here to start the tutorial

• You may either find a sector via a keyword search, or browse through the sector list for the Industry Benchmark US Dept of Commerce

EIO model from 1997 (491 x 491) contributed by Green Design Institute.

CMU Input/Output Model Vs. CMU Input/Output Model Vs. CMU Input/Output Model Vs. CMU Input/Output Model Vs. SullivanSullivanSullivanSullivan’’’’s Process Models Process Models Process Models Process Model

emissions (gms)

per vehicle

CMU I/O

(1992 data) Sullivan et al

(1995 ref. vehicle) % Difference

from CMU

CO2 7,536,196 7,002,010 -7%

CH4 69,483 17,307 -75%

SO2 32,484 45,408 40%

CO 51,079 69,727 37%

NO2 31,937 21,166 -34%

VOC 12,008

Lead 28 51 86%

PM10 5,582 34,705 522%

Results for all activities up to and including manufacturing

Normalization of I/O dataNormalization of I/O dataNormalization of I/O dataNormalization of I/O data

• Note: Sector studied: # 590301 = SIC Code # 3711

• Economic activity for 1992 = $ 57 x 109

• (Ref Statistical Abstract of the US 1992)

• Retail Sales = 6.3 x 106 vehicles

• (Ref US Dept of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis)

• $/Auto = $9,047.62 (used to normalize I/O data)

Comparison of Electronic Computers Comparison of Electronic Computers Comparison of Electronic Computers Comparison of Electronic Computers and Motor Vehicles by I/O Analysis and Motor Vehicles by I/O Analysis and Motor Vehicles by I/O Analysis and Motor Vehicles by I/O Analysis

per $1M (1992 data)per $1M (1992 data)per $1M (1992 data)per $1M (1992 data)

.006 Bil Gal (intake).0016 Bil Gal (intake)Water Used

2.02 mt.89 mtToxic Releases

47.4 mt32.1 mtRCRA (Haz.

Waste)

12.6 TJ6.0 TJEnergy

937.2 MTCO2E479.4 MTCO2EGWP

Motor Vehicles and Passenger Car Bodies

# 590301

Electronic Computers #510103

Paper or Plastic?

Paper or Silicon?

Toffel, M.W., and A. Horvath.2004. Environmental implicationsof wireless technologies: News delivery and business meetings.Environmental Science & Technology

38(June 1):2961-2970.

Reading the New York Times

• weighs about 236 kg/yr

• about 2.6 people read it

• paper production

• printing

• delivery

• half to land fill

• half to recycle

• PDA mfg?

• Uses Williams result 12MB/32MB

• energy usage

• telecommunications infrastructure

Newspaper Vs PDANewspaper Vs PDANewspaper Vs PDANewspaper Vs PDA

• New York Times

• 270 kg CO2

• 8730 liters H2O

• 0.9 kg NOx

• 1.4 kg SOx

• PDA

• 5 kg CO2

• 232 liters H2O

• 4 g NOx

• 4 g SOx

Travel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phones

• Berkeley – Chicago

• auto, air, train

• average not marginal values

• lodging excluded

• mfg excluded

• mfg included I/O for $100 phone, 3 year life

• includes infrastructure

• 2 hour call

Travel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phonesTravel Vs Cell phones

LCI SummariesLCI SummariesLCI SummariesLCI Summaries

Diapers, short life products

End of Life

Use fossil fuels, plug into grid

Use

Microelectronics,

Nano-technology

Mfg

Paper Products: i.e. paper Vs plastics, paper Vs silicon…

Extraction and Refining

Products with major impact in stage

Life Stage

LCA softwareLCA softwareLCA softwareLCA softwarehttp://www.life-cycle.org/LCA_soft.htm

• Boustead Consulting Database and Software• ECO-it: Eco-Indicator Tool for environmentally friendly design - PRé

Consultants • EDIP - Environmental design of industrial products - Danish EPA • EIOLCA - Economic Input-Output LCA at Carnegie Mellon University • GaBi 4 - (Ganzheitlichen Bilanzierung - holistic balancing) - Five Winds

International/University of Stuttgart (IKP)/PE Product Engineering • IDEMAT - Delft University Clean Technology Institute Interduct

Environmental Product Development • KCL-ECO 3.0 - KCL LCA software • LCAiT - CIT EkoLogik (Chalmers Industriteknik) • SimaPro 6 for Windows - PRé Consultants • TEAM(TM) (Tools for Environmental Analysis and Management) -

Ecobalance, Inc. • Umberto - An advanced software tool for Life Cycle Assessment - Institut für

Umweltinformatik

Incorporating ValuesIncorporating ValuesIncorporating ValuesIncorporating Values

• Self-interest

– stakeholders

• Knowledge

– mental models

• Power

– if fish could vote….

Valuation: EcoValuation: EcoValuation: EcoValuation: Eco----indicator 95indicator 95indicator 95indicator 95

Weighting of the damage categories by the panel •http://www.pre.nl/default.htm

LCA critiqueLCA critiqueLCA critiqueLCA critique

• System boundaries

– workers, alternatives, cut-off

• Functional Unit

– comparing services, functionality

• Data Limitations

– cutoff Vs aggregation

• Impact Assessment Considerations

– non-linearities, location, time, values

Substitutes and ComplimentsSubstitutes and ComplimentsSubstitutes and ComplimentsSubstitutes and Compliments

• Substitutes: replacement or elimination

• Compliments: stimulation or generation

• do emails substitute for letters (paper)?

• do telecommunications substitute for travel?

• What were the first words of Alexander Graham Bell over the telephone?

• “Mr Watson, come here; I want you”

ref Mokhtarian (2002) JIE, 6, 2, 43-57

LCA hybrid approaches

• tiered approach

– mat’l & mfg + use + end of life

• disaggregating an industrial sector

– aij = s aij + (1-s) aij

• integration models

– process flow model embedded into a I/O model

– beware of double counting

HomeworksHomeworksHomeworksHomeworks

1. Redo “comparison of electronic computers and motor vehicles using 1997 data in CMU website.

2. Compare the energy intensity of telecommunications and air transport using the CMU website

3. Develop a SLCA for Toyota Vs Ford automobiles (team project)

4. Develop a LCI for same from Company Environmental Reports (team project)

5. Do you think the PDA is a substitute for the newspaper?