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WELCOME TO
LECTURE ON PROCESS FOR NONPROCESS
ENGINEERS
K.P.Pradeep kumar
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Cement is a substance (often a ceramic) that by a chemical reaction binds particulates aggregates into a cohesive structure.( hydraulic binder). The quality of raw material is the main pointin maintaining of quality of cement. The mineral compoundscontaining the main components of cement: lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide are used in cement manufacturing process. Therefore it is usually necessary to select a measured mixture of a high lime component with a component which is lower in lime, containing however more silica, alumina and iron oxide(clay component). The purpose of calculating the composition of the raw mix is to determine the quantitative proportions of the raw components, in order to give the clinker the desired chemical and mineralogical composition
What is cement ?
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In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a British stone mason, obtained a patent for a cement he produced in his kitchen. The inventor heated a mixture of finely ground limestone and clay in his kitchen stove and ground the mixture into a powder create a hydraulic cement-one that hardens with the addition of water.Aspdin named the product portland cement because it resembled a stone quarried on the Isle of Portland off the British Coast. With this invention, Aspdin laid the foundation for today's portland cement industry
History of Cement
Manufacture of cement has a history, which traces back to millennia. The Romans who were prolific builders used burnt calcareous (calcium bearing) rocks along with pozzolanic materials in an era Before Christ. The structures built by them, like the Pantheon, are still there for us to see proving the goodness of cementitious materials as input material for construction. The Roman called it as Opus cementum and pozzalana as Pozzolui. Post industrialization and as infrastructure development started globally, demands for cement have been growing steadily both quantitatively & qualitatively.
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BackgroundAlthough the use of cements (both hydraulic and non-hydraulic) goes back many thousands of years (to ancient Egyptian times at least), the first occurrence of portlandcement" came about in the 19th century. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a Leeds mason took out a patent on a hydraulic cement that he coined "Portland" cement (1824) He named the cement because it produced a concrete that resembled the color of the natural limestone Quarried on the Isle of Portland, a peninsula in the English Channel Since then, the name "portland cement" has stuck and is written in all lower case because it is now recognized as a trade name for a type of material and not a specific reference to Portland, England.
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few years later, in 1845, Isaac Johnson made the first modern Portland Cement by firing a mixture of chalk and clay at much higher temperatures, similar to those used today. At these temperatures(1400C-1500C), clinkering occurs and minerals form which are very reactive and more strongly cementitious.While Johnson used the same materials to make Portland cement aswe use now, three important developments in the manufacturing process lead to modern Portland cement:- Development of rotary kilns- Addition of gypsum to control setting- Use of ball mills to grind clinker and raw materialsRotary kilns gradually replaced the original vertical shaft kilns used for making lime from the 1890s. Rotary kilns heat the clinker mainly by radiative heat transfer and this is more efficient at higher temperatures, enabling higher burning temperatures to be achieved. Also, because the clinker is constantly moving within the kiln, a fairly uniform clinkering temperature is achieved in the hottest part of the kiln, the burning zone.
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Raw materials required to make cement
• Lime stone ( calcareous material , Calcium carbonate)
• Shale , low grade lime stone , clay ( argillaceous materials, Silica)
• Aluminous mateial ( clay, bauxite or Laterite)
• Ferrous material, haematite ( iron ore , ferric oxide )
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Cement quality – type of cement
Clinker quality
Fuel chemistry
Raw mix design
OPC, PPC, WC, OWC, SRC,SC
Ordinary portland cement,Pozalona portland cementWhite cement,Oil well cement,Sulfate resistant cement,Slag cementOther cements for special application
Gpsum&fly ash orOther additive quality
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quality
Factors influencing the cement quality
1. Mechanical handling of clinker2. Chemical and mineralogical
composition of raw mix3. Chemical and mineralogical composition
of clinker4. Burning process & cooling process5. Chemical composition of fuels (ash)6. Circulation phenomena (volatiles)
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Mining
crushing
preblending
Raw meal preparation
Raw meal blending
Pyroprocess
Clinkercooling
Cement grinding
Packing & despatch
Process stepsDust collection&
pollution control
Quality control
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Process flow diagram in general
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Mining
• Core drilling (bore) holes to explore the mines
• Drill holes for blast
• Blasting
• Excavation and haulage
• Transportation to crusher
• Size reduction for process requirements
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MiningQuarry planning
• Ensure - that the required quality & quantity on daily / monthly/ yearly is available to the plant
• Minimise – total operating and capital costs
• Optimise - raw feed quality
• Fulfil – all the safety and legislative requirement
• Maximise – return on capital employed
• Achieve - peak quarring / plant efficiency
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overburden
Good quality lime stone
Moderate quality
Poor quality
overburden
Good quality lime stone
Moderate quality
Poor quality
selfish mining – short term benefits
Efficient mining –for well blended – long term benefits
Well developed mineLong term benefits
Bench = 10 M
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Picture of a well developed mineAll benches are used effectivelyto improve the mine blend and increase the reserve for long term business
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Mining on hill & under ground miningis challenge to the mining engineer
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Geology and location of boreholes
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Rock drilling machine
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Before blasting drill holes are drilled
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The released energy of the explosiveis converted into various other formsof energy
• heat
• seismic energy ( stress waves)
• new surface energy ( rock fragmentation)
• concussion and noise ( airblast)
Explosion
• kinetic energy of spoil ( throw) rockdisplacement
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Surface miners
Drill machine
Dumpers
excavators
Whell loaders
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Material breakage involved in crushing process
Impact Attrition shearing compression
Crushing process
Size reduction stages
Primary n = 5
secondary n = 8
Tertiary n = 6
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impact ( crushing)impact
fragmentation
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shearing
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attrition
compression
fractured fragmented
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CrushingCrushing is a process which does size reductionCrushers are chosen depending upon the material characteristicssuch as hardness ,abrasiveness, feed input size, moisture content etcThe commonly used crushers are hammer crushers,Impact crushers, roll crushers, gyratory crushers, jaw crushers.Size reduction depends upon the grinding system to be adopted ie., ball mill or vertical mill
Size reduction ratio Max feed size ( linear edge dimension)
Maximum feed size of crushed product=---------------------------------------------------
( linear edge dimension)
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Fracture phenomenon
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Stress type-1Between two solidSurfaces( compression,Shearing)
Stress type-2at solidSurface( impact)
Stress type-3Not at a solidSurface , but by action ofThe surrounding medium(shear stress)
Stress type-4Non mechanical introductionOf energy ( thermal shock,explosive shattering & electro hydraulic)
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crushersJaw crushers
Gyratory crushers
cone crushers
roll crushers
impact crushers
Hammer crushers
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MMD crusher (Roll crusher)It can crush lime stone with high % of moisture
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Selection of crushers for different product size
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Crushing and grinding
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PreblendingVariation is a devil in any process
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Types of stackingChevron method
Window method
Axial stacking
Strata method
Single cone shell stacking
double cone shellstacking
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Storage systemCircular storage
Linear stacker & storage
Front acting machine Side acting machine
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Advantage and disadvantages of circular and linear piles
Circular pileAdvantages• space saving and hence low capital cost• end cone problem is avoided• un interrupted operation
Disadvantages• pile correction is not possible and it depends on mines operation with less variation
Linear pileAdvantages
• it occupies more space• while shunting the operation has interruption• end cone problem
Disadvantages• Pile correction is possible if quality varies
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Chevcon method ( at Ariyalur)
Chevcon - was developed for a circular stockpile arrangement. the stacker boom slews back and forth over the curved stockpileridge maintaining a constant pile length. With each individual movement, the end of one movement or the start of the next movement is advanced by the dimension ∆L. In that way many layers - similar to the Chevron mode - are superimposed and the stockpile grows continuously in one direction.
Chevcon configuration refers on to circular stock piles and relates to Chevronwhen it is applied to a circle. In this cofiguration the chevcon layers areinclined as in the side of a cone , each layer runs from the full height of the stock pile to the ground
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Well blended slice without end cone
End cone problems
Linear stock pile
Blending ratio = S in / S out
More variation, high std
Less variation, low std
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X (t)
Quantity(t)
X (t)
Reclaiming Slices transversely
Stacking in Equal layers
Material quantityPer layer = t
Material quantityPer slice = q
Variations in the raw material composition homogenisedin the blending bed
∆τ ∆τ∆Q ∆Q
∆Q ∆Q
∆τ
∆τ∆τ
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Assessment of blending methodS in
S out
Blending ratio = S inS out
Blending efficiency n n = number of layers
n = V*(S*3600) / d d = volume discharged cum/hrS = cross sectional area, sq mV = travelling speed of the stacker
η
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Homogenising systems
3.1 Variabilitv and standard deviation The normally accepted method of measuring variability is in the form of a term called standard deviation. The standard deviation of a property can be calculated by taking a number of measurements on the property (such as LSF, SR etc.), and applying the following formula:-
Where X is the measured variable (e.g. LSF)X is the variable mean (or average)N is the number of measurements or observationsTable 1 illustrates a worked example using actual kiln feed LSF data:-
Blending ratio = Std in/ Std out , = 1 for an ideal blending system.
σ = Σ ( X - X ) 2
N - 1
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Main parameters for raw mix design
Lime saturation factor = CaO / (2.8 SiO2+1.65Al2O3 + 0.65 Fe2O3)( LSF)
Silica modulus = SiO2 / ( Al2O3+Fe2O3)
Alumina modulus = Al2O3 / Fe2O3AlM
Here we have apply the formula (as per British Standard)
CaO-0.7SO3
(2.8*SiO2 + 1.2* Al2O3 + 0.65*Fe2O3)
(SIM)
LSF =
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Lime saturation factor on clinker basis
If MgO is below 2 %
LSF = 100( CaO – free CaO+0.75 MgO)(2.85 SiO2) + ( 1.18 Al2O3) +(0.65 Fe2O3)
If MgO is above 2 %
LSF = 100( CaO – free CaO+1.5 MgO)(2.85 SiO2) + ( 1.18 Al2O3) +(0.65 Fe2O3)
95 –harder to burn, tendency to high free lime & C3S clinker, high early strength high fuel consumption
< 95 , easy to burn , excess coating , excess liquid phase ,possible brick infiltration reduced cement strength , low free limeacceptable standard deviation = 1.2
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Raw meal preparation
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Raw mills
Ball mill
Roller press & Ball mill
Vertical roller mill
Horizontal roller mill
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Grinding media for ball mills
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Ball mills
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toeDead zone
Mill rotation
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qopEffective interval
q >>> qop ; balls hit each other, not grinding material
At critical speed
qmax
q <<< qop ; The ball waves through the material
= 42.3/ D effectiveCritical speed
cascading
cataracting
Ball mill grinding
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toe
Mill rotationcataracting
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toe
Mill rotationCascading
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toe
Mill’s critical rpm
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Influence of mill speed onTrajectory of balls
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Ball millsOpen circuit Closed circuit
separator product
product
Coarse return
Vertical mills are closed circuit millswith built in separators
separator
Circulation factor =1 Circulation factor = 2 to 2.5
Vertical mill
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Vertical roller mills
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Vertical mill operation ( over view)
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Separator
Residue = 12 – 18 % on 90 µ= 1.5 – 2.5 % on 212 µ
An efficient separator is one which operates with no finesin coarse return ( rejects) and no coarse in product fines
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Air drag
Gravitational force
Centrifugal force
Stationary vanes
Rotary cage
Function of separator
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Centrifugal force
Gravitation force
Air
drag
for
ce
Separation space
Stationary vanesGuide vanes
rotor
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Particle size distribution curve
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Advantages of vertical mills
• Energy consumption is less compared to ball mills
• Flexiblity in operation as all forces can be controlled
• Drying capcity is better than ball mills
• Noise level (noise pollution) is much less than ball mills
• Particle size distribution better than ball mills
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Roller pressoperation
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Roller press
compressed & Caked material
Compression zone
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In homogeneous homogeneous
Kiln feed uniformity index (KFUI)
KFUI= n ( C3S actual - C3S target )2
ni - n
C3S actual = the calculated C3S of one instantaneous daily sample of kiln raw mix feedC3S Target = the C3S target established for the mill productn = number of samples ( calculation of average C3S is done monthly)Target for KFUI is < 10( an instantaneous sample is one made up of 5 consecutive increments taken at short intervals)
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PreblendingVariation is a devil in any process
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Blending silo
The efficient blending silo does efficient blending with minimum energy
The variation in chemistry at the silo outlet is to be at the minimum possible ,Standard deviation of LSF < 1Standard deviation of CaO < 0.2Standard deviation of Silica ratio < 0.1Standard deviation of A/F < 0.01
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Flow properties of powders :
• Importance of measuring flow properties
• Various problems in powder handling and storage
Arching Channeling Segregation
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Different blendingsystems
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Different blending systems
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Blending silo
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Controlled flowinverted coneblending SiloCapacity = 18000 t
18 M
40 MAdvantages• low inventory• low capital cost
Disdvantages• can not be operated on low stock as raw mill operation directly affectsilo effciency and hence the quality and production.
• as the buffer stock is only for 1 day the incoming raw meal std mustbe < 1 for LSF and Silical modulus < 0.1
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Controlled flowInverted cone silo
60 o10 o
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Pyro process
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Kiln rotation
refractory
charge
flame
KILN
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KILN
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Pyro process
• Wet process
• Semi dry process
• Semi wet process
• Dry process
( wet milling and slurry is fed into the kiln )
(dry milling , water sprinkled to makenodulation, nodules are fed into the kiln)
(wet milling , dried in vacuum drier, cakeddried , powedered and fed into kiln
(dry milling , dry meal is fed into kiln)
• VSK processVertical shaft kiln
( First process invented in cement process )
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Vertical shaft kiln
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Wet process Semi wet process
Semi wet process Semi dry process
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Long dry process kiln
Dry kiln , suspension preheater kilnDry kiln , suspension preheater kilnWith pre calciner
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Kiln = 4500 tpd4.35 M * 67 M% filling = 9 – 11 %Material retention time =18 mts
calciner
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Clinker manufacture
• Calcite – CaCO3
• Dolomite –CaMg(CO3)2
• Quartz – SiO2
• Clay minerals• Micas• Feldspars• Aluminum oxide• Pyrite• Iron oxide• Gypsum / anhydrite
• Alite,C3S• Belite,C2S• Aluminate,C3A• Ferrite,C4AF• Free lime(un wanted)• Periclase(un wanted)• Alkali
sulfates(unwanted)
Mineral phases in raw meal Mineral phases in clinker
Temperature
PressureTim
e
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AliteCaO
Belite
Liquid
CaCO3
Beta quartz
Gammaquartz C3A
Calcining zone Transition zone Burning zone coolingzone
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
1450 OCDeg C
Pre heating zone
C12A7 C2(A, F)C4AF
Clinkering process
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Refractories
The function of the refractories are
• to protect the shell from the heat
• to insulate to reduce heat losses
• to withstand thermal stresses
• to with stand thermo-chemical stresses
• to withstand thermo-mechanical stresses
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Kiln refractory lining
Refractories are lined inside the kiln shell and preheater cyclones to the metalfrom heat as well as to insulate to conserve heat.The bricks used are lowalumina , high alumina bricks, magchrome bricks and spinel bricks. Mag chromebricks are banned due to health hazard.Chromium is poisenous.For severe conditions special bricks like zirconia based , are used.
1400-1500 deg C
1200 -1250 deg C1000-1100 deg C
1100-1200 degc Gas temperature
Refractory brick
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Always to be remembered
If coal is mixed it is burnt
If flame is wrong everything goes wrongwhatever you may do with chemistry or higher heat input through calciner or kiln.The burning zone needs heat and it can beonly obtained from well shaped radiantflame.i.e., short, snappy and convergent flame .
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Flame
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Flame of an efficient burner
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7 8 9
Burner positioning We do positioning of the burner for centering the flame.The positions1,2,3, 4 and 7are close to the refractory and they are away from the charge.Positions9 and 8 are close to charge .
Only 5 is close to charge and refractory and this is best as the flame in this gives the best thermal distribution to do effective burning.Position 8 & 9 is very close to charge if coal is trapped it has serious negativeimpact.Position 1,4 & 7 is very close to refractory and it can burn the refractory.
4 5 6
1 2 3
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Heat exchange in kiln is • mainly radiation of heat from flame to refractory walland to charge
• conduction of heat from refractory and to charge
• convection of heat within the charge ( particle to particlecontact)
radiationconduction
convection
Heat flows from hotter body to colder body Gases flow from high pressure area to low pressure area
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1800 deg c
1300 deg C
1400 deg C
1500 deg C
1600 deg c
1700 deg c
radiation
conduction
convection
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Lower rpm , high % filling , less activeLayer , high free lime, high radiationlosses
high rpm , low % filling , more activeLayer , low free lime and low radiationlosses
Influence of revolutions / minute on kiln operation
Optimum % filling = 9 – 11 with raw meal retention time of 20 -25 minutes
unfavorable favorable
Passive layer
active layer
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Different flames
Normal flame
Flame with lowSecondary air tempDistorted nozzle
Flame –poorhood geometryOr distorted nozzle
Flame at the center
Flame downward
Flame upward
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Flame length
Long flame, unstable coating,High back end temp Low shell temperature
Short intense divergent flameGood for burningLow back end temperaturePoor refractory life, highShell temperature
Convergent flameGood for burningGood for refractoryStable coatingLow shell temperature
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The Ideal Flame
hot !short !stable !
T"long" flame
"short" flame
Complete combustion:- CO = 0- SO2, NOX ↓
Homogeneous:- no temperature peaks- no local CO on the clinker bed
Longer flame increase the back end temperature resulting inHeat loss at kiln exit and hot meal clogging
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Burning zone, Flame-profile• Low momentum burner
• High momentum burner
rings12m (~3xD) burning zone
Rotaflam ~16 m Flame !☺!
rings
~23 m Flame
17m (~4xD) burning zone
! !
Burner Operation
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Clinker cooling
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Satellite cooler
rotary cooler
grate cooler
Recuperation z one C ooling zone
static gratedirect aeration chamber aerationchamber aeration
Grate coolerWith stationaryinlet
Walking floorpyrofloor
Cross bar cooler
Improvement in
technology
Rotary disc cooler
MMD cross bar
IKN
Poly trackPyro floor
?
Pyro step
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Cooler ( heat recuperator)
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Heat transferby radiation
and convection Heat movesto clinker edgeby conduction
Air flows overclinker cooling
surface
How cooling is accomplished
800 O C
100 O C
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• Convection - Surface to Air• Conduction - Inside to Surface• Heat transfer is driven by temperature
difference
• Takes place at the clinker surface
• To maximize it:– Increase the air/material contact time
with:• Deeper bed ( ⇒ more power)• Slower air flow (⇒ larger cooler)
Heat transfer in clinker
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CounterflowParallel flow
Co-current
Air
Material
Air
Material
Cross-flow
Material
Air
material
air
T
material
air
T
material
T
Heat exchanger types
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Old conventional grate platescreate sand blasting effect or fluidizationThis creates poor heat exchange
Modern cooler plates flow resistancebranch off the air , createsless fluidization , better heat exchange
Cross flow Counter current
Mechanical flow regulator
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Temperature
Bed
thic
knes
s
clinker
air
Fixed bed
Fluidized bed
Air in
Air out
Clinker
Air in
Air out
Clinker
Temperature
Bed
thic
knes
sclinker
air
More efficient recovery with fixed bed
Air flow requirementHas reduced from4 kg air/ kg.cl to2.2 kgair / kg cl
Heat exchange between clinker and air
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1. The hotter the inlet temperature the hotter the clinker outlet temperature.
2. The hotter the cooling air temperature the hotter the clinker outlet temperature.
3. The longer the air/material contact time the cooler the clinker outlet temperature.
General truths ( all coolers)
4. Quicker the clinker cooling ( quenching) the smaller thecrystals, results in micro cracks of the minerals, improvesthe soundness of the clinker ( when MgO % exceeds 1.5 %)
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C4AF
C3S
C2S
Mgo
CaO
C3A
Pictoral representation of clinker micrograph
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• MicroscopicA mixture of different mineral phasesParticle size ≈ 0 – 100 µm
• MacroscopicA gray, granulated, rocky materialGrain size ≈ 0 – 50 mm
What is portland cement clinker
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Uniform nodule Sizes
Rather uniform-sized nodules are ingeneral an advantage regarding burning efforts and uniform degree of burning.
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Quickly cooled clinkers are favourable for the early strength potential; no alite is lost. The fine crystalline liquid phase prevents aluminate from an early hydration. The influence of aluminate on the setting time is limited in quickly cooled clinker.
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Influence of cooling on clinker phases
Fast coolingWell distributedsmall crystals
Slow cooling Larger crystals
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C3S
Clinker when it is quenched in cooler it creates micro cracks whichneeds less energy for comminution during grinding.
C3S
Clinker cooling
C2S
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Fuels used in cement industry
• Solid fuels ( coal , pet coke, lignite, anthracite )
• Liquid fuels ( furnace oil)
• Gas fuels ( natural gas)
• Alternate fuels ( shredded tyres,waste woodchemical waste, animal meal)
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Solid fuel preparation
Fuel lumps are crushed to suitable size depending on the grinding systemand Hard groove index of fuel. The residue depends on the volatile matter
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Fuel preparation
(solid)
Fuel properties
crushing
Design offiring system
Selection of Grinding system
drying
storage
fineness
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Coal grinding
Inert grindingO2 % < 12 % ( preheater gases&Hot air generators)
Non inert grindingO2 % > 12 % ( cooler air)
Coal grinding is designed also on the basis of explosion index( safety index) , residue , HGI
Ball mill circuit
Vertical mill circuit
Non-inert operation
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mills with inert operation
mills with non inert operation
Using cooler gases for drying the coal is non inert operation as it contains > 20 % O2
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The acceptable feed size is2 % of the roller diameter
Built in separator
Grinding table
Grinding roller
Vertical mill for coal grinding
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For pet cokeand anthracite
For bituminous coal
The residue on 90 microns is 50 % of the volatiles as a thumb rule
Residue vs volatiles
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Relationship between coal types,compositionand grinding fineness
Petcoke < 10 < 1.04%< + 0.09 mm0 %< + 0.2 mm
Normally the residue on 90 mic is50 of the % volatiles.
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Cement grinding
Clinker + Gpsum + Pozalonic Material ( Fly ash , Slag)
OPC , Clinker = 92 – 97 %, Gypsum = 3 – 7 %
PPC , Clinker = 60 – 70 %, Gypsum = 3-7 % , Fly ash = 25 -30 %
Slag cement, clinker = 50 – 60 %, Gypsum = 3 – 7 % , Slag= 45 – 55 %
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Cement grinding
Ball mill
Roller press
Horizontal mill
Vertical rollermill
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Roller press•Pressure applied to material varies from 3,000 a 4,000 kg/cm2. They are over dimensioned in order to operate at lower pressures (2500).•Requires a subsequent de-lump, in order to separate the resulting paste, except in the case the roller press feeds a ball mill. •Pressure application angle should be around 6°.•Press consumes 20 to 25 kWh/ton of cement.•Circulation factors range from 6 to 10.•Requires great maintenance.•Wear out elements expected lifetime: 10,000 hours
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Horizontal roller mill•Rotates at hypercritical speed (1.2 times critical speed), having no feed.•Pressure on material ranging from 700 to 1,000 kg/cm2.•Pressure application angle: 15 to 20°.•Circulation factors: 3 a 8.•Requires great maintenance.•Consumes 25 to 30 kWh/ton of cement.•Expected lifetime: 10,000 hrs.Roller and ball mills hybrid. Being the most recent one, its utilization is not widespread.
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Tubular mill (ball mill)•Rotates at 0.7-0.8 of critical speed.•Lacks pressure system.•Lacks application angles.•Consume 35 to 40 kWh/ton.•Circulation factors: 1 to 3.•Requires little maintenance.•Expected lifetime measured in years.It is the most widely used for cement milling. Its drying capacity is proportional to D2, so in cement the L/D proportion is 3.In raw meal milling L/D is 1.5, if humidity is not greater than 3%, a single chamber mill is recommended. In case the material has humidity greater than 7%, it is necessary to incorporate a flash dryer or change to a vertical mill. The % of material in suspension will determine which type of mill should be used.
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Cement mill cooling
The setting properties depend the water molecules of Gypsum CaSO4.2H2OIf water is dehydrated ( at 125 deg C) it results in false setIf it is partially dehydrated, CaSO4.1/2 H2O, called Hemihydate it contributes to initial strength. Hence cement temperature is to be maitained > 100 deg c and < 125 deg C
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Ettringite
3 CaO.Al2O3 + 3 CaSO4 +26 H2O 3 CaO .Al2O3.3 CaSO4.32H2O
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Vertical mill (roller mill)•Pressure on material:300 to 500 kg/cm2. •Application angle: 12°. The width of the material layer is proportional to this angle and to the rollers diameter.•Consumes 25 to 35 kWh/ton of cement.•Circulation factors: 3 to 5.•Requires great maintenance.•Wear out elements expected lifetime: 15,000 hrs.•Recommended in cases where humidity is greater than 7%, taking into consideration that abrasive content must remain low. This is why it is commonly used in raw meal milling. It works better than a ball mill on plastic materials (clay).
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Combined grinding
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Dust collecting equipments
ESPElectro staticprecipitators
Bag filters scrubbers
cyclone
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ESPAt Ariyalur cooler ESP
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Operational Resistivityin a Cement Plant
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Applying ESP Technology in a Cement Plant
• Control Critical– Collection Efficiency Effected by
• Dust Characteristics– Particle size ( migration velocity)– Resistivity– Composition– Stickiness
• Gas Conditions– Humidity– Temperature– Composition– Flow rate
– Upstream Gas Conditioning Sensitive (i.e. cooling tower)
– Most Importantly Upstream Process Equipment Sensitive
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Dust resistivity characteristics as afunction of moisture content
MicromistWater spray
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Principles of the function of ESP
Collecting plate
Charged dust particles
Dust removal
Dust layerGas molecules and ions
Corona generation
Discharge electrodes
H2O
SO2O2N2
Gas flow
T/R set
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Gravitational force
Air drag
Migration velocity
corona
Negative electrode
Positive electrodeForces acting on dust particlePositive electrode
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Migration velocity and collection efficiency
η
ω =q Ep
( 4 π µ r)
= 1 – exp ( - W.A / Q)
ω = migration velocity
Ep = strength of field in which particles are collected , volts/ meter
µ = Viscosity of gas Pa-s
r = radius of the particle- µ m
η = fractional collectional efficiency
A = collection surface of the particlesQ = gas volumetric flow rate W = drift velocity
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PulseCleanGas/dust distribution
Clean gas outlet
Raw gas with dust inlet
Dust drop out
Collected dust
Dust up flowbetween bags
Cake formation
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Pleated bags
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No dampers:Only possible to do on-line cleaning.Maintenance:On-line not possible.
Example A One dirty gas chamber.One clean gas chamber.
With inlet and outlet dampers:Possible to do on and of-line cleaning.Maintenance:On-line possible when separate hoppers
Multiple dirty gas chambers.Multiple clean gas chambers.
Example B
Fabric FilterOptional Arrangements
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Properties of cement
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Cement quality tests
• Compressive strength (mortar)• Modulus of rupture ( bending strength)• Fineness( blaine or Particle size distribution)• Expansion ( Le Chatelier & Auto clave)( soundness)
• Setting time
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Influencing parameters onCement strength
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1 3 7 28 90 days
Strength MPa
C3S
C2S
C3A
C4AF60
0
20
30
40
50
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= f (C3S)
28
7
3
1
MPa 70
60
50
40
30
20
10
40 45 50 55 60 65 % C3S
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= f (Wk)
28
7
3
1
0
MPa 70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 0.5 1.0 % Wk
A 1% increase in LOIresult in decrease instrength
1 day by 25 %2 8days by 3 % and90 days by 2 %
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Compressive strength – influencing parameters
Compressive strength
1 d 3 d 7 d 28 d
Influencing Normal range 5 – 15 20 – 35 30 - 45 45 - 60Parameters OPC
C3S 45 – 65 % + + + +
C3A 6 – 12 % + + + +
Ks 0.2 – 1.5 % + + +/0/- -
SO3 2 – 4 % +/0/- +/0/- +/0/- +/0/-
Blaine 280 – 300 + + + +m2/kg
Wk 0 - 0.3% - - - -
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Quantitative rules of thumb
C3S : 1 – 28 d : + 0.5 Mpa / %
Ks ; 1 d : + 4 Mpa / % : 3 d : + 4 Mpa / %: 7 d : - 2 Mpa / %: 28 d : - 10 Mpa / %
(SO3) tot : 1 - 28 d : - 5 Mpa / % from optimum
Blaine : 1 d : + 0.04 Mpa / (m2/ kg) 3- 28 d : + 0.08 Mpa / (m2/ kg)
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One day strength is contributed mainly byC3A , Soluble alkalies, and C3S
3 day is contributed mainly by C3S
7 days strength is contributed by mainlyC3S
28 days strength is mainly contributed byC2S
Apart from the above cement strength is enhanced byhigher fineness of cement Less C3S crystal size achieved by rapid burningand quenching the clinker in coolerHigher fineness of rawmeal also reduces the crystal size of clinker minerals , ie ., C3S & C2S whichenhances the hydraulic reactivity
Cement strength – influencing parameters
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Wk , prehydration of clinker
Prehydration of clinker minerals can occur
1. As a result of incorrect internal water cooling in cement mill
2. when storing too hot cement in a silo
3. When clinker and especially cement is exposed to humidity
Please note:If clinker has more soluble alkalis and sulfates it is highly hygroscopic especially when pet coke is fired. In cement silos they form Syngenite , K2SO4.2 CaSO4. H2O which forms lumps and block the cement silos. Hence venting is mustto evacuate moisture and silo cleaning.cements having soluble alkalis and sulfates preferably packed inpaper bags to avoid depletion of strength.
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Thumb rule formulae for prediction of strength
FLS predicted the formula for cement ground to 300 kgs/ m2
With 4 % gypsum
strength,
d28 = 52 - 10.( Ks) + 0.15.(C3S)
The content of soluble alkalis Ks is dependent on the total alkalicontent and SO3 content in clinker.
As per Knofel it is
F 28 = (3*C3S)+ (2*C2S) + C3A – C4AF N / mm2
Strength prediction
for 3 d = 97 + 35.8 Ma + 38.1K2SO4 + 28.7 Ms – 1.3 C3S Kg/ cm2
7 d = 300 + 13.4 Ms + 2.8 C2S + 56.1 Ma – 15.4 K2SO4 + 15.5 Na2O 28 d = 490 – 55.3 K2SO4 + 1.3 C3S (or)
= 490 – 86 K2O + 2 C3S – 26 Na2O
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Influence of fineness on cement strength
For cements with the same specific surface the increase of the uniformity factor results in increase of strength of all ages.
1. The specific surface , the percentage of fractions 3- 32 mm and theuniformity factor n really influences the development of cement strength.The influence of 3 - 32 mm fraction and the uniformity factor is higher incement with higher in specific surface ( > 3400 cm2/ g)
2. The fractions with particle size less than 3 mm contributes only to earlystrength while the fraction with particle size more than 24 mm influencesstrength development significantly.
3. While the fractions 3 – 16 mm and 16 – 32 mm seems to be more significant factor for specific surface 3500 – 4000 cm2/ g) . This is relevant only if the granulometric distribution is continuous and steep.
4. The optimistic granulometric distribution of a cement is a continuousand steep ( with high uniformity factor) distribution with a high (65 %)content in 3 – 32 mm fraction and specifically in 16 - 24 mm fraction andlow content of fine particles ( < 3 mm , 10 % ) and specific surface of2500 – 3000 cm2/ g according to Blaine.( high efficiency separator andgrinding media distribution plays significantly here)
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Properties of cement minerals
Characteristics C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Setting quick slow rapid nil
Hydration rapid slow rapid nil 3 days heat 1.1 cal / g 0.4 cal / g 2 cal / g nil liberation Early strength high upto low upto not much nilContribution 14 days 14 days beyond one day
Late strength less later high later nil nil contribution
Resistance to moderate high poor highChemical attack
Drying shrinkage nil low nil nil
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Problems and solutions
1. Grinding problemsa) False set lower cement mill temperature
add less gypsumadd part anhydrite
b) reduced strength high mill temperatureless water cooling correct water cooling
2. Silo storagea) False set short storage time
cooling of cement < 70 deg c
b) reduced strength increase gypsum dehydration inmill
c) lump formation and add less gypsum, use partlysilo blockage (syngenite anhydrate , decrease K2O contentformation, K2SO4.2CaSO4.H2O to avoid the formation of Syngenite
Problems solutions
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3 ) Bag storage
a. reduced strength short storage time
b. lump formation add TEA during grinding(tri ethanal amine)add hydrophobic agents
c. crust formation plastic coated bags
d. abnormal setting plastic covering pallets
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Packing and dispatch
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Customer is the king. He is a better business man than you.Tomorrow’s market is competitive with quality/ price ratio.Customer creates the customers.Bon’t brand the quality alone , brand your service too.
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Hope you had a fruitful training
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Wish you all the best– Pradeep kumar
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Thank you for your kindattention