PROCESS-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION

PROCESS-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION 1PROCESS-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION These approaches to motivation are concerned with how motivation takes place. They focus on why people choose certain behavioral options to fulfill their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained their goals.PROCESS-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION Expectancy theory

Equity theory

Motivation is the driving force which causes us to achieve goals3A. Expectancy Theory The Basic Expectancy Model

Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it.

A. Expectancy Theory The formal framework of expectancy theory was developed by Victor Vroom.

MotivationEffortPerformanceOutcomesThis framework states basically that motivation plus effort leads to performance, which then leads to outcomes.

5A. Expectancy Theory According to this theory, three conditions must be met for individuals to exhibit motivated behavior:

effort-to-performance expectancyperformance-to-outcome expectancy sum of the valances for all relevant outcomes > 0effort-to-performance expectancy must be greater than zero;performance-to-outcome expectancy must also be greater than zero; and the sum of the valances for all relevant outcomes must be greater than zero.

6A. Expectancy Theory Effort-to-Performance ExpectancyA persons perception of the probability that effort will lead to successful performance.

Performance-to-Outcome ExpectancyA persons perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain (desired) outcomes.

Outcomes and ValencesThe degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (valence) of a particular outcome (reward that results from performance) to a person.Valance

Definition of VALANCE

1: a drapery hung along the edge of a bed, table, altar, canopy, or shelf

2: a short drapery or wood or metal frame used as a decorative heading to conceal the top of curtains and fixtureSource: Merriam-Websters DictionaryValancean index of how much an individual desires a particular outcomeA. Expectancy Theory Effort-to-performance expectancy is the individual's perception of the probability that effort will lead to high performance. This expectancy ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 being a strong belief that effort will lead to high performance.

effort-to-performance expectancy> 0A. Expectancy Theory Performance-to-outcome expectancy is the individual's perception that performance will lead to a specific outcome. This expectancy ranges from 0 to 1. A high performance-to-outcome expectancy would be 1 or close to it.

performance-to-outcome expectancy > 0A. Expectancy Theory Outcomes are consequences of behavior. An individual may experience a variety of outcomes in an organizational setting. Each outcome has an associated valance, which is an index of how much an individual desires a particular outcome. An outcome that an individual wants has a positive valance. An outcome that the individual does not want has a negative valance. When the individual is indifferent to the outcome, the valance is zero.

A. Expectancy Theory Outcomes are consequences of behaviorBehavioroutcomeoutcomeoutcomelikeindifferentnot like +valance0 valance-valancesum of the valances for all relevant outcomes > 0 valance, which is an index of how much an individual desires a particular outcome

Each outcome has an associated valance13A. Expectancy Theory

A. Expectancy Theory Porter and Lawler extended the basic expectancy model by suggesting that high performance may cause high satisfaction.

When performance results in various extrinsic and intrinsic rewards, the individual evaluates the equity of these various rewards relative to the effort expended and the level of performance attained.

The individual is satisfied if the rewards relative to the effort expended and the level of performance attained. The individual is satisfied if the rewards are felt to be fair.

The Porter-Lawler Model6-16

The model predicts that satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for high-level performance.Reference: Figure from Porter, Lyman W., and Edward E. Lawler, Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Copyright 1968. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, McGraw-Hill, Inc.Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure.

Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards like money and grades, coercion and threat of punishment. Competition is in general extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A crowd cheering on the individual and trophies are also extrinsic incentives.

16A. Expectancy Theory Implications for managers:

Managers should first determine the outcomes each employee is likely to want. Then they should decide what kinds and levels of performance are needed to meet organizational goals, making sure that the desired levels of performance are attainable. Managers then need to ensure that desired outcomes and desired performance are linked. Finally, the rewards need to be large enough, and the total system needs to be equitable.

Equitable fair, reasonable, just, unbiased17B. Equity Theory Developed by J. Stacy AdamsSuggests that once an individual has chosen an action that is expected to satisfy his or her needs, the individual assesses the equity or fairness of the outcome. Equity is an individual's beliefs that he or she is being treated fairly relative to the treatment of others.

Equity TheoryBased on the relatively simple premise that people in organizations want to be treated fairly.EquityThe belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others.InequityThe belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others.

18B. Equity Theory outcome-to-input!Effort Outcome Fair!Fair!In relation to others!19Equity Comparison ProcessEquity theory describes the equity comparison process in terms of an outcome-to-input ratio.Outcomes (self)Inputs (self)Outcomes (other)Inputs (other)compared with

Forming Equity PerceptionsPeople in organizations form perceptions of the equity of their treatment through a four-step process.Step 1A person evaluates how he or she is being treated by the firm.Step 2The person forms a perception of how a comparisonother isbeing treated.Step 3The personcompares hisor her owncircumstanceswith those ofthe comparisonother.Step 4On the strengthof this feeling,the person maychoose topursue one or more alternatives.B. Equity TheoryThree attitudes are possible:Three attitudes are possible: an individual may feel equitably rewarded, underrewarded, or overrewarded.

When individuals feel underrewarded or overrewarded, they will do something to reduce the inequity.22Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity

B. Equity TheoryImplications

Equity theory offers managers the following messages:Everyone in the organization needs to understand the bases for rewards. People tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they perceive and experience a variety of rewards, some tangible and others intangible.People base their actions on their perceptions of reality.IS IT CULTURE BOUND? IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER CULTURES?

24B. Equity TheoryThe single most important thing to remember about equity theory is that if rewards are to motivate employees, they must be perceived as being equitable and fair.

NEED-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATIONNEED-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATIONNeed Hierarchies Dual-Structure Approach

Two need-based approaches are need hierarchies and the dual-structure approach.

28NEED-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION

Need-based approaches to motivation focus on what motivates employees to choose certain behaviors as shown on the following diagram.A. Need HierarchiesTwo of the most popular need hierarchies are:Abraham Maslow's hierarchy Clayton Alderfer's ERG theory of motivation

A. Need Hierarchies1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs assumes that people are motivated to satisfy five levels of needs: physiological securitybelongingness esteemself-actualisation

Maslow's Hierarchy of NeedsThe hierarchical arrangement suggests that the five levels of needs are arranged in order of increasing importance, starting with physiological needs.

- when needs at one level are satisfied, they are no longer motivators and the individual "moves up" the hierarchy to satisfy needs at the next level. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

A. Need Hierarchies2. Alderfer developed the ERG theory of motivation in response to criticisms of Maslow's hierarchy. Existence needs - are satisfied by food and water pay fringe benefits and working conditionsRelatedness needs - are satisfied by relationships with co workers, superiors family and friendsGrowth needs cover the need to advance and develop

Alderfers ERG TheoryAs with Maslow's theory, assumes that motivated behavior follows a hierarchy, but it has two important differences:

ERG theory suggests that more than one level of needs can cause motivation at the same timeERG theory has a frustration-regression element that suggests that if needs remain unsatisfied at some high level, the individual will become frustrated, regress to a lower level, and begin to pursue lower-level needs again.

A. Need Hierarchies

B. The Dual-Structure Approach To MotivationThe dual-structure approach was developed by Frederick Herzberg and is often referred to as the Two-factor theory. Herzberg's studies of accountants and engineers led him to suggest that entirely different sets of factors are associated with satisfaction and with dissatisfaction.

B. The Dual-Structure Approach To MotivationMotivation factors, relating to the job itself, result in feelings ranging from satisfaction to no satisfaction.

Hygiene factors, relating to the work environment, result in feelings ranging from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.

C. Acquired NeedsBased on acquired needs: the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power.

Concerned not about the ordering of needs but rather about the needs themselves. C. Acquired NeedsDavid McCleland first identified the need for achievement, which reflects an individual's desire to do something more effectively than in the past.

The need for power is the desire to be influential in a group and to control one's environment.

Need-Based TheoriesProcess-Based TheoriesReflect a content perspective.Focus on how motivated behavior occurs.Try to list specific things that motivate behavior.

Explain how people go about satisfying their needs.

Need-Based TheoriesReflect a content perspective.Try to list specific things that motivate behavior.specific things that motivate behavior.Process-Based TheoriesFocus on how motivated behavior occurs.Explain how people go about satisfying their needs.

41SummaryApproaches to MotivationA. Need BasedB. Process Based1. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs1. Expectancy theory2. Clayton Alderfer's ERG theory of motivation2. Equity theory3. Acquired needsAbraham Maslow's hierarchy and Clayton Alderfer's ERG theory of motivation42