Proceedings of International Conference on Global...
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Editors :
Dr. Rajbir SinghDr. R. RamarajDr. S. Sheraz MahdiDr. J.P. SinghDr. Chandra Bhanu
Global Initiatives forSustainable Development: Issues and StrategiesJune 23-27, 2019
Proceedings of International Conference on
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Bangkok, Thailand
Organizer :
Gochar Educational and Welfare SocietySaharanpur (U.P.) INDIA
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Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Global Initiatives for Sustainable
Development: Issues and Strategies
June 23-27, 2019
Hotel Howard Square Boutique, Bangkok, Thailand
Volume I
Editors
Dr. Rajbir Singh
Dr. Rameshprabhu Ramaraj
Dr. S. Sheraz Mahdi
Dr. J. P. Singh
Dr. Chandra Bhanu
Organizer
Gochar Educational and Welfare Society, Saharanpur
Uttar Pradesh, India
Edition : 2019
ISBN : 978-93-87922-74-7
Price : 700/-
Copyright © Author
Printed by :
D.K. Fine Art Printers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi
Disclaimer :
The authors are solely responsible for the contents of the papers compiled in
this volume. The publishers and editors do not take any, responsibility for the
same in any manner. Errors, if any, are purely unintentional and readers are
requested to communicate such errors to the editors or publishers to avoid
discrepancies in.
Published by :
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Preface The main goal of sustainable development is to meet the needs of today, without
compromising the needs of tomorrow. This means we cannot continue using current levels of
resources as this will not leave enough for future generations. As in 2030 Agenda of UNDP,
Sustainable Development is an ambitious, universal and holistic approach. The 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), otherwise known as the Global Goals are a universal call to action,
build on the successes of the Millennium Development Goals to end poverty, protect the
planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity including new areas such as climate
change, economic inequality, innovation, sustainable consumption, peace and justice, among
other priorities. India has been ranked 143rd
out of 188 countries in the 2016 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG) and attaches high priority to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Developmental Goals.
Keeping in view of the above, Gochar Educational and Welfare Society, Saharanpur,
India oragnised its Second International Conference on “Global Initiatives for Sustainable
Development: Issuses and Strategies” from June 23-27, 2019 at Bangkok, Thailand.
The prime objective of the conference was to provide an intellectual plate form to the
international intellectual community of global standards to disscuss the different areas of
sustainable development goals.
The first issue of proceedings will provide a comprehensive and critical review of the
work done on different areas of sustainability. This volume has 12 papers submitted by the
policy maker, scientists, research scholars and extension specialists from various universities,
institutes and organizations, which include information on different dimesnsions of sustainable
development. Information in this issue will be useful not only for scholars, academicians and
researchers in agriculture but also for administrators, policy planners and extension workers.
We are deeply thankful to our Co-organizers i.e. Maejo University, Chiang Mai,
Thailand, The Indian Ecological Society, Ludhiana, India, Gochar Mahavidyalaya, Rampur
Maniharan, India, Hind Agri-Horticultural Society, Muzaffarnagar, India, South Asian Network
for Rural and Agricultural Development, New Delhi, Society for Integrated Development of
Agriculture, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, Jammu, India and Satyadeo Group of Colleges,
Gazipur, India
We remain grateful to our respective organizations Gochar Mahavidyalaya (Post
Graduate College), Rampur Maniharan, Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India, Sher-e- Kashmir
University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir,
India, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand, ICAR- Indian Institute of Farming System
Research, Modipuram, India for providing motivational environment and time to edit.
We are thankful to our family members for their constant support in our academic and
scientific endevours and encouragement during the preparation of this proceedings. We extend
our sincere thanks and allround support of Mr. Vishal Mithal of Anu Books for publishing this
book with patience, care and intrest.
Editors
1
CONTENTS
1. Responses of Tropical Micro-crustacean Daphnia lumholtzi upon Herbicide and Trace Metal
Exposures
Thi-My-Chi Vo and Thanh-Son Dao 2- 10
2. DNA Barcoding of Three Colonial Ascidians from Indian Coastal Waters
Shabeer Ahmed N and Abdul Jaffar Ali H 11-19
3. Productivity and Carbon Sequestration Potential of Parent Clone (Hevea brasiliensis RRII 105) in
Non-Traditional Rubber Growing Region of Karnataka
Shahbaz Noori and S S Inamati 20-26
4. Development of Microbial Inoculant for the Growth of Medicinal Plant: Ashwaganda (Withania
angustifolia)
Dinesh Kumar, Raj Pal Dalal and Indu Arora 27-37
5. Survivality of Soil Bio-agents in Presence of Organic Amendment in Arid Conditions of Rajasthan,
India
Nitin Chawla, Vipen Kumar and R K Bagri 38-43
6. Effect of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated Coconut Mills on Epiphytic
Microflora and Yield of Gherkin and Chrysanthemum
S Umesha, B Narayanaswamy and N Susheelamma 44-55
7. Forage Production and Quality of Berseem, Makkhan Grass and Barley as Affected by Organic
Inorganic Fertilization
Om Singh 56-60
8. Agricultural Waste Management through Mushroom Cultivation
Nirmala Bhatt 61-65
9. Determination of Physical and Frictional Properties of Carrot (Daucus carota L.)
J S Ghatge, S A Mehetre and S B Patil 66-74
10. Influences of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and
Yield of Mango (Mangifera Indica L.) cv. Amrapali
D S Nehete, R G Jadav and Ishwar Singh 75-83
11. Food Security through Pulse Production under Climate Uncertainties in Jammu and Kashmir
B S Jamwal and Shahid Ahamad 84-88
12. Problem of Sugarcane Sustainability: Indian Cash Crops versus Thailand Cash Crops
Niharika Srivastava 89-98
2
Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
Responses of Tropical Micro-Crustacean Daphnia lumholtzi
upon Herbicide and Trace Metal Exposures
Thi-My-Chi Vo and Thanh-Son Dao1
Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang City, Vietnam 1Hochiminh City University of Technology, VNU-HCM, Hochiminh City, Vietnam
ABSTRACT
Human activities such as agriculture, industry, textile and mining are main causes for pollutants
increasing in the environment in developing countries. The occurence in high amount of pesticides and trace
metals in aquatic environment has been considered as potential ecological risks due to their persistence and non-
biodegradability. This study aims to investigate the life history traits of a tropical micro-crustacean, Daphnia
lumholtzi, under exposure to atrazine, cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) at the concentrations of 1, 5 and 25 µgL-1 21
experimental days. The results showed that the survivorship of the organisms significantly decreased after
exposing these contaminants at the test concentrations, especially at the highestone (25 µgL-1). While Cd
strongly reduced the fecundity and intrinsic population rate of the organisms, both atrazine and Pb caused an
early maturation and enhanced the intrinsic population rate. Moreover, the reproductive performance of D.
lumholtzi exposed to Pb also decreased similarly to that in Cd exposures.Our investigation revealed severe
impacts of the pollutants at environmentally relevant concentrations on the first consumer in aquatic ecosystem.
We highly suggest that the micro-crustacean D. lumholtzi could be used as a model species for ecological risk
assessments and extra polation to the risk in tropical regions. As pesticides and trace metals are usually found
simultaneously in environment, we highly recommend conducting further studies on the combined effects of
these contaminants ontropically aquatic organisms to fully understand their toxicity.
Keywords: Atrazine, Cadmium, Lead, Daphnia lumholtzi, Negative Effects, Life History Traits
INTRODUCTION
Recently, there has been a widespread application of herbicides along with trace metals for industrial
and agricultural purposes resulting in several environmental issues. Being one of the most common herbicides
found in creeks, rivers, ponds, reservoirs or even in groundwater, atrazine was classified as moderately toxic to
aquatic species (Nwani et al 2010). However, when atrazine is retained in small, standing-water reservoirs or
has repeated inputs into water bodies, damage can occur in the aquatic ecosystems (Solomon et al 1996).
Previous studies revealed that atrazine can act as an endocrince disruptor resulting in the changes in
reproductive performance of many aquatic species (Mckinlay et al 2008; Oehlmann and Schulte 2003). Besides,
in aquatic ecosystem, many trace metal (e.g. Cu, Ni, Zn) are essential for life, but all have been showed to cause
harmful effects at the certain concentration on plankton (Masmoudi et al 2013; Soeprobowati and Hariyati
2014; Offem and Ayotunde 2008), aquatic plants (Prasad et al 2001; Khellaf and Zerdaoui 2009; Verma and
Suthar, 2014) and vertebrates (Vosylien et al 2006; Kori and Ubogu 2008). On the contrary, some other trace
metals (e.g. Hg, Pb, Cd) are not essential for living organisms because they do not have a function in organisms
hence can induce negative effects on creatures. Both Pb and Cd are listed as the most hazardous inorganic
contaminants on the EPA Hazarmedous Substance Priority List (US EPA 2000). Zooplankton posses a central
position in the aquatic food web which helps to transfer primary materials (from algae) to higher trophic levels
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Responses of Tropical Micro-Crustacean Daphnia lumholtzi upon Herbicide and Trace Metal Exposures
(e.g. shrimp, fish). Zooplankton communities are among the first affected organisms when water pollution
occurs. They consist of many groups and species (e.g. Daphnia) which are very sensitive to pollutants and used
as test model animals for ecotoxicological studies (Lampert 2006). So far, there have been numerous
investigations on the detrimental effects of trace metals and herbicides on temperate zooplankton (Vesela and
Vijverberg 2007; Traudt et al 2017; Villarroel et al 2003; Moreira et al 2014), but only few studies on the
toxicity of these contaminants on tropical micro-crustacean. Some tropical micro-crustaceans such as Daphnia
lumholtzi, Ceriodaphnia cornuta were showed to be more sennsitive to several pollutants (e.g. Cu, Zn,
cyanotoxins) than temperate zooplankton (e.g. Daphnia magna; Bui et al 2016; Dao et al 2017). Ghose et al
(2014) noted that there is a gap in knowledge of how tropical species deal with contaminants. Responses of
tropical micro-crustaceans (e.g. D. lumholtzi) to herbicidesand trace metals are not fully understood. Therefore,
in order to fill this gap, in this study, we evaluated the chronic effects of atrazine, Pb and Cd on the traits of the
tropical micro-crustacean D. lumholtzi.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The test chemicals, atrazine (purification of 99%) and the stock of Pb and Cd (at the concentration of 1
mgmL-1), for toxicity study were obtained from the manufacturer Merck (Germany). Atrazine stock standard
solution (1 mg mL-1) was prepared by dissolving atrazine into Methanol (MeOH). The atrazine solution was
kept -70oC whereas the trace metal solutions were placed at 4oC prior to the experiments. Regarding to the test
micro-crustacean, D. lumholtzi was collected from a fish pond in the Northern Vietnam (Bui et al 2016) and has
been healthygrowing in the Module of Ecotoxicology, Hochiminh City University of Technology for several
years under controlled conditions (at 27±1oC, light intensity of around 1,000 Lux, photoperiod of 12h light and
12h dark) in COMBO medium (Kilham et al 1998). The animalshave been fed with a mixture of green alga
(Chlorella sp.) and YCT (yeast, cerrophyl and trout chow digestion; US. EPA 2002).
The toxicity tests were performed according to the APHA (2012) and Dao et al (2010) with some
minor modifications. Briefly, the neonates (<24h) were individually incubated in 50 mL glass beakers
containing 20 mL COMBO medium solely considered as control. Regarding atrazine, Cd or Pb exposures, D.
lumholtzi was incubated in medium containing 1, 5 and 25 µg L-1 for each chemical. Fifteen replicates were
prepared for each treatment. Glass beakers were used for the test with atrazine while plastic beakers were served
for the trace metal exposures. Green alga (Chlorella sp.) and YTC were used as food for test organisms. Both
the food and media were totally renewed three times a week. During the test incubation (21 days), the life
history traits of daphnids including survivorship, maturation and fecundity were daily recorded. Moreover, the
intrinsic rate of population increase (r) was estimated from age-specific survival and clutch size based on the
Euler equation (Stearns, 1992):1=∑𝑒−𝑟𝑥 𝑙𝑥𝑚𝑥. Where: x – age (in days); lx – the probability of surviving; and
mx – the fecundity of at age x.
Sigma plot version 12.0 version was used for the data processing. Kruskal-Wallis test was applied for
calculation on the statistically significant difference of the maturation, reproductive performance and intrinsic
rate of population increase of test organisms.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effects on survivorship
After three weeks of exposure, the survival rate of D. lumholtzi in control was not reduced. However,
the lowest atrazine concentration, 1 µg L-1, caused the reduction of 30% of total daphnids. Seriously, exposures
to higher atrazine concentrations (5 and 25 µg L-1) resulted an enormously decrease 90 and 100% daphnid
population, respectively (Fig. 1a). Regarding the Cd exposures at the concentration of 1, 5, and 25 µg L-1, all
test daphnids died after 18, 10 and 6 days of incubation, respectively (Fig. 1b). By the end of the experiment, in
the case of Pb exposure at the highest concentration (25µg L-1), the survival proportion of organisms sharply
declined to 20% of total organisms. Besides, the survivorship of D. lumholtzi exposed to 1 and 5 µg Pb L-1was
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Thi-My-Chi Vo and Thanh-Son Dao
down to 60% and 50%, respectively (Fig. 1c). Palma et al (2008) and Vo et al (2014) reported that survivorship
of D. magna was slightly affected when exposed to atrazine at the concentration of 5 or 50 g L-1. In the
investigation of (Luciana et al 2014), Pb did not affect D. manga’s survivorship during exposed to 30 µgL-1
over 15 days of testing. Cadmium at the concentration of 20 µgL-1 caused 90% mortality of D. magna after 21
days of treatment (Bodar et al 1989). Moreover, the mean concentration causing 50% mortality in a 48h acute
test for D. pulex was 78 µg Cd L-1 (Roux et al 1993). Hence we found that the tropical micro-crustacean, D.
lumholtzi, was more vunerable to atrazine, Pb and Cd compared to its congener, D. magna. This may be that
tropical micro-crustacean have a faster life history (e.g. life cycle of around 5 days in case of D. lumholtzi)
comparing to temperate species (e.g. D. magna has a life cycle of 7 – 10 days) thereby differing in the
sensitivity to contaminants. Our study revealed that pollutants (e.g. hebicides, trace metals) could show their
higher potent toxicity to tropical micro-crustaceans than to temperate ones. Therefore, the direct application of
ecological risk assessments based on toxicity tests of temperate model species such as D. magna could not be
relevant to extrapolate the risk in tropical regions. On the other hand, D. lumholtzi should be considered as
model zooplankton for toxicity test for ecological risk assessments in tropical regions.
Effects on age to maturity and fecundity
The age of D. lumholtzi to maturity in the control was 4.5 days and that in all atrazine
exposuresvariedfrom 3.9 - 4.1 days. There was no statistically significant difference in the age at maturity
between the control and atrazine exposures excluding the concentration of 5 µgL-1 (Fig.2a). The animals
exposed to Cd at the concentrations of 1 and 5 µg L-1 reached maturity after round 4 days (Fig. 2b), and those
which were treated with Pb (1, 5 and 25 µgL-1) matured at the ages from 3.7 to 4.1 days (Fig. 2c). The
significant difference between the daphnid maturation compared to the control was found in the two Pb
exposures (1 and 25 µgL-1). Atrazine could act as an endocrine disrupting compound (Mckinlay et al 2008;
Oehlmann and Schulte-Oehlmann 2003) therefore it might stimulate the maturation processes in animals
including zooplankton which supports the earlier maturation in atrazine exposure of our study.
On the contrary, some trace metals such as Cu, Ni and Zn (concentrations from 4 – 50 µg L-1) resulted
in the tardiness of maturation of D. lumholtzi (Dao et al 2017). The maturity of micro-crustaceans (e.g. Moina
macleayi, Ceriodaphnia dubia) was negatively by Pb (Luciana et al 2014).However, it remains unknown how
the trace metal Pb enhanced the maturation of D. lumholtzi in the current study which needs further studies to
clarify.
In the control, the mean brood size of daphnids was around 8 neonates which were similar to that in the
atrazine exposures (1, 5 and 25 µgL-1; Fig. 3a). Moreover, compared to the control, all Cd treatments caused a
statistically significant reduction in the number of neonates per brood. In each clutch, females exposed to Cd at
the concentration of 1 and 5 µg L-1 laid approximately 4 – 5 neonates (Fig. 3b). As all daphnids in 25 µg Cd L-1
exposure died after 6 days of treatment, these life-history traits (maturity and reproduction) were not recorded.
Besides, the fecundity of D. lumholtzi in the Pb exposures similar to that in the control (~8 offsprings per
clutch), while the females in the highest exposed concentration of Pb (25 µgL-1) produced much smaller broods
(only 6 neonates per clutch) than the control (Fig. 3c).
There has been no information about the effects of atrazine on D. lumholtzi’s maturity or brood size. At
every high concentration (e.g. 500 µgL-1) atrazine caused a decrease the reproduction of D. magna (Vo et al
2014). Maybe the used atrazine concentrations in the current study (1 – 25 µgL-1) were not high enough to
induce a strong impact on fecundtiy of the D. lumholtzi. Regarding the trace metal treatments, Roux et al (1993)
reported that the Cd at the concentration up to 3 µgL-1 caused the reproductive impairment of D. pulex during
21 days of incubation. The reproduction of other two micro-crustaceans, Moina macleayi, Ceriodaphnia dubia,
were negatively affected after being exposed to Pb (Luciana et al 2014). In our study Cd and Pb concentrations
were within the range or higher than that in previous investigations hence fecundity reduction of the D.
lumholtzi was recorded. Also Cd showed its stronger impact than Pb on clutch size of D. lumholtzi. This again
evidences for the potent toxicity of Cd and Pb to the tropical micro-crustacean. Compared to the maturation, the
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Responses of Tropical Micro-Crustacean Daphnia lumholtzi upon Herbicide and Trace Metal Exposures
Figure 1: Survival of Dapnia lumholtzi during exposure time (n = 15 at the start) upon exposure to atrazine (a),
cadmium (b) and lead (c). At1, At5 and At25: atrazine exposures at the concentration of 1, 5 and 25 µgL-1,
respectively; Cd1, Cd5 and Cd25: cadmium exposures at the concentration of 1, 5 and 25 µgL-1, respectively;
Pb1, Pb5 and Pb25: lead exposures at the concentration of 1, 5 and 25 µgL-1, respectively.
fecundity reveals a much clearer impact of the trace metals on daphnids. Hence fecundity of micro-crustacean
should be a very important life trait for trace metal risk assessment.
Effects on the intrinsic rate of population increase
As mentioned above, the used contaminants, atrazine, Cd and Pb at the test concentrations caused
detrimental impacts on survival, maturation and reproductive performance of D. lumholtzi resulting in the
effects on the intrinsic rate of population increase. The intrinsic population rate (r) of the organisms in control
was 0.339 and there was not statistically significantly difference in this biological parameter between the
control and atrazine exposures at the concentration of 1 and 25 µgL-1 (r = 0.372 and 0.298, respectively) or Pb
exposures at the concentration of 5 and 25 µgL-1 (r = 0.211 and 0.332, respectively) (Fig. 4a, 4c). While the
intrinsic population rate of daphnids exposed to atrazine (5 µgL-1; r = 0.409) and Pb (1 µgL-1; r = 0.422) was
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Thi-My-Chi Vo and Thanh-Son Dao
enhanced, that in all Cd exposures strongly reduced ranged from 0 to 0.174 (Fig. 4). These negative effects of
trace metals (e.g. Cd or Pb) on the life history traits of crustaceans could be explained by the impairment on the
respiration function caused by these contaminants (Pane et al 2003). Additionally, Grosell et al (2002) assumed
that trace metals can inhibit the sodium uptake resulting in the energy cost for maintaining consequently the
reduction in reproductive performance. Compared to the previous studies (e.g. Palma et al
P
Figure 2: Maturity age of Dapnia lumholtzi upon exposure to atrazine (a), cadmium (b) and lead (c). Asterisk
indicates statistically significant difference between control and exposures by Kruskal Wallis test (*, 0.01 < p ≤
0.05; **, 0.001 < p ≤ 0.01; ***, p ≤ 0.001). Abbreviation as in Figure 1.
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Responses of Tropical Micro-Crustacean Daphnia lumholtzi Upon Herbicide and Trace Metal Exposures
Figure 3: Fecundity of Dapnia lumholtzi upon exposure to atrazine (a), cadmium (b) and lead (c). Asterisk
indicates statistically significant difference between control and exposures (*, 0.01 < p ≤ 0.05; **, 0.001 < p ≤
0.01; ***, p ≤ 0.001). Abbreviation as in Figure 1.
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Thi-My-Chi Vo and Thanh-Son Dao
Figure 4: Intrinsic rate of population increase of Dapnia lumholtzi upon exposure to atrazine (a), cadmium (b)
and lead (c). Asterisk indicates statistically significant difference between control and exposures (*, 0.01 < p ≤
0.05; **, 0.001 < p ≤ 0.01; ***, p ≤ 0.001). Abbreviation as in Figure 1.
2008; Vo et al 2014; Bodar et al 1989, Roux et al 1993), adverse effects on D. lumholtzi caused by atrazine, Pb
or Cd exposure in this study seem to be more serious. It could be explained that tropical crustacean D. lumholtzi
is more sensitive to contaminants than related species in the temperate region (Dao et al 2017).
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Responses of Tropical Micro-Crustacean Daphnia lumholtzi upon Herbicide and Trace Metal Exposures
CONCLUSIONS
Through this investigation we confirmed that the common contaminants in the aquatic environment,
atrazine, Cd and Pb, induced detrimental impacts on the life history traits of D. lumhotzi such as survivorship,
maturation, fecundity and intrinsic population rate. This showed that D. lumholtzi could be used as a model
species for ecological risk assessments and extrapolation to the risk in tropical regions. This study was
implemented in a single exposure aspect, but these contaminants are usually presented simultaneously. Hence
further investigations on the combined effects of these contaminants on other organisms are highly suggested.
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Traudt EM, Ranville JF, Meyer JS 2017. Effects of age on acute toxicity of cadmium, copper, nickel, and zinc
in individual-metal exposures to Daphnia magna neonates. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 36 (1):113-119.
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US Environmental Protection Agency (US. EPA), 2002. Methods for measuring the acute toxicity of effluents
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Verma R and Suthar S 2015. Lead and cadmium removal from water using duckweek – Lemma gibba L.:
Impact of pH and initial metal load. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 54 (4): 1297-1304.
Vesela S and Vijverberg J 2007. Effect of body size on toxicity of zinc in neonates of four differences sized
Daphnia species. Aquatic Ecology, 41(1): 67-73.
Villarroel MJ, Sancho E, Ferrando MD, Andreu E 2003. Acute, chronic and sublethal effects of the herbicide
propanil on Daphnia magna. Chemosphere, 53 (8): 857-864.
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parameters. Ekologija., 4:12-17.
11
Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
DNA Barcoding of Three Colonial Ascidians from Indian Coastal
Waters
Shabeer Ahmed N and Abdul Jaffar Ali H
Department of Biotechnology, Islamiah College (Autonomous), Vaniyambadi (TN) India.
ABSTRACT
Adult tunicate specimens collected from Gulf of Mannar (south east coast of India) were identified by
morphological characters as Eudistoma viride Tokioka 1955, E. microlarvum Kott, 1990 and E. ovatum
(Herdman, 1886). The mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene of these species were
sequenced and deposited in the GenBank (Accession Numbers: KJ944392-93, MH669162, KJ710709,
MH667475 – 77, JX871396, KU360794, MH667483 – 84, KR867634, MH667485 and MH667486). Barcodes
were created for the COI sequences of the 3 species (Eudistoma viride BOLD: ACQ3396, E. microlarvum
BOLD: ACS6841 and E. ovatum BOLD: ACS7059) - the first record of COI gene of these species from India.
Homology results using BLAST searches resulted in 100% intra specific similarities in E. microlarvum and E.
ovatum species and 98-100% similarities among Eudistoma viride species. Phylogenetic analysis showed the
Eudistoma species forming separate clusters. This study underlines the efficiency of molecular methods in
delineating the ascidian species and this may aid extensive and systematic molecular inventory of India’s
existing marine invertebrate biodiversity.
Keywords: Eudistoma viride, E. microlarvum, E. ovatum, Cytochrome C oxidase subunit I (COI), ascidian,
Gulf of Mannar, India.
INTRODUCTION
The biological diversity of each country is a valuable and vulnerable natural resource. The uncontrolled
anthropogenic activities including global warming causing a serious biodiversity crisis results in the
disappearance of numerous taxa each day. The biodiversity crisis is accompanied by dwindling number of
taxonomists throughout the scientific community, resulting in the neglect of many highly diverse groups of
organisms and more so in marine environment (Buyck, 1999). The effective conservation of biodiversity can be
ensured by accurate identification, characterization and distribution as well as richness, which can be achieved
for many taxa only by experienced taxonomists. But there has been a persistent decline in both amateur and
professional taxonomy since 1950 (Hopkin and Freckleton, 2002). Most ecological studies of sessile
communities include quite a few species, but frequently published lists include identification only to family or
genus levels. The lack of field guides and identification keys for many regions is in part responsible for this
situation. Ascidians form a ubiquitous portion of marine benthic communities in shallow tropical and temperate
communities. Yet, the ascidian fauna of many regions is still poorly surveyed and the identification of species
by non-specialists almost nonexistent. Since Indian coastal region provides number of suitable marine habitats
for the settlement of ascidians, more than 400 species have been reported in Indian coastal waters by various
researchers at different locations, but less than 200 species have been taxonomically described so far.
Ascidian taxonomy based on morphology is a highly specialized discipline and the misidentification of
12
DNA Barcoding of Three Colonial Ascidians from Indian Coastal Waters
species has been and remains a significant problem due to frequent lack of diagnostic morphological characters
(Lambert, 2009 and Geller et al., 2010). The limitations inherent in morphology-based identification system and
the dwindling pool of taxonomists signals the need for a new approach to taxon recognition.
DNA Barcoding, a powerful molecular tool for species identification came to the attention of the
scientific community in 2003. DNA Barcoding based on the analysis of a 648 bp region of the animal
mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA), is an efficient and quick method for the identification of taxonomically
intractable groups (Hebert et al., 2003a and Hebert et al., 2003b). The cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI)
gene is a common gene useful for molecular identification of species and for uncovering patterns of diversity
within and among populations and in communities (Muirhead et al., 2008).
With this in context the present study was carried to identify the colonial ascidian from Thoothukudi
coast, Gulf of Mannar and Vizhinjam bay using morphological taxonomy and sequence the mitochondrial
cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene sequence (Barcode region) of these species and to create DNA
barcodes for the same. The COI gene sequences of the study species deposited in the Genbank is the first report
from these species.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Tissue sampling
Ascidian samples were collected from different locations in Gulf of Mannar at different time intervals.
Details of the collection sites across Gulf of Mannar and Vizhinjam bay are given in Table.1. Zooids from the
colony were taken using sterile scalpel blades and stored in 95% (v/v) ethanol at -20°C. For morphological
studies, whole colonies were narcotized with menthol crystals and left undisturbed for an hour to two hours,
preserved in 10% formalin prepared in sea water and identified by using taxonomic keys (Monniot and
Monniot, 2001; Kott, 1990). All the specimens were provided specimen voucher numbers.
DNA Extraction and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) DNA sequencing
Genomic DNA was isolated using DNeasy Blood and Tissue Kit (Qiagen) following the
manufacturer’s animal tissue protocol. Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene was amplified using
marine invertebrate mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) primer (Geller et al., 2013). PCR
amplifications were carried out in 20.0 µl reaction volumes containing; 1 unit of AmpliTaq Gold DNA
polymerase enzyme, 5 pM of both primers and 20 ng of template DNA. Thermocycling conditions consisted of:
95°C for 5 minutes, one cycle; 95°C for 0.30 minute, 48°C for 0.40 minute, 72°C for 1 minute; 35 cycles; 72°C
for 7 minutes, one cycle. Amplified products were purified and sequenced in both directions using BigDye
Terminator v3.1 Cycle Sequencing Kit (Applied Biosystems, USA. Sequence quality was checked using
Sequence Scanner Software v1 (Applied Biosystems). Sequence alignment and required editing of the obtained
sequence was carried out using Geneious Pro v5.1 (Drummond et al., 2012).
DATA ANALYSIS
The nucleotide composition of the COI sequences was analyzed using Bioedit sequence alignment
editor (Hall, 1999). A homology search was performed using BLAST program. The transmembrane helix
corresponding to the obtained mt DNA sequence was analysed with the TMPred software (Hofmann and
Stoffel, 1993). Genetic distance and Phylogenetic analysis were conducted using MEGA 6 (Tamura et al.,
2013).
RESULTS
Morphological Taxonomy
Specimens were identified upto the species level by studying their morphological characters, which are
given below separately.
13
Shabeer Ahmed N and Abdul Jaffar Ali H
E. microlarvum
Colonies were flat of about 1.5 cm height, divided into irregular lobes. Some sand grains were
embedded in the test. Zooids were small, 4mm long and white in colour. Both the branchial and atrial siphon
was relatively short, each with short sphincter. Only 8 stigmata per row were present (Kott, 1990).
E. ovatum (Herdman, 1886)
Colonies were firm encrusting sheets, thick up to 1 cm. Zooids were pink, circular and smaller
measuring about 2.5 mm in diameter. Zooids present in the system (7 zooids per system). Atrial siphon was
long and muscular. Branchial siphon had a wide band of tentacles. There were at least 20 stigmata per row
(Kott, 1990).
E. viride, Tokioka 1955
The general morphological characteristics of the Eudistoma viride were examined. The colonies were bushes of
small lobes with a translucent tunic. One to three zooids arranged per lobe. Zooids had a yellow green pigment
in the body wall with two black spots, one in the neural ganglion and another at the top of the endostyle. Both
the siphons were short. Six oral and cloacal lobes were present with three rows of stigmata and gonads
positioned in the posterior gut loop (Monniot and Monniot, 2001).
Table1: Collection spots across Gulf of Mannar and Vizhinjam bay
Collection site Latitude Longitude Sea Period
Hare Island 8.76659 N 78.199097 E Thoothukudi
water
June 2014, July 2018,
North Break water 8.7853 N 78.1972 E September 2012, April 2014,
July 2018,
Mandapam 9.2856 N 79.1586 E Mandapam water December 2015, July 2018,
Vizhinjam bay 8.3761 N 76.9882 E Vizhinjam water July 2018,
Vizhinjam bay 8.3756 N 76.9883 E April 2014, April 2015,
Molecular Taxonomy
Genomic DNA was isolated from 14 specimens representing E. microlarvum (3), E. ovatum (3) and E.
viride (8) species. Partial COI gene sequences of these samples were amplified using PCR and sequenced.
Amplified sequences were carefully checked for the presence of internal stop codons and deletions, since
colonial ascidian species were more prone to amplify nuclear mitochondrial Pseudogenes (NUMTS) as evident
from previous studies (Shabeer Ahmed and Jaffar Ali, 2016). Details of the mitochondrial COI gene sequences,
its length, specimen voucher numbers and GenBank accession numbers are given in Table.2. Barcodes were
created (Fig.1) and Barcode Index Numbers (BINs) were provided (Table.2). Analysis of nucleotide
composition in all the 3 codon positions (Table.3, 3a, 3b and 3c), showed a higher percentage of AT bases.
BLAST results of E. viride had 100% similarity among the COI sequences KJ944392, KJ944393, MH669162,
MH667475 and MH667476 and 98% with KJ710709, MH667477 and JX871396. E. microlarvum exhibited
100% similarities among the 3 query sequences and with the E. microlarvum GenBank sequences (KM411614)
and 99% identity with another GenBank sequence, KU667266. Similarly E. ovatum query sequences displayed
100% identity among themselves and 98 – 99% identity with the GenBank E. ovatum sequences (KU667259 –
62, KM411610 and KX138477). Since the length of E. viride JX871396 was very short, it was not included in
further analysis. Hydropathy plots of the 5’ COI gene region of E. microlarvum, E. ovatum and E. viride
showed transmembrane helices joined by external and internal loops (Fig. 2, 3 & 4). Intraspecific genetic
distance exhibited zero divergence among E. microlarvum and E. ovatum species. In E. viride species 2.4 and
2.6% divergence were observed in KJ710709 and MH667477. These 2 sequences displayed zero divergence
between them. The highest interspecific distance was found between E. microlarvum and E. ovatum, while the
lowest distance was observed between E. microlarvum and E. viride (Table.4). Interspecific genetic distance at
14
DNA Barcoding of Three Colonial Ascidians from Indian Coastal Waters
each codon position was computed (Table. 4a, 4b and 4c). The highest degree of divergence was found in the
third codon position (Table.4c). The genetic relationship between the Eudistoma sp through NJ tree, constructed
using K2P showed the 3 species in distinct clusters under a single clad (Fig.5).
DISCUSSION
Morphological Taxonomy
Eudistoma sp mainly from the tropical water has many identical characters, which makes identification
difficult. Important distinguishing characters were taken into account during the confirmation of species. In E.
microlarvum and E. constrictum the nature of zooids, like its small and thread-like structure were the
differentiating characters.
Table 2: Mitochondrial COI gene sequences of Eudistoma species
Species Specimen
Voucher Number
Gene length
(bp)
GenBank
Accession Number
Barcode Index
Number
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 30 483 MH667483
BOLD:ACS7059 Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 31 502 MH667484
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC09 511 KU360794
Eudistoma ovatum ASC 32 501 MH667485
BOLD:ACS6841 Eudistoma ovatum ASC 33 519 MH667486
Eudistoma ovatum DBTIC41 560 KR867634
Eudistoma viride ICBT005 552 KJ710709
BOLD:ACQ339
6
Eudistoma viride DBT IC 003 628 KJ944392
Eudistoma viride DBT IC 004 597 KJ944393
Eudistoma viride ASC 39 515 MH669162
Eudistoma viride ASC 22 583 MH667475
Eudistoma viride ASC 23 542 MH667476
Eudistoma viride ASC 24 514 MH667477
Eudistoma viride ICBT.Asc001 467 JX871396
Table 3: Nucleotide distribution in Eudistoma species
Species Name A T G C AT GC
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 30 25.5 39.8 21.0 13.7 65.3 34.7
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 31 25.9 39.6 20.6 13.9 65.5 34.5
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC09 25.6 40.3 20.2 13.9 65.9 34.1
Eudistoma ovatum ASC 32 22.6 43.0 20.2 14.2 65.6 34.4
Eudistoma ovatum ASC 33 22.4 43.5 19.8 14.3 65.9 34.1
Eudistoma ovatum DBTIC41 21.4 43.6 20.4 14.6 65.0 35.0
Eudistoma viride ICBT005 30.3 41.7 15.6 12.5 72.0 28.0
Eudistoma viride DBT IC 003 29.5 43.2 15.0 12.3 72.7 27.3
Eudistoma viride DBT IC 004 29.8 42.2 15.6 12.4 72.0 28.0
Eudistoma viride ASC 39 30.9 41.0 16.1 12.0 71.9 28.1
Eudistoma viride ASC 22 29.8 42.7 15.3 12.2 72.5 27.5
Eudistoma viride ASC 23 30.3 42.2 15.5 12.0 72.6 27.5
Eudistoma viride ASC 24 30.9 40.9 16.0 12.2 71.8 28.2
Eudistoma viride ICBT.Asc001 43.9 29.1 13.1 13.9 73.0 27.0
Average 28.4 41.1 17.4 13.1 69.4 30.6
15
Shabeer Ahmed N and Abdul Jaffar Ali H
Table 3a: Nucleotide distribution in the 1st codon position of Eudistoma species
Species Name A T G C AT GC
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 30 29.0 44.0 19.0 8.0 73.0 27.0
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 31 28.6 44.0 18.5 8.9 72.6 27.4
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC09 28.7 44.0 18.5 8.8 72.7 27.3
Eudistoma ovatum ASC 32 21.2 48.0 19.0 11.8 69.2 30.8
Eudistoma ovatum ASC 33 22.0 47.0 18.5 12.5 69.0 31.0
Eudistoma ovatum DBTIC41 21.7 48.0 18.6 11.7 69.7 30.3
Eudistoma viride ICBT005 38.9 46.0 7.6 7.0 84.9 15.1
Eudistoma viride DBT IC 003 35.7 51.0 8.1 5.2 86.7 13.3
Eudistoma viride DBT IC 004 36.5 50.0 8.5 5.0 86.5 13.5
Eudistoma viride ASC 39 37.7 47.0 9.7 5.6 84.7 15.3
Eudistoma viride ASC 22 36.9 49.0 8.7 5.6 85.7 14.3
Eudistoma viride ASC 23 36.5 48.0 9.4 6.1 84.5 15.5
Eudistoma viride ASC 24 39.0 45.0 8.1 7.6 84.0 16.0
Eudistoma viride ICBT.Asc001 44.6 37.0 9.6 8.9 81.6 18.4
Average 32.7 46.3 13.0 8.0 79.0 21.0
Table 3b: Nucleotide distribution in the 2nd codon position of Eudistoma species
Species Name A T G C AT GC
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 30 30.2 33.0 20.2 16.6 63.2 36.8
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 31 30.8 33.0 19.5 16.6 63.8 36.2
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC09 30.3 34.0 19.3 16.4 64.3 35.7
Eudistoma ovatum ASC 32 29.8 35.0 22.6 12.6 64.8 35.2
Eudistoma ovatum ASC 33 29.2 35.0 22.4 13.4 64.2 35.8
Eudistoma ovatum DBTIC41 27.7 35.0 24.5 12.8 62.7 37.3
Eudistoma viride ICBT005 35.0 34.0 19.3 11.7 69.0 31.0
Eudistoma viride DBT IC 003 33.8 34.0 19.0 13.3 67.7 32.3
Eudistoma viride DBT IC 004 35.0 33.0 19.0 13.0 68.0 32.0
Eudistoma viride ASC 39 36.4 32.2 17.9 13.5 68.6 31.4
Eudistoma viride ASC 22 34.5 33.0 19.0 13.5 67.5 32.5
Eudistoma viride ASC 23 34.5 34.0 18.0 13.5 68.5 31.5
Eudistoma viride ASC 24 35.6 34.0 18.4 12.0 69.6 30.4
Eudistoma viride ICBT.Asc001 44.3 27.0 16.2 12.5 71.3 28.7
Average 33.4 33.3 19.7 13.6 66.6 33.4
Table 3c: Nucleotide distribution in the 3rd t codon position of Eudistoma species
Species Name A T G C AT GC
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 30 17.0 43 23.7 16.3 60 40.0
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC 31 18.0 42 23.6 16.4 60 40.0
Eudistoma microlarvum ASC09 17.9 42 23.4 16.7 59.9 40.1
Eudistoma ovatum ASC 32 16.4 47 18.6 18.0 63.4 36.6
Eudistoma ovatum ASC 33 15.8 48 18.7 17.5 63.8 36.2
Eudistoma ovatum DBTIC41 14.6 48 17.8 19.6 62.6 37.4
Eudistoma viride ICBT005 16.5 45 19.8 18.7 61.5 38.5
Eudistoma viride DBT IC 003 18.6 45 18.2 18.2 63.6 36.4
16
DNA Barcoding of Three Colonial Ascidians from Indian Coastal Waters
Eudistoma viride DBT IC 004 17.6 44 19.2 19.2 61.6 38.4
Eudistoma viride ASC 39 18.2 44 20.6 17.2 62.2 37.8
Eudistoma viride ASC 22 18.2 46 18.2 17.6 64.2 35.8
Eudistoma viride ASC 23 19.6 45 19.0 16.4 64.6 35.4
Eudistoma viride ASC 24 17.6 44 21.2 17.2 61.6 38.4
Eudistoma viride ICBT.Asc001 43.0 23 13.5 20.5 66 34.0
Average 19.2 43.3 19.7 17.8 62.5 37.5
Likewise the cloacal cavities and pyriform colonies in E. amplum and E. pyriforme were the characters
differentiating it from E. ovatum. Morphological characters of Eudistoma viride and its haplotype were similar
exhibiting no major distinguishing characters.
Molecular Taxonomy
The domination of AT bases in all the positions exhibited the nature of this COI gene, which is usually
AT rich (Norman and Gray, 1997; Ziaie and Suyama, 1987), compared to the entire mitochondrial genome
(Burger et al 2000). Similar findings were observed in previous studies on the COI gene of ascidians (Jaffar Ali
and Shabeer Ahmed, 2016; Shabeer Ahmed and Jaffar Ali, 2019). Homology searches results with the GenBank
sequences, using nucleotide BLAST confirmed the identity of the study species. The 2% divergence between
the E. viride species indicates the sequences (JX871396, KJ710709 and MH667477) may be the haplogroups of
E. viride (KJ944392, KJ944393, MH669162, MH667475 and MH667476). Amino acid sequences of Eudistoma
sp COI gene region comprised of 4, 5 and 5 transmembrane helices of E. microlarvum, E. ovatum and E. viride
respectively, which were connected with internal and external loops. Hydropathy plots of the COI gene
sequences of these species were in accordance with the topographical model of COI protein (Saraste, 1990) and
as well with the hydropathy plot of 2 colonial ascidians Polyclinum indicum and Didemnum candidum (Shabeer
Ahmed and Jaffar Ali, 2015). Genetic distance using K2P revealed close relatedness among the same species
and maximum divergence between the species of the same genera. This demonstrates that within species, the
DNA sequences are more similar than in different species (Zemlak et al 2009). Highest divergence in the 3rd
codon position signals the maximum genetic variation at this position than in the other two positions. Similar
results were observed in the COI gene sequence of some marine fish populations (Ward et al 2005 and Akbar et
al 2010). The genetic distance of E. microlarvum and E. ovatum in all the codon positions were same i.e. (0.00).
This indicates the low genetic variation of the species from the same geographical location. In the case of E.
viride, it can be explained from the intraspecific divergence values (2.4 and 2.6%) which are much deeper
within the species, but clearly below the divergence threshold value (3%). This indicates that the deeper
divergence within the species may be due to the existence of haplogroups within E. viride species. Since the
geographical location of the specimens was same, haplogroup may be the result of sympatric speciation. NJ tree
parted Eudistoma sp into 3 clusters thereby delineating it into species level. Branches within E. viride cluster
clearly explain the haplotypes within the species.
Fig.2: Hydropathy plot of 5’ COI region of E. microlarvum showing 4 transmembrane helices
17
Shabeer Ahmed N and Abdul Jaffar Ali H
Fig.3: Hydropathy plot of 5’ COI region of E. ovatum showing 5 transmembrane helices
Fig.4: Hydropathy plot of 5’ COI region of E. viride showing 5 transmembrane helices
18
DNA Barcoding of Three Colonial Ascidians from Indian Coastal Waters
Fig.5: Kimura 2 parameter distance neighbour joining tree of 13 COI gene sequences from members of
Eudistoma sp, with an out group Lissoclinum fragile
CONCLUSION
COI gene sequence clustered the study species into individual groups, thereby proving its efficiency in
delineating the Eudistoma sp into species level. Based on the present study it is concluded that COI gene is the
best barcode region, for the identification of widespread species in animal kingdom including ascidians. Based
on the far-reaching literature review, very meager work on ascidian DNA barcoding has been done with only a
few species barcoded. This study is the first of its kind to report the COI gene sequences of E. microlarvum, E.
ovatum and E. viride from the Indian coastal waters and deposit it in GenBank database and BOLD. Also the
first to provide both morphological and molecular level evidences to prove its identity in a precise manner.
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20
Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
Productivity and Carbon Sequestration Potential of Parent Clone
(Hevea brasiliensis RRII 105) In Non-Traditional Rubber Growing
Region of Karnataka
Shahbaz Noori and S S Inamati
Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, College of Forestry, Sirsi, Karnataka, India
ABSTRACT
Quantitative information about growth, biomass production and carbon sequestration by crops is a
fundamental knowledge that can be used to improve the crop yield per unit of cultivation area. The present
study was conducted to determine growth, productivity and carbon sequestration potential of Hevea brasiliensis
clone RRII 105 of different aged rubber plantation in Hilly zone of Karnataka. Two ecological regions in hilly
zone were considered based on annual rainfall distribution and temperature variation viz., Mundgod (798 mm)
and Sagara (1918 mm). Seasonal diameter increments during monsoon (June-September) and winter (October-
December) was higher and declined subsequently in summer (January-March) in all age gradation. The
productivity, biomass production and carbon sequestration were observed to be double in plantation of different
age group situated in high rainfall zone (Sagara) than low rainfall zone (Mundgod).
Keywords: Biomass, growth, carbon sequestration, site factor, non-traditional belt.
INTRODUCTION
It is vital to reduce our emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) as it is reported to
be one of major greenhouse gas causing global warming. Therefore, following environmentally sound
procedures and ensuring sustainability are major concerns for economic enterprise. At the same time, the
demand for material produced by industrial plantation continues to increase. Instead of monoculture plantation,
it is necessary to adopt modern agroforestry approaches using improved varieties/clones in combination with
suitable forest tree species in the era of climate change. This improvement relies on having accurate quantitative
information about crop biomass and carbon sequestration by various crops/trees. However, there is little
information about biomass or carbon sequestration potential of species like Rubber in contrasting climatic
situations.
Hevea brasiliensis, the primary source of natural rubber in the world, is a fast-growing and high
biomass producing perennial tree and on average it attains 50 cm girth in the first 7 years. Rubber trees can
stock large amounts of carbon in their standing biomass and rubber wood is used for making diverse long-term
products such as toys, light weight furniture and packaging material constituting an additional fixed carbon sink
(Anon, 2016). Carbon sequestration potential of world’s rubber plantation is to the tune of 0.0782 PG C/yr and
it reduces 2 per cent of the current rate of rising atmospheric CO2 (Jacob, 2003).
The requirement of basic data on tree growth, biomass production and carbon partitioning information
usually important for rubber growers and breeders. The information generated on biomass potential and carbon
sequestration of rubber could be useful for rubber growers for carbon credit projects. Hence, the study was
21
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
April May June July August September October November December January February MarchMonths
Rai
nfal
l (m
m)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Tem
pera
ture
(0 C
)
Rainfall Mundgod zone Rainfall Sagara Zone Temp Mundgod zone Temp Sagara Zone
Fig. 2: Rainfall and temperature during 2016-2017 in two ecological zones
Productivity and Carbon Sequestration Potential of Parent Clone (Hevea brasiliensis RRII 105) In Non-
Traditional Rubber Growing Region of Karnataka
undertaken to estimate the biomass and carbon sequestration potential of rubber plantation grown in low and
high rainfall conditions.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The present study was conducted in the established plantation of Hevea brasiliensis clone RRII 105 in
Mundgod (14º 12′ 390′′ N Latitude and 75º 11′ 580′′ E Longitude) of Uttara Kannada district and Sagara (14º
13′ 355′′ N Latitude and 75º 11′ 635′′ E Longitude) of Shivammoga district. The site was considered based on
rainfall pattern viz., low rainfall (Mundgod) and high rainfall (Sagara) and the average annual rainfall was 798
mm and 1915 mm, respectively during the study period (2016-17). In this study, plantation of 4 years
(immature), 7 years (Juvenile) and 10 years (early mature) with uniform spacing of 3.5 x 4.2 m were considered
in both the sites (Choudhary et al., 2016). Due care was taken to choose sub plot under similar situation of
respective main plots.
The enumeration of rubber stands was carried out in randomly selected plantations. Four quadrates of
size 20 × 20 m were laid out randomly in each plantation to measure diameter at breast height, total height and
form factor for estimation of biomass production. The carbon stock and sequestration were calculated by using
Shorrock’s regression model: W = 0.002604 G2.7826 (Dey et al., 1996) where G is the trunk girth at 1.37 m from
ground level. 15-20 per cent of the shoot biomass was taken as root biomass and with 42 per cent of carbon in
rubber wood as per Ambily et al., 2012. The data were subjected to statistical analysis by ANOVA (analysis of
variance) using DMRT (Duncan’s Multiple Range Test) to ascertain significance of various growth parameters
using SPSS version 22 at five per cent significance level (p = 0.05).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A comparison made with similar age plantation across two different ecological zones exhibited
statistically significant difference with respect to all the growth attributes, productivity and carbon sequestration
potential. Though the rainfall is rather high in Sagara (1915 mm with 132 rainy days) its distribution is highly
skewed with rains mostly concentrated during months from June to September. North east monsoon showers are
limited and summers were relatively dry. Temperature and relative humidity were also high but adequate to this
region. On the contrary, Mundgod region received an annual rainfall of 798 mm with low number of rainy days.
The distribution of rainfall is far from satisfactory which results in long dry spells extending from November to
March, due to which region experiences severe seasonal drought (Fig. 1). The minimum rainfall required for
rubber cultivation is 1500 mm but the preferred average is 2500-4000 mm with a total of 100-150 rainy days
per year (Krishnan, 2015).
Fig1: Meteorological data of Sagara and Mundgod zone recorded during study period (2016-17)
22
Shahbaz Noori and S S Inamati
Influence of age and site on growth attributes
Tree height and diameter varies between plantations of a particular age and is strongly influenced by
site factors. In Sagara region, tree height and diameter showed statistically higher growth varying from 5.52 m
at 4 year to 12.08 m at 10 year and 10.66 cm at 4 year to 18.47 cm at 10 year, respectively. Whereas, tree
height and diameter in Mundgod region showed variation from 4.26 m at 4 year to 8.92 m at age of 10 year and
8.67 cm at 4 year to 12.13 cm at 10 year. These variations recorded between ecological zones may be due to
difference in climatic and edaphic factors prevailing in respective location (Table 1).
Table 1: Influence of site and age on mean tree height and DBH of rubber plantation
Main plot
(M)/ Sub
plot (S)
Mean tree height (m) Mean DBH (cm)
4 YAP 7 YAP 10 YAP Mean 4 YAP 7 YAP 10 YAP Mean
M1 -
Mundgod
4.26cB 7.23bB 8.92aB 6.80B 8.67cB 12.13bB 16.10aB 12.30B
M2 - Sagara 5.52cA 9.18bA 12.08aA 8.92A 10.66cA 14.72bA 18.47aA 14.61A
Mean 4.89c 8.20b 10.50a 9.66c 13.42b 17.28a
F (M) 5375.36* P (M) <0.05 F (M) 13955.31* P (M) <0.05
F (S) 12672.74* P (S) <0.05 F (S) 50386.06* P (S) <0.05
F (M x
S)
372.76* P (M x
S)
<0.05 F (M x S) 78.45* P (M x S) <0.05
*Significant at 5 per cent level
Means having same letter as superscript indicates homogenous (on par)
YAP – Years after planting
Fig. 2: Mean seasonal diameter increment (cm) of rubber plantation in immature phase (4 year)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Summer Monsoon Winter
0.32
1.03
0.64
0.26
0.82
0.4
Sea
son
al
incr
emen
t (c
m)
Sagara Mundgod
23
Productivity and Carbon Sequestration Potential of Parent Clone (Hevea brasiliensis RRII 105) In Non-
Traditional Rubber Growing Region of Karnataka
Seasonal growth pattern
Good girth is an important attribute for sustained yield and girth increment is widely used in Hevea
cultivation as a parameter of growth, particularly during the immaturity period (Shorrock et al., 1965). Hevea
clone, RRII 105 showed a very limited difference in seasonal diameter increment between two ecological zones.
Seasonal diameter increments during monsoon (June-September) and winter (October-December) was higher
and declined subsequently in summer (January-March) in all age gradation.
Monsoon coupled with lifesaving irrigation in immature phase (4 year) during monsoon recorded
highest seasonal diameter increment of (1.03 cm), (0.82 cm) in Sagara and Mundgod region respectively.
While, in juvenile phase (7 year) and early mature phase (10 year), reduction in seasonal diameter increment
was observed which may be due to inappropriate practice of tapping observed in sixth year in non-traditional
belt of Karnataka (Fig 2).
However, between two ecological zones, Sagara recorded highest annual diameter increment in age
gradation of 4 year (1.99 cm), 7 year (1.49 cm) and 10 year (1.15 cm) which may be due to adequate monsoon
showers, lesser temperature variations, optimum relative humidity and compound interest effect of the previous
growth. While, Mundgod recorded comparatively lower annual diameter increment in age gradation of 4 years
(1.48 cm), 7 year (1.06 cm) and 10 year (0.8 cm) which may be due to low rainfall and high-temperature
variation prevailing in Mundgod (Fig. 3 and 4). This trend was in agreement with the reported literature by
Krishnan (2015), Chandrashekhar (2003) in Hevea brasiliensis.
Fig. 3: Mean seasonal diameter increment (cm) of rubber plantation in juvenile phase (7 year)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Summer Monsoon Winter
0.27
0.82
0.4
0.13
0.62
0.31
Sea
son
al
in
crem
ent
(cm
)
Sagara Mundgod
24
Shahbaz Noori and S S Inamati
Fig 4: Mean seasonal diameter increment (cm) of rubber plantation in early mature phase (10 year)
Influence of age and site factor on volume production and productivity
Hevea brasiliensis plantation of Sagara zone recorded a mean volume production of 65.04 m3 ha-1
whereas Mundgod zone recorded 35.63 m3 ha-1of mean volume production. Higher volume production was
observed in Sagara zone for 10 year (119.05 m3 ha-1) followed by 7 (57.65 m3 ha-1) and 4 year (18.44 m3 ha-1)
plantation in comparison with Mundgod zone at age 10 year (66.7 m3 ha-1), 7 year (30.82 m3 ha-1) and 4 year
(9.39 m3 ha-1) of plantation (Table 2).The productivity of Hevea brasiliensis plantation in Sagara (7.23 m3 ha-
1yr-1) was almost double the productivity recorded in Mundgod zone (3.95 m3 ha-1yr-1). Higher productivity in
Sagara for age gradation of 10 years (10.82 m3 ha-1yr-1) followed by 7 (7.20 m3 ha-1yr-1) and 4 year plantation
(3.68 m3 ha-1yr-1) which may be attributed to maximum DBH, tree height, favourable climatic conditions and
lesser temperature variations. On the contrary, comparatively lower performance of Hevea brasiliensis
plantation in Mundgod could be attributed to climatic variation resulting in lower productivity (Table 2).
Table 2: Influence of site and age on mean volume production and productivity of rubber plantation
Main plot
(M)/ Sub plot
(S)
Mean volume production (m3 ha-1) Mean volume productivity (m3 ha-1yr-1)
4 YAP 7 YAP 10 YAP Mean 4 YAP 7 YAP 10 YAP Mean
M1 - Mundgod 9.39cB 30.82bB 66.7aB 35.63B 1.86cB 3.85bB 6.14aB 3.95B
M2 - Sagara 18.44cA 57.65bA 119.05aA 65.04A 3.68cA 7.20bA 10.82aA 7.23A
Mean 13.91c 44.23b 92.87a 2.77c 5.52b 8.48a
F (M) 14002.44* P (M) <0.05 F (M) 6459.77* P (M) <0.05
F (S) 34246.90* P (S) <0.05 F (S) 6498.80* P (S) <0.05
F (M x S) 2556.78* P (M x S) <0.05 F (M x
S)
408.98* P (M x S) <0.05
*Significant at 5 per cent level
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Summer Monsoon Winter
0.17
0.63
0.35
0.1
0.45
0.25
Sea
son
al
incr
emen
t (c
m)
Sagara Mundgod
25
Productivity and Carbon Sequestration Potential of Parent Clone (Hevea brasiliensis RRII 105) In Non-
Traditional Rubber Growing Region of Karnataka
Influence of age and site factor on biomass production and carbon sequestration
The total amount of biomass produced and carbon sequestered differed significantly due to age and site
conditions. The mean total biomass was significantly higher in Sagara (97.99 t ha-1) in comparison with
Mundgod (62.51 t ha-1). Subsequently the total amount of carbon sequestered was also found to be double in
Sagara (41.15 t ha-1) in comparison with Mundgod (26.25 t ha-1).
Higher biomass productionof Hevea brasiliensis plantation was observed in Sagara zone for 10 years
(168.12 t ha-1), followed by 7 (89.40 t ha-1) and 4 years (36.46 t ha-1) plantation. On the contrary, lower
performance was recorded in Mundgod zone for 10 years (114.83 t ha-1), 7 (52.20 t ha-1) and 4 years (20.50 t ha-
1) plantation. The increasing trend of biomass in both the zones could be due to the accumulation of
photosynthates with increase in age of plantation whereas, Sagara recorded higher biomass production which
could be attributed to maximum DBH, higher rainfall and lesser temperature variations in comparison with
Mundgod which experienced low rainfall and unfavourable temperature variations (Table 3).
Table 3: Influence of age and site factor on total biomass and carbon sequestration of rubber plantation
Main plot
(M)/ Sub plot
(S)
Mean total biomass (t ha-1) Mean carbon sequestration (t ha-1)
4 YAP 7 YAP 10 YAP Mean 4 YAP 7 YAP 10 YAP Mean
M1 -
Mundgod
20.50cB 52.20bB 114.83aB 62.51 8.61cB 21.92bB 48.23aB 26.25B
M2 - Sagara 36.46cA 89.40bA 168.12aA 97.99 15.31cA 37.55bA 70.61aA 41.15A
Mean 28.48 70.80 141.47 11.96c 29.73b 59.42a
F (M) 7507.65* P (M) <0.05 F (M) 7507.66* P (M) <0.05
F (S) 25907.26* P (S) <0.05 F (S) 25907.27* P (S) <0.05
F (M x S) 697.22* P (M x S) <0.05 F (M x S) 697.22* P (M x S) <0.05
*Significant at 5 per cent level
With carbon content as 42 per cent of total biomass in Hevea brasiliensis, plantation at Sagara could
sequester a net amount of 15.31 t ha-1, 37.55 t ha-1 and 70.61 t ha-1in 4, 7 and 10 years plantation respectively,
while in Mundgod it was observed that 4, 7 and 10 years rubber plantation could sequester 8.61 t ha-1, 21.92 t
ha-1and 48.23 t ha-1, respectively (Table 3). These variations could be due to better growth forms, higher
biomass accumulation and favorable climatic factors persisting in Sagara (high rainfall zone) than Mundgod
(low rainfall zone).
Similar results were also reported by Satheesh and Jacob (2011), Ambily et al. (2012), Krishnan (2015)
and Chaudhary et al. (2016) in Hevea brasiliensis plantations.
CONCLUSION
This study provides comprehensive estimation of carbon sequestration potential of three different aged
rubber plantations growing in two contrasting ecological conditions. Rubber plantation has grown in high
rainfall zone (Sagara) achieved higher growth, biomass and carbon sequestration potential than plantations
grown in low rainfall zone (Mundgod) confirming its great potential for carbon capture and storage, making it
possible to find option to strengthen the competitiveness and sustainability of growing rubber plantations in this
region.
26
Shahbaz Noori and S S Inamati
REFERENCES
Ambily, K. K., Meenakumari, T., Jessy, M. D., Ulaganathan, A. and Nair, U. N. 2012. Carbon sequestration
potential of RRII 400 series clones of Hevea brasiliensis. Rub. Sci., 25 (2): 233-240.
Anonymous., 2016, Biology of Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber). Series of crop specific biology doc.,MoEF, New
Delhi, p. 1-2.
Chandrashekhar, T. R.; Gireesh, T.; Raj, S.; Mydin, K. K. and Mercykutyy, V. C. 2003. Girth growth of rubber
(Hevea brasiliensis) trees during the immature phase. J. Trop. For. Sci., 7(3): 399-415.
Dey, S. K., Chaudhuri, K. K., Vinod, J. P. and Sethuraj, M. R. 1996. Estimation of biomass in Hevea clones by
regression method: 2 relations of girth and biomass for mature trees. Ind. J. Nat. Rub. Res., 9 (1):
40-43.
Krishnan. B.; (2015). Growth assessment of popular clones of natural rubber under warm dry climatic
conditions of Chhattisgarh, Central India, J. Exper. Bio. Agric. Sci., 3 (2): 157- 161.
Jacob. J. 2003. Carbon sequestration potential of natural rubber plantation in: Proceedings of IRRDB
symposium on “Challenges for Natural rubber in globalization. Chiang Mai, Thailand. September 15-
17, 2003. pp. 68-74.
Satheesh, R. R. and Jocob, J. 2011. Impact of climate warming on natural rubber productivity in different agro
climatic regions of India. Nat. Rub. Res., 24 (1): 1-9.
Shorrock, V. M.; Templetons, J. K. and Lyer, G. C. 1965. Mineral nutrition, growth and nutrient cycle of Hevea
brasiliensis III. The relationship between girth and dry shoot weight. J. Rub. Res., 19: 85-92.
27
Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
Development of Microbial Inoculant for the Growth of Medicinal
Plant: Ashwaganda (Withania angustifolia)
Dinesh Kumar, Raj Pal Dalal and 1Indu Arora
Department of Horticulture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India 1Department of Vegetable Science, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India
ABSTRACT
From three locations of Haryana, 104 isolates of rhizobacteria were obtained from rhizosphere and
rhizoplane of Ashwagandha plants. Of these 36 were from rhizosphere and 68 were from rhizoplane. Isolates
were screened for their growth-promoting activities in terms of biomass production. More plant biomass than
control was produced to a varying level on inoculation with these isolates. Only four isolates (HRP-7, RRP-8,
and RRP-26 & YRP-11) produced plant biomass more than 10 g /plant. Isolate YRP-11 (16.49 g/plant)
produced highest plant biomass on inoculation followed by RRP-26 (15.86 g/plant). Isolate HRP-7 produced
least plant biomass. Useful traits like nitrogen fixation and production of growth-promoting substances like
indole acetic acid were shown by the isolates selected on the basis of higher plant biomass production.
Inoculation with selected isolates increased plant biomass more in presence of farmyard manure than without
farmyard manure. The mixture of these isolates produced biomass at par with mixed biofertilizer formulation
containing Azotobacter and phosphorus solubilizing bacteria.
INTRODUCTION
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants is presumed to have immense potential for diversification of land use
pattern, more remuneration per unit area, increased employment opportunities, optimum utilization of waste
lands, ensuring health security, the attraction of entrepreneurs and upliftment of rural/ farming communities.
The fact that modern medicines contain about 25% drugs derived from such medicinal plants and its parts, make
their production more beneficial and economical both in developing and developed countries (Ahlawat, 2004).
Haryana has wide diversity of wild medicinal plants among the hilly tracts of Shivalik and also has many agro-
climatic zones with various micro- climatic conditions.Among the various medicinal plants, Ashwagandha is an
important medicinal plant whose roots have been employed in Indian traditional systems of medicine, Ayurveda
and Unani medicines. Its natural habitat is in Rajasthan, M.P., Haryana, Punjab, H.P, and western U.P and its
root production is approximately 2000 tones, but its annual requirement is about 7000 tones. Roots of
Ashwagandha contain several alkaloids and are used for curing chronic joint diseases, mental disorders and
gynecological problems like leucorrhea. Its roots can be dried and used as tonic for hiccup, cold, cough and
female disorders. It is also an ingredient of medical ailments prescribed for curing disability and sexual
weakness in males (Sangwan et al., 2004). Farmers are getting attracted to this crop as it requires less water,
animal does not eat it and grows well in poor soils. But little information is available on its nutrient
management and even use of biofertilizers has not been studied in a scientific manner. Only few sporadic
reports are available in few crops like Isabgol, Artemisia annura, Solanum nigrum, Curcuma (turmeric),
Asparagus, Ocimum, Andrographis and Aloe veraetc. in which biofertilizers like Azotobacter, Azospirillum,
vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM), Pseudomonas and Bacillus polmyxa were used.
28
Development of Microbial Inoculant for the Growth of Medicinal Plant: Ashwaganda (Withania angustifolia)
The earlier reports suggested that the bacteria like Pseudomonas present in rhizosphere of medicinal
plants like Achyranthus, Eleacgnus and Hereclum in addition to production of phytohormones showed
antimicrobial activity (Kaur et al.,2005) and improved bioavailability of nutrients (Ratti et al., 2001 and Nuthan
et al.,2005). The rhizosphere microorganisms exert beneficial effect on plant growth as a result several activities
individually or as a combined effect. These activities include bioavailability of nutrients, production of
phytohormones and antimicrobial substances. Keeping in view the above effects of rhizosphere
microorganisms, present investigation was undertaken to Isolate and characterize rhizobacteria from
rhizosphere and rhizoplane of Ashwagandha (Withania angustifolia) and to evaluate selected efficient isolates
under pot conditions with farmyard manure.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil samples from the rhizosphere and rhizoplane of Ashwagandha (Withania angustifolia) were
collected from CCS, HAU, Hisar; Krishi Vigyan Kendra-Rampura, Rewari and Krishi Vigyan Kendra-Damla,
Yamuna Nagar. The representative soil of the field was collected from 5 different spots randomly upto 15 cm
depth, mixed well and a composite sample was used for determining pH, total nitrogen, total organic-carbon
and available phosphorus. The following steps were followed further to conduct the experiment.
A. Isolation of bacterial inoculants
For the isolation of rhizobacteria from rhizosphere and rhizoplane soil, serial dilution spread plate method
using Luria Bertani (LB) medium was used (Sambrook et al., 1989). The plates were incubated at 28±1ºC till
visible colonies appeared. Individual colonies of different bacterial isolates showing different morphological
features were picked up, purified by streaking on solidified LB agar plates. A further experiment was carried
out on Jensen’s nitrogen free media, Luria Bertani (LB) medium (Sambrook et al., 1989) and on Pikovskaya’s
media with tri-calcium phosphate.
A. Screening of rhizobacteria for plant growth-promoting activities under pot house conditions
To evaluate the plant growth-promoting activity of rhizobacteria from rhizosphere and rhizoplane in terms
of biomass production, a pot house experiment was conducted using sandy soil without addition of FYM or
chemical fertilizers. Seedlings of Ashwagandha were dipped in 2 days old culture broth for 15 minutes and
transplanted in earthen pots. Plants were harvested after growth period of 60 days and root and shoot dry weight
was determined.
a. Characterization of selected isolates
The isolates which showed higher biomass production were used for characterization in terms of possession
of useful traits like nitrogen-fixing ability in terms of nitrogenase activity, phosphate solubilizing activity by
growing them on solidified Pikovskaya’s agar medium plates containing tricalcium phosphate and production of
plant growth-promoting substances such as IAA in presence and absence of tryptophan. The efficient isolates
were then subjected to morphological and biochemical tests. .
b. Selection of best isolates on the bases of growth and biomass production of Ashwagandha under pot
house conditions with and without FYM
To study the effect of efficient isolates on growth and biomass production of Ashwagandha plant, second
experiment under pot house conditions was carried out with and without FYM. Seedlings of Ashwagandha were
dipped in 2 days old culture broth for 15 minutes and transplanted in earthen pots and with control. Plants were
harvested along with the roots after the growth period of 60 days and root and shoot dry weight was determined.
The experiment was carried out with the following treatments:
1. Control – NO FYM + No isolate
2. NO FYM + Isolate no. HRP-7
3. NO FYM + Isolate no. RRP-8
29
Dinesh Kumar, Raj Pal Dalal and Indu Arora
4. NO FYM + Isolate no. RRP-26
5. NO FYM + Isolate no. YRP-11
6. NO FYM + Isolates [HRP-7+RRP-8+RRP-26+YRP-11]
7. NO FYM + Biomix (Azotobacter + PSB)
8. FYM @5t/ha + No isolate
9. FYM @5t/ha + Isolate no. HRP-7
10. FYM @5t/ha + Isolate no. RRP-8
11. FYM @5t/ha + Isolate no. RRP-26
12. FYM @5t/ha + Isolate no. YRP-11
13. FYM @5t/ha + Isolates [HRP-7+RRP-8+RRP-26+YRP-11]
14. FYM@5 t/ha+ Biomix (Azotobacter + PSB)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Nine rhizosphere soil samples along with roots collected from three different places i.e. Hisar
(MAUUP, Deptt. of Plant Breeding CCS HAU, Hisar), Rewari (KVK, Rampura) and (KVK, Damla) Yamuna
Nagar of Haryana were analyzed for pH, percent organic carbon, total nitrogen and available phosphorus (Table
1).
Table 1: Chemical properties of soil samples collected from Ashwagandha growing areas of Haryana
Location Soil properties
Soil Texture pH Organic
Carbon (%)
Total
Nitrogen (%)
Available
P (kg/ha)
Hisar-1 Sandy loam 7.6 0.30 0.044 22
Hisar-2 Sandy loam 7.4 0.39 0.028 24
Hisar-3 Sandy loam 7.5 0.30 0.034 20
Mean 7.5 0.33 0.035 22
Rewari-1 Loamy sand 8.1 0.25 0.031 20
Rewari-2 Loamy sand 8.0 0.28 0.033 16
Rewari-3 Loamy sand 7.9 0.26 0.031 18
Mean 8.0 0.26 0.032 18
Yamunanagar-1 Silt loam 7.3 0.39 0.036 18
Yamunanagar-2 Silt loam 7.2 0.34 0.029 22
Yamunanagar-3 Silt loam 7.1 0.41 0.027 14
Mean 7.2 0.38 0.031 18
30
Development of Microbial Inoculant for the Growth of Medicinal Plant: Ashwaganda (Withania angustifolia)
The soil types were sandy loam, loamy sand and silt loam for Hisar, Rewari and Yamuna Nagar soils
respectively. The pH of the soil ranged between 7.1 to 8.1. The organic carbon varied from 0.25-0.41%, highest
being in Yamuna Nagar soils (average 0.38%) while lowest organic carbon (0.26%) was found in Rewari soils.
The total nitrogen in soil samples varied from 0.027 to 0.044%, highest mean nitrogen being in Hisar (0.035%)
soils. There was no difference in mean nitrogen of Rewari and Yamuna Nagar soils. The available P in these
soils ranged between 16-24 kg/ha of soil. The phosphorus status of these soils was in the medium range.
1. Isolation of rhizobacteria from Ashwagandha rhizosphere and rhizoplane
Bacteria were isolated using the dilution plating technique from rhizosphere and rhizoplane samples
collected from Ashwagandha plant (Withania angustifolia) from Hisar, Rewari and Yamuna Nagar areas of
Haryana using half-strength LB agar medium. Total of 104 (36 from rhizosphere and 68 from rhizoplane)
isolates were picked up from the samples and were numbered as RRS for isolates from Rewari Rhizosphere
soil, RRP Rewari rhizoplane, YRS for Rhizosphere from Yamuna Nagar, YRP for Yamuna Nagar Rhizoplane,
HRP, and HRS for isolates from Rhizoplane and Rhizosphere of Hisar soil, respectively, as tabulated below in
Table 2:
Table 2: Bacterial Isolates obtained from rhizosphere and rhizoplane of Ashwagandha from Hisar,
Rewari and Yamuna Nagar
S.
No.
Isolates Sample from Location Number of
Isolates
1. HRS-1 HRS-2 HRS-3 HRS-4 HRS-5 HRS-6 HRS-7
HRS-8 HRS-9 HRS-10 HRS-11 HRS-12
Rhizosphere Hisar 12
2. HRP-1 HRP-2 HRP-3 HRP-4 HRP-5 HRP-6 HRP-7
HRP-8 HRP-9 HRP-10 HRP-11 HRP-12 HRP-13
HRP-14 HRP-15 HRP-16 HRP-17 HRP-18 HRP-19
HRP-20 HRP-21 HRP-22
Rhizoplane Hisar 22
3. RRS-1 RRS-2 RRS-3 RRS-4 RRS-5 RRS-6 RRS-7
RRS-8 RRS-9 RRS-10 RRS-11 RRS-12 RRS-13 RRS-
14 RRS-15
Rhizosphere Rewari 15
4. RRP-1 RRP-2 RRP-3 RRP-4 RRP-5 RRP-6 RRP-7
RRP-8 RRP-7 RRP-8 RRP-9 RRP-10 RRP-11 RRP-12
RRP-13 RRP-14 RRP-15 RRP-16 RRP-17 RRP-18
RRP-19 RRP-20 RRP-21 RRP-22 RRP-23 RRP-24
RRP-25 RRP-26 RRP-27 RRP-28 RRP-29 RRP-30
RRP-31 RRP-32 RRP-33
Rhizoplane Rewari 33
5. YRS-1 YRS-2 YRS-3 YRS-4 YRS-5 YRS-6 YRS-7
YRS-8 YRS-9
Rhizosphere Yamuna
Nagar
9
6. YRP-1 YRP-2 YRP-3 YRP-4 YRP-5 YRP-6 YRP-7
YRP-8 YRP-9 YRP-10 YRP-11 YRP-12 YRP-13
Rhizoplane Yamuna
Nagar
13
Total number of isolates 104
31
Dinesh Kumar, Raj Pal Dalal and Indu Arora
It was seen that number of rhizobacteria were present in rhizoplane at all three locations. Number of
rhizobacteria in rhizoplane area than rhizosphere area may be due to the presence of various carbohydrates and
organic acids, amino acids vitamins etc. present in root exudates (Arun et. al, 2012 and Eman et al., 2014).
II. Screening of bacterial isolates for plant growth promoting activities under pot house conditions
A. Screening of isolates from Hisar soils
The biomass (root+shoot) production of Ashwagandha plant with and without inoculation of
rhizosphere and rhizoplane bacterial isolates from Hisar soils are given in Tables 2 and 3. The root biomass
production varied between 0.76 g/plant (HRS-1) and 2.80 g/plant (HRS-6) while the shoot dry weight varied
between 2.14 g/plant to 6.17 g/plant by the rhizosphere isolates HRS-1 and HRS-6 respectively (Table 3).
Table 3: Screening of isolates from Hisar - rhizosphere soil of Ashwagandha for plant growth promoting
activities
Isolate No. Dry weight (g/plant) Isolate No. Dry weight (g/plant)
Root Shoot Total Root Shoot Total
Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 HRS-7 2.36 4.63 6.99
HRS-1 0.76 2.14 2.90 HRS-8 0.85 2.70 3.55
HRS-2 2.15 4.25 6.40 HRS-9 1.37 3.35 4.72
HRS-3 2.32 4.64 6.96 HRS-10 1.03 2.90 3.93
HRS-4 2.00 5.75 7.75 HRS-11 1.14 2.84 3.98
HRS-5 2.20 5.20 7.40 HRS-12 1.42 2.66 4.08
HRS-6 2.80 6.17 8.97
The minimum root and shoot biomass produced by rhizoplane bacterial isolates varied between 0.80
g/plant and 2.63 g/plant. Maximum root biomass was achieved due to inoculation of isolate HRP-7 which was
3.51 g/plant (root) and 8.64 g/plant (shoot). The bacterial isolate no. HRP-7 produced maximum plant biomass
(root + shoot) of 12.15 g/plant as compared to 2.58 g/plant in control (Table 4).
Table 4: Screening of Isolates from Hisar-rhizoplane of Ashwagandha for Plant growth promoting
activities
Isolate No. Dry weight (g/plant) Isolate No. Dry weight (g/plant)
Root Shoot Total Root Shoot Total
Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 HRP-12 0.98 2.93 3.91
HRP-1 1.78 3.42 5.20 HRP-13 0.80 2.63 3.43
HRP-2 2.65 4.20 6.85 HRP-14 0.90 2.78 3.68
HRP-3 2.25 4.73 6.98 HRP-15 0.88 2.83 3.71
32
Development of Microbial Inoculant for the Growth of Medicinal Plant: Ashwaganda (Withania angustifolia)
HRP-4 2.43 6.40 8.83 HRP-16 1.95 5.15 7.10
HRP-5 2.84 4.22 7.06 HRP-17 0.98 2.95 3.93
HRP-6 2.51 4.34 6.85 HRP-18 0.81 2.83 3.64
HRP-7 3.51 8.64 12.15 HRP-19 0.82 2.96 3.82
HRP-8 2.17 4.66 7.13 HRP-20 2.03 4.80 6.83
HRP-9 0.90 2.75 3.65 HRP-21 0.97 2.32 3.29
HRP-10 1.06 3.11 4.17 HRP-22 1.76 3.40 5.16
HRP-11 0.93 2.88 3.81
The total biomass (root + shoot) due to the inoculation of rhizobacteria from rhizosphere of
Ashwagandha ranged between 2.90 g/plant (isolate HRS-1) and 8.97 g/plant with isolate HRS-6 (Table 4) while
in control it was only 2.50 g /plant. The dry weight of root and shoot biomass varied between 0.80 and 3.51
gram/plant produced by isolate no. HRP-13 and HRP-7 respectively. Likewise the highest and lowest shoot
biomass was produced by isolate HRP-7 and HRS-13 respectively.
B. Screening of isolates from Rewari soils
The effect of inoculation of various isolates obtained from Ashwagandha rhizosphere soil and
rhizoplane soil of Rewari on biomass production is given in Tables 5 and 6. A total of 48 isolates (15
rhizosphere + 33 rhizoplane) were screened. In control the root biomass and shoot biomass was 0.59 and 1.99
gram respectively. Maximum root biomass (2.35 g/plant) and shoot biomass (4.25 g/plant) was obtained when
isolate no. RRS-10 was inoculated from rhizosphere, and minimum root biomass, (0.80g), and shoot biomass
(2.11g/plant) was obtained when isolate RRS-1 was inoculated (Table 5).
Table 5: Screening of Isolates from Rewari-rhizosphere soil of Ashwagandha for plant growth promoting
activities
Isolate
No.
Dry weight (g/plant) Isolate
No.
Dry weight(g/plant)
Root Shoot Total Root Shoot Total
Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 RRS-8 1.30 3.52 4.82
RRS-1 0.80 2.11 2.91 RRS-9 0.98 2.41 3.39
RRS-2 1.07 3.40 4.47 RRS-10 2.35 4.25 7.60
RRS-3 1.51 3.81 5.32 RRS-11 1.44 3.89 5.33
RRS-4 2.02 4.11 6.13 RRS-12 0.86 2.44 3.30
RRS-5 1.72 3.11 4.73 RRS-13 0.98 2.56 3.54
RRS-6 1.77 3.12 4.89 RRS-14 0.92 2.67 3.59
RRS-7 1.60 3.86 5.46 RRS-15 1.15 3.33 4.48
33
Dinesh Kumar, Raj Pal Dalal and Indu Arora
Among the isolates from rhizoplane of Ashwagandha from Rewari area the isolate RRP-26 produced
highest root biomass (3.86g/plant) and shoot biomass (12.00g/plant).Followed by isolate RRP-8 which produced
3.16g/plant root biomass and 10.23 g/plant shoot biomass (Table 6).
Table 6: Screening of Isolates from Rewari rhizoplane of Ashwagandha for Plant growth promoting
activities
Isolate No. Dry weight (g/plant) Isolate No. Dry weight (g/plant)
Root Shoot Total Root Shoot Total
Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 RRP-17 1.68 3.64 5.32
RRP-1 1.12 2.50 3.62 RRP-18 1.24 3.31 4.55
RRP-2 1.11 2.58 3.69 RRP-19 1.26 2.41 3.67
RRP-3 1.21 2.59 3.80 RRP-20 1.15 2.80 3.95
RRP-4 1.12 2.68 3.80 RRP-21 1.20 2.60 3.80
RRP-5 2.10 4.05 6.25 RRP-22 1.14 2.83 3.97
RRP-6 2.35 6.73 8.08 RRP-23 1.12 2.64 3.76
RRP-7 1.80 2.85 4.65 RRP-24 1.28 3.32 4.60
RRP-8 3.16 10.23 13.79 RRP-25 1.18 2.45 3.63
RRP-9 1.03 2.40 3.43 RRP-26 3.86 12.00 15.86
RRP-10 1.24 3.28 4.52 RRP-27 1.28 3.44 4.72
RRP-11 2.73 5.66 8.39 RRP-28 1.20 2.85 4.05
RRP-12 1.00 2.30 3.30 RRP-29 1.20 3.20 4.40
RRP-13 1.12 2.88 4.00 RRP-30 1.37 2.43 3.80
RRP-14 1.47 3.43 4.90 RRP-31 1.25 3.11 4.16
RRP-15 1.18 2.88 3.96 RRP-32 1.19 3.44 5.63
RRP-16 1.34 2.43 3.77 RRP-33 1.28 3.67 4.95
The total plant biomass of Ashwagandha as a result of the inoculation of rhizoplane isolates from
Rewari varied between 2.40g with isolates RRP-9 and 12.00 g with isolate RRP-26. The total plant biomass also
showed same trend. Therefore taking into consideration the total plant biomass the isolates RRP-26 and RRP-8
were selected for further investigation from the isolates from Rewari location.
C. Screening of isolates from Yamuna Nagar soils
A total number of 22 isolates, 9 from rhizosphere and 13 from the rhizoplane of Ashwagandha from
Yamuna Nagar were screened for production of plant biomass (Table 7 and 8). The root biomass production
varied between 0.80 to 2.83 g/plant in case of rhizosphere soil isolates while in rhizoplane isolates the root
biomass production varied from 2.20 g/plant to 5.35 g/plant. The total plant biomass ranged from 3.00g/plant
to 8.18 g/plant among rhizosphere isolates. Among the rhizosphere isolates highest root biomass (2.83 g/plant)
was obtained with isolate no YRS-1 while the lowest root biomass (0.80g/plant) was obtained with isolate
YRS-7 (Table 7).
34
Development of Microbial Inoculant for the Growth of Medicinal Plant: Ashwaganda (Withania angustifolia)
Table 7: Screening of Isolates from Yamuna Nagar rhizosphere soil of Ashwagandha for plant growth
promoting activities
Isolate
No.
Dry weight (g/plant) Isolate
No.
Dry weight (g/plant)
Root Shoot Total Root Shoot Total
Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 YRS-5 2.58 4.95 7.54
YRS-1 2.83 5.35 8.18 YRS-6 0.90 2.36 3.26
YRS-2 2.68 4.68 7.36 YRS-7 0.80 2.20 3.00
YRS-3 1.30 2.90 4.20 YRS-8 1.00 2.67 3.67
YRS-4 2.13 4.88 7.01 YRS-9 1.15 3.25 4.40
The highest root biomass (4.73g/plant) was obtained when isolate YRP-11 was inoculated while the
minimum (1.04g/plant) was obtained with isolate YRP-13. Among rhizoplane bacterial isolates, the isolate no
YRP-11 produced maximum dry weight (10.66g/plant), while minimum was produced by bacterial isolate no.
YRP-13 (Table 8).
Table 8: Screening of Isolates from Yamuna Nagar rhizoplane of Ashwagandha for plant growth
promoting activities
Isolate No. Dry weight (g/plant) Isolate
No.
Dry weight (g/plant)
Root Shoot Total Root Shoot Total
Control 0.59 1.99 2.58 YRP-7 4.29 7.52 11.81
YRP-1 2.96 4.86 7.82 YRP-8 3.74 5.80 9.54
YRP-2 3.31 5.95 9.26 YRP-9 3.03 5.20 8.23
YRP-3 3.03 5.23 8.26 YRP-10 2.99 4.16 7.15
YRP-4 2.91 2.89 5.80 YRP-11 5.73 10.66 16.49
YRP-5 3.89 6.17 10.06 YRP-12 1.04 3.17 4.21
YRP-6 3.81 6.08 9.99 YRP-13 1.81 2.19 3.00
Based on plant biomass production by rhizoplane isolates, isolate no. YRP-11 produced maximum
plant biomass (15.49 g/plant), hence this isolate was selected for further studies. This pattern of more increase
in biomass due to the inoculation of rhizoplane isolates may be due to reason that carbohydrate, organic acids,
amino acids and hormones may be excreted from the roots, as well as synthesis of growth hormones by the
bacterial isolates.
35
Dinesh Kumar, Raj Pal Dalal and Indu Arora
II. Characterization of selected isolates for useful traits
All the 104 bacterial isolates obtained from Ashwagandha rhizosphere as well as rhizoplane were
screened for their plant growth promoting activity in terms of biomass production. Based on higher plant
biomass (root + shoot) at least one isolate each from one location i.e. Hisar, Rewari and Yamuna Nagar were
selected to examine the presence of various useful traits like nitrogen fixing ability (acetylene reduction
Table 9: Effect of efficient isolates on biomass production of Ashwagandha under pot house conditions
with and without FYM
Treatments
Dry weight (g/plant) % increase
due to FYM
FYM
No FYM FYM
(5 t / ha) Control 7.12 7.88 10.7
(Ro
ot+
Sho
ot)
To
tal D
ry W
t.(g
/pla
nt
No. of Samples
Rhizosphere Total Dry Wt.(g/plant) Production
Hisar
Rewari
Yamunanagar
Tota
l D
ry W
t.(g
/pla
nt)
No. of Samples
Rhizoplane: Total Dry Wt.(g/plant) Production
Hisar
Rewari
Yamunanagar
36
Development of Microbial Inoculant for the Growth of Medicinal Plant: Ashwaganda (Withania angustifolia)
Isolate-HRP-7 8.03
(12.8)
9.30
(18.0)
15.8
Isolate-RRP-8 8.33
(17.0)
9.54
(21.1)
14.5
Isolate-RRP-26 8.56
(20.2)
9.80
(24.4)
14.5
Isolate-YRP-11 8.23
(15.6)
9.29
(17.9)
12.9
Mixture of Isolates
(HRP-7+ RRP-8+ RRP-26+ YRP-11)
8.82
(23.9)
10.20
(29.4)
15.6
Biomix (Azotobacter
Mac-27+MSX-9+ PSB)
8.95
(25.7)
10.30
(30.7)
15.1
CD at 5% FYM 0.304
CD at 5% Inoculation( I ) 0.568
CD at 5% Interaction(FYM x I) NS
Figures in parenthesis indicate % increase due to inoculation over respective uninoculated control
activity), phosphate solubilization and production of plant growth promoting substances like indole acetic acid.
The four efficient isolates selected for this study were (1) HRP-7, (2) RRP-8, (3) RRP-26 and (4) YRP-11
(Table 9). After examination of above traits, these isolates were examined for their effect on plant biomass
production with and without addition of organic matter (Farmyard manure @ 5 tons/ha.).The efficient bacterial
isolates which produced higher biomass atleast one bacterial isolate from each location i.e. Hisar, Rewari and
Yamuna Nagar was selected for determining effect on plant growth in terms of biomass production in the
absence and presence of farmyard manure @ 5 tons/ha under pot house conditions (Table 9). It was observed
that the biomass production was 7.12 g/plant without the addition of FYM while with addition of FYM it was
7.88 g/plant which is about 10.7% higher than without FYM. Among four bacterial isolates, isolate no. RRP-26
produced biomass of 8.56 g/plant which was higher by 20.2% than control, followed by bacterial isolate
no.RRP-8 which produced 8.33 g/ plant, 17.0% higher than the control. The bacterial isolate no. YRP-11 though
produced higher biomass (8.03 g) but the increase was least among all isolates (12.8%) over uninoculated
control. It was interesting to note that the combination of all the four bacterial isolates HRP-7+ RRP-8+ RRP-
26+ YRP-11, produced highest biomass 8.82 g/plant which was 23.8% higher than the uninoculated control.
The effect of biomix (Azotobacter strain Mac 27 + MSX-9 and phosphate solubilizing bacteria) produced
biomass of 8.95 g/plant (25.7%) higher than the uninoculated
The selected bacterial isolates were evaluated for growth and biomass production with farm yard
manure at 5 tonnes/ha. The mixture of all the four bacterial isolates was also used along with Biomix ( a
mixture of standard Azotobacter chroococcum a phosphate solubilizing bacteria) as check for comparison.
Increased plant biomass was seen when the bacterial isolates were inoculated singly or as mixture with and
without farm yard manure. The increase ranged between 12.8 – 23.9% without farm yard manure and 18.0 to
29.4% with FYM. The increase in biomass production with mixture of selected bacterial isolates was at par with
biomix. The treatments of inoculation of bacterial isolates and the use of farm yard manure gave significantly
higher biomass yields but the interaction of both was non-significant.
CONCLUSION
Numbers of isolates were obtained from rhizoplane (68) than rhizosphere (36) of Ashwagandha. A total
of 104 bacterial isolates obtained from rhizosphere and rhizoplane of Ashwagandha (Withania angustifolia)
37
Dinesh Kumar, Raj Pal Dalal and Indu Arora
increased plant biomass (root + shoot) on inoculation in sandy soil without FYM. It was observed that efficient
isolates which increased biomass belonged to rhizoplane. Characterization of the efficient isolates indicated that
bacteria possessed useful traits like nitrogen fixation, production of growth promoting substances like Indole Acetic
Acid. The mixture of efficient isolates increased more plant biomass when inoculated with farmyard manure
than without farmyard manure and individual isolates. By inoculating rhizobacteria the plant biomass of
Ashwagandha (Withania angustifolia) can be increased and similar studies may be conducted in other medicinal
plants as well as other crops in Horticulture and Agronomy for sustainable growth and development of plants
and organic crop production. It was also seen in several investigations that use of rhizobacteria or rhizosphere
microorganisms like Azotobacter, Pseudomonasetc along with organic manures, increased the germination,
plant growth and plant biomass. The growth attributing characters also improved by the use of microbial
inoculants and thus role of biofertilizers has immense potential for sustainable agricultural development.
REFERENCES
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Present status and future strategies. In “Proc. Natl. Seminar on Research and Developments in
Production, Protection, Quality, Processing and Marketing of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants” held on
27-29, Feb. 2004, at CCSHAU Hisar p 47.
Arun, B., Gopinath, B., Sharma, S. (2012). Plant growth promoting potential of bacteria isolate on N-free media
from rhizosphere of Cassia occidentalis. World Journal of Microbial Biotech., 28(9):2849-57.
Balakumbahan, R.; Sadasakthi, A.; Kumar, S. and Saravanan, A. 2005. Effects of inorganic and biofetilizers on
biomass and alkaloids yield of Keelanelli (Phyllanthus amarus). J. Medicinal and Aromatic Pl. Sc.,
27(3): 478-482.
Eman, A. Ahmed; Enas, A.Hassan; K.M.K. El Tobgy; Ramdhan, E.M. (2014). Evaluation of rhizobacteria of
some medicinal plants for plant growth promotion and biological control. Annals of Agriculture Science.
59 (2):273-280.
Gulati, S. P. 2004. Organic farming system for medicinal and aromatic plant production. In “Proc. Natl.
Seminar on Research and Developments in Production, Protection, Quality Processing and Marketing of
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants” held on 27-29, Feb. 2004, at CCSHAU Hisar p 11.
Kavitha, C. and Vadivel, E. 2006. Effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on yield and yield attributing
characters of Mucunapruiens. J. Medicinal and Aromatic Pl. Sci. 28: 18-22.
Kaur, M.; Seema Devi and Ramesh Chand 2005. Characterization of Pseudomonas species isolated from the
rhizosphere of medicinal plants for plant growth promoting properties. In: Proc. Natl. Seminar on Role
of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha of Medicine” held on 4-5, March
2004 at CCSHAU Hisar p 127.
Kedia, S. and Kasera P. K. 2006. Effect of different nutritional treatments on growth performance and biomass
production in Phyllanthus fraternus (Euphorbiaceae).). J. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences. 28: 531-
534.
Ratti, N.; Kumar, S.; Verma, H. N. and Gautam, S.P. 2001. Improvement in bioavailability of Tricalcium
phosphate to Cymbopogonmartini var. motia by rhizobacteria, AMF and Azospirillum inoculation.
Microbiol. Res. 156: 145.
Sambrook, J.; Fritscgh, E.F. and Maniatis, T. 1989. Molecular cloning, A laboratory manual,Cold Spring
Harbor N.Y.
Nuthan, D.; Vasundhara, M., Kumaravelu, R. and Biradar, S. L. 2005. Cost benefit analysis in sweet worm
wood under organic cultivation. In “Proc. of Natl. Seminar on Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in
Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha of Medicine” held on 4-5, March 2005 at CCSHAU Hisar p 132.
Puttanna, K.; Rao, E.V.S. P. and Ganesh 2006. Effect of inorganic and organic sources of nutrients on yield and
nutrition of Centellaasiatica. J. Medicinal and Aromatic Pl. Sci. 28: p.527-530.
38
Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
Survivality of Soil Bio-agents in Presence of Organic Amendment in
Arid Conditions of Rajasthan, India
Nitin Chawla, Vipen Kumar and R K Bagri
Rajasthan Agriculture Research Institute (SKN Agricultural University: Jobner), Durgapura,
Jaipur, India
ABSTRACT
The effect of three organic amendments viz., farm yard manure, vermicompost and mustard cake on
survival of bioagents . The population of four bioagents i.e. Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma viride,
Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis significantly higher in three amended soil as compared to un
amended control. The four respective bioagents were enumerated in selective media at monthly intervals up to
180 days of soil application of bio-agents. The recovery of this bio-agent was found at 30 days after application
as compared to 0 day i.e. immediate after soil application. The survival of the bioagent was relatively better in
mustard cake amended soil as compared to farm yard manure and vermicompost amended soils. The population
of T. viride was considerably less in unamended soil as compared to amended soils. The population of P.
fluorescens was considerably higher in amended soils as compared to control i.e. unamended soil. The
population of this bacterium in soil gradually decreased from 30 days of soil applications onwards up to 180
days. The survival of the bacterium was higher in mustard cake and vermicompost amended soil as compared to
soils amended with farm yard manure. Statistical analysis of data revealed that a perusal of the data given in
table 4 showed that mustard cake and vermicompost was slightly better for survival of B. subtilis in comparison
to farm yard manure. The survival of B. subtilis was relatively less in unamended control in comparison to
amended soils.
Keyword: Bioagents, Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma viride, pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus
subtilis organic amendment, survival, population
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Effect of three organic amendments viz., farm yard manure, vermicompost and mustard the cake on the
survival of bioagents i.e. T. harzianum, T. viride, P. fluorescens and B. subtilis in soil under green house
conditions. For this purpose talc based formulations of bioagents were applied in organic amended soils. Bareja
and Lodha (2002) studied the survival of Trichoderma harzianum in different composts prepared from on-farm
wastes, farm yard manure and soil. Influence the population of microbial antagonists in presence of organic
amendment in soil reported by (Chattopadhaya, 1999; Bora, 2000).
Effect of organic amendments on survival of bioagents in soil
Effect of three organic amendments viz., farm yard manure, vermicompost and mustard cake
on the survival of four test bioagents i.e. T. harzianum, T. viride, P. fluorescens and B. subtilis under
green house condition. The earthen pots were filled with natural field soil and amended with farm
yard manure at 20 g kg-1 soil, vermicompost at 10 g kg-1 soil and mustard cake at 2 g kg-1 soil. Talc
based formulations of four respective bioagents were applied to amended soil at 2 g kg-1 soil. In case
39
Survivality of Soil Bio-agents in Presence of Organic Amendment in Arid Conditions of Rajasthan, India
of control the test bioagents were added separately to unamended soil. Each treatment was replic ated
thrice. The pots were irrigated regularly.
The population of four respective bioagents present in amended and unamended soils was enumerated
immediately after the application of bioagent and at monthly interval up to eight months of addition
to soil. The details of soil processing i.e. serial dilutions and media used for determining the
population dynamics of the individual bioagent are described below.
Enumeration of T. harzianum and T. viride from soil
The experiment was conducted at Rajasthan Agricultural Research Instiyute Durgapura Jaipur in year
2016-17. Soil samples were collected using cork borer from each pot, mixed thoroughly and air-dried in
shade for 48 hours. 10 g soil was added in 90 ml sterilized water in Erlenmeyer flask and shaked
gently for 4-5 minutes. Serial dilutions were made from stock soil suspension upto 107 add 0.2 ml soil
suspension of suitable dilution (depending on stage of soil sampling) was added to the surface of
Trichoderma selective medium (Elad and Chet, 1983) and spread uniform with help of glass spreader.
The inoculated petridishes were incubated at 250C for 5 to 6 days and the T. harzianum and T. viride
colonies developed were counted. Techniques for mass multiplication of Trichoderma spp. was
reported (Kousalyagangadharan and Jeyarajan, 1988; Papavizas, 1985; Panicker and
Jeyarajan; 1993).
Enumeration Pseudomonas fluorescens from soil
As described above, soil samples were collected mixed thoroughly and air-dried in shade for
48 hours. Stock soil solution was prepared by taking 10 g soil in 90 ml sterile distilled in Erlenmeyer
flask and shaken gently for 2 to 4 minutes. Serial dilutions were prepared from the stock soil
suspension upto 1014. A 0.2 ml soil suspension of suitable dilution, depending on time of soil
sampling was added on surface of Pseudomonas agar fluorescence (PAF) media in Petri dishes and
spread uniformly with the help of glass spreader. The inoculated Petri-dishes were incubated at 270C
for 24 hours and the colonies appeared were counted.
Enumeration of Bacillus subtilis from soil
The method of collection of soil samples and preparation of serial dilutions was similar to that
of Pseudomonas fluorescens. Serial dilutions were prepared up to 1012 using the stock soil
suspension. In this case also a 0.2 ml suspension was transferred to surface of nutrient agar medium in
petridishes and spread uniformly with the help of glass spreader. The inoculated petridishes were
incubated 250C for 48 hours and the colonies appeared were counted.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Survival of bioagent in soil
The four respective bioagents were enumerated in selective media at monthly interval up to 180 days of
soil application of bioagents. The population of T. harzianum was significantly higher in soils amended with
farm yard manure, vermicompost or mustard cake. The recovery of this bioagent was higher at 30 days of
applications compared to 0 days i.e. immediate after soil application. The population of the bioagent started
reducing after 60 days of soil application i.e. mid-January. The population was gradually reduced during the
months of February, March, April and May i.e. up to 180 days of soil application in all the amended soils and
control. The survival of the bioagent was relatively better in mustard cake amended soil as compared to farm
yard manure and vermicompost amended soils. Whereas, survival of T. harzianum was relatively less as
compared to amended soils all through out the study i.e. up to 180 days of soil application. Saju 2002; reported
T. harzianum using organic matter enhances the farm production (Table 1).
40
Nitin Chawla, Vipen Kumar and R K Bagri
Table 1: Effect of organic amendments on population of Trichoderma harzianum in soil (CFU g-1 soil)
under green house condition
Soil
amendments
Dose
(g kg-1
soil)
Days after application
0 Day
(x 106)
30 Day
(x 106)
60 Day
(x 105)
90 Day
(x 105)
120 Day
(x 104)
150 Day
(x 104)
180 Day
(x 103)
Farm yard
manure
20 18.25 24.25 28.75 25.00 12.25 10.00 22.50
Vermicompost 10 19.50 23.75 25.50 22.50 10.50 8.25 20.75
Mustard cake 2 20.75 24.75 33.75 29.50 13.25 11.50 24.00
Control
(without
organic
amendment)
-
19.00 17.25 15.00 11.50 5.75 3.25 4.75
S.Em ± 0.62 0.25 0.62 0.69 0.26 0.31 0.42
CD (P=0.05) NS 0.77 1.91 2.13 0.80 0.94 1.30
The population of T. viride was significantly higher in three amended soil as compared to unamended
control like T. harzianum, the population of T. viride in soil increased in all the three amended soils and also in
control at 30 days of applications. In the case of T. viride also, the population level started declining after 60
days of soil application. A gradual decrease in population of this bioagent was recorded up to 180 days of soil
application i.e. during mid May in amended as well as in unamended soils. This bioagent survives better in
mustard cake or vermicompost amended soils in comparison to farm yard manure amended soil. In this case,
also survival was considerably less in unamended control soil as compared to amended soils (Table 2).
Table 2: Effect of organic amendments on population of Trichoderma viride in soil (CFU g-1 soil) under
green house condition
Soil
amendments
Dose
(g kg-1
soil)
Days after application
0 Day
(x 106)
30 Day
(x 106)
60 Day
(x 105)
90 Day
(x 105)
120 Day
(x 104)
150 Day
(x 104)
180
Day
(x
103)
Farm yard
manure
20 15.25 21.00 22.00 21.00 9.50 6.25 18.50
Vermicompost 10 20.00 28.25 35.75 27.25 13.00 10.75 22.50
41
Survivality of Soil Bio-agents in Presence of Organic Amendment in Arid Conditions of Rajasthan, India
Mustard cake 2 23.00 27.25 36.50 29.50 12.50 9.00 25.75
Control
(without
organic
amendment)
-
18.00 17.25 15.50 12.25 7.00 4.00 6.00
S.Em ± 1.81 0.30 0.59 0.55 0.20 0.44 0.38
CD
(P=0.05)
NS 0.92 1.82 1.69 0.63 1.37 1.16
The population of P. fluorescens was considerably higher in amended soils as compared to control i.e.
unamended soil. The population of this bacterium in the soil gradually decreased from 30 days of soil
applications onwards up to 180 days. The decreased in the population of this bacterium was faster after 90 days
i.e. March, April and May irrespective of type of amendment used. The survival of the bacterium was higher in
mustard cake and vermicompost amended soils comparison to soils amended with farm yard manure. Further,
the recovery of P. fluorescens was quite low in unamended soil as compared to amended soils Raj and Kapoor,
1996; Rajappan et al, 2002; Srivastava and Sinha, 1971 (Table 3).
Table 3: Effect of organic amendments on population of Pseudomonas fluorescens in soil (CFU g-1 soil)
under green house condition
Soil
amendments
Dose
(g kg-1
soil)
Days after application
0 Day
(x 1014)
30 Day
(x 1012)
60 Day
(x
1011)
90 Day
(x 1011)
120
Day
(x 109)
150
Day
(x 107)
180
Day
(x
106)
Farm yard
manure
20 16.25 20.25 23.75 12.75 11.50 13.00 14.75
Vermicompost 10 20.75 26.00 28.00 14.25 13.25 15.25 17.50
Mustard cake 2 22.25 29.50 29.25 16.25 15.50 17.00 22.00
Control
(without organic
amendment)
-
18.00 16.00 15.00 13.00 8.00 5.25 6.00
S.Em ± 1.47 0.86 0.40 0.46 0.38 0.49 0.76
CD (P=0.05) NS 2.66 1.22 1.42 1.16 1.51 2.34
42
Nitin Chawla, Vipen Kumar and R K Bagri
Table 4: Effect of organic amendments on population of Bacillus subtilis in soil (CFU g-1 soil) under
green house condition
Soil
amendments
Dose
(g kg-1
soil)
Days after application
0 Day
(x 1012)
30 Day
(x 1012)
60 Day
(x 1011)
90 Day
(x 1011)
120 Day
(x 109)
150 Day
(x 107)
180 Day
(x 106)
Farm yard
manure
20 13.75 18.50 19.25 10.75 8.75 10.25 14.00
Vermicompost 10 14.25 19.00 20.75 11.25 9.50 8.75 12.75
Mustard cake 2 14.75 19.25 21.50 11.75 10.75 11.00 16.75
Control
(without
organic
amendments)
-
13.00 12.00 11.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 5.00
S.Em ± 0.79 0.19 0.23 0.22 0.23 0.18 0.34
CD
(P=0.05)
NS 0.59 0.70 0.67 0.70 0.55 1.04
43
Nitin Chawla, Vipen Kumar and R K Bagri
The pattern of survival of B. subtilis in amended and unamended soils was similar to that of P.
fluorescens. In this case, also the population was enhanced at 30 days of soil applications and decline gradually
till 90 days i.e. mid-February. The magnitude of reduction of population was higher after 120 days i.e. mid-
March and continued to further decline till mid-May i.e. up to 180 days of bioagent application. A perusal of the
data given in table 4 showed that mustard cake and vermicompost was slightly better for survival of B. subtilis
in comparison to farm yard manure. The survival of B. subtilis was relatively less in unamended control in
comparison to amended soils.
CONCLUSION
The study conducted the use of four bioagents populations in presence of three amended soil showed
different results. The survivality of bioagents in arid conditions was relatively better in mustard cake amended
soil as compared to farm yard manure and vermi compost amended soil. The population of Tricoderma viride
was less in unamended soils. Pseudomonas fluorescens population was higher in amended soil and Bacillus
subtilis survived better in mustard cake and vermi compost amended soil as compared to farm yard manure.
REFERENCES
Bora, L.C., Das, B.C. and Das, M. 2000. Influence of microbial antagonists and soil amendments on bacterial
wilt severity and yield of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Indian J. Agri. Sci. 70 (6): 390-392.
Chattopadhyay, N., Kaiser, S.A.K.M. and Sengupta, P.K. 1999. Effect of organic amendment of soil on the
population of three soil-borne fungal pathogens of chickpea. Ann. Pl. Protec. Sci. 7 (2): 243-245.
Elad, Y. and Chet, I. 1983. Improved selective media for isolation of Trichoderma spp. and Fusarium spp.
Phytoparasitica 11: 55-58
Kousalyagangadharan and Jeyarajan, R. 1988. Techniques for mass multiplication of Trichoderma viride pers.
Ex. Fr. And T. harzianum Rifai. National seminar on management of crop diseases with plant products
Biological Agents. TNAU, A.C. & R.L. Madurai, 32-33pp.
Papavizas, G.C. 1985. Trichoderma and Gliocladium biology, ecology and potential for biocontrol. Ann. Rev.
Phytopath. 23: 23-54.
Panicker, S. and R. Jeyarajan. 1993. Mass multiplication of biocontrol agent Trichoderma spp. Indian J. Mycol.
Pl. Pathol. 23: 328-330.
Raj, N. and Kapoor, J.J. 1996. Effect of oil cake amendment of soil on tomato wilt caused by Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici. Indian Phytopath. 49 (4): 355-361.
Rajappan, K., Vidhyasekaran, P., Sethuraman, K. and Baskaran, T.L. 2002. Development of powder and
capsule formulation of Pseudomonas fluorescence strain pf-1 for control of banana wilt. Zeitschrift fur
Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pfanzenschutz 109 (1) : 80-87.
Saju, K.A., Anandaraj, M. and Sharma, Y.R. 2002. On farm production of Trichoderma harzianum using
organic matter. Indian Phytopath. 55: 277-281.
Sree Kumar, B. 1994. Production and export of seed spices with special reference to Rajasthan. Spices India,7 :
6-8.
Srivastava, U.S. and Sinha, S. 1971. Effect of various soil amendments on the wilt of coriander (Coriandrum
sativum L.) Indian J. Agric. Sci. 41 (9): 779-782.
44
Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
Effect of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated
Coconut Mills on Epiphytic Microflora and Yield of Gherkin and
Chrysanthemum
S Umesha, B Narayanaswamy and 1N Susheelamma
Department of Agricultural Microbiology, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru-65, Karnataka, India 1Centre of Rural Development, Jnanabharathi, Bangalore University, Bengaluru, India
ABSTRACT
The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effect of residual coconut water and spent
wash from desiccated coconut mills on epiphytic microflora and yield of gherkin and chrysanthemum. The
microorganisms, nutrients and growth hormones present in the residual coconut water and spent wash were
identified using standard tests. A pot experiment was carried with different concentrations such as 10, 15 and 20
per cent residual coconut water and spent wash. The phyllosphere and rhizosphere microorganisms were
significantly higher in 10 per cent spent wash so also various growth parameters. The concentrations showed
positive effect was further evaluated under field conditions. A combination of 20 per cent residual coconut
water and 5 per cent spent wash showed better plant growth and yield (11.24 t ha-1). A higher population of
beneficial rhizosphere microflora such as Azotobacter sp. (13.60 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil ), phosphate solubilizing
bacteria (9.40 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil) and Pseudomonas sp. (17.30 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil) at 90 days after sowing
in gherkin. In chrysanthemum, 10 per cent spent wash showed significantly higher plant growth ,flower yield
(10.40 t ha-1) and rhizosphere microflora at 120 days after planting viz., Azotobacter sp. (11.40 x 105 cfu g-1
of soil) , phosphate solubilizing bacteria (8.43 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil ) and Pseudomonas sp. (20.70 x 105 cfu g-1
of soil). Phyllosphere microorganisms were more in treatment with 5 per cent spent wash in both the crops. The
study revealed that the discharged residual coconut water and spent wash from desiccated coconut industry
contain nutrients and plant growth promoting substances. Hence, residual coconut water and spent wash
enhance the growth of plant associated microorganisms which in turn enhance the growth and yield of gherkin
and chrysanthemum.
Keywords: Residual coconut water, Phyllosphere, Rhizosphere, Gherkin, Chrysanthemum
INTRODUCTION
India consists of around 266 desiccated coconuts (DC) units, with an average capacity varying from
10,000 to 50,000 nuts per day. Karnataka consists of around 45-50 DC units mainly located in coconut growing
areas (Source: Coconut Development Board, 2010). The desiccated industries produce lot of waste water,
including 1500 to 2000 liters of coconut water, 7000 to 8000 liters of washed water and about 800 to 1000 liters
of pasteurized water during the processing which is let out as an effluent from desiccated coconut powder
producing industries having a capacity of 1000 kg per day (Industrial pollution control guidelines, 1993).
Gherkin and chrysanthemum are quick income generating, export-oriented and popular commercial
crops and are cultivated in poly house as well as in open field. Now a day’s locally available organic inputs like
coconut water and coconut milk are gaining popularity in cultivation of these crops that too in peri-urban Effect
45
of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated Coconut Mills on Epiphytic Microflora and Yield
of Gherkin and Chrysanthemum
areas. Coconut water is traditionally used as a growth supplement in plant tissue culture and is the best medium
for microbial growth. The leaf associated microbes were stimulated by application of exogenous nutrients like
coconut water. The presence of carbohydrates, amino acids and organic acids in coconut water acts as nutrient
source for microorganisms and auxin content of coconut water stimulates the release of saccharides from the
plant cell wall and microbes utilized these compounds (Goldberg, 1980, Van der wal and Leveau, 2011). The
growth promoting substances in coconut water plays a major role in formation of root architecture and
photosynthetic activity of plants. Due to this effect, the plant produces sugars, amino acids and other organic
acids in the form of root exudates in the rhizosphere. These exudates favoured colonization of microorganisms
in the rhizosphere (Farhatullah et al., 2007).
Residual coconut milk and spent wash are the major source of organic load in the effluent discharged
from the desiccated coconut industries. This effluent disposal may lead to eutrophication of natural water bodies
affecting aquatic and terrestrial biological systems (Chanakyaet al., 2015). The effluent is a source of macro and
micronutrients, plant growth promoting substance that could be utilized for crop growth. Attempts have been
made to utilize residual coconut water and spent wash in crop production.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The mineral and hormone content of desiccated coconut water, their effect on growth, phyllosphere and
rhizosphere microflora of gherkin under glasshouse conditionstudy were published by Umesha and
Narayanaswamy, 2016 and 2017.The microorganisms present in the residual coconut milk and spent wash and
foliar spray of these effluents on growth, phyllosphere and rhizosphere microflora of chrysanthemum under
glasshouse condition are furnished in this paper.
Enumeration of microorganisms in residual coconut water and spent wash
The enumeration and isolation of microorganisms from residual coconut water and spent wash was
carried out by using serial dilution and plate count method (Bunt and Rovira, 1955).
Morphological and biochemical characterization of isolated microorganisms
The morphological characteristics such as colony morphology, elevation, opacity, cell shape, gram
reaction were described following the descriptions given by Pelezar (1957) and Schaad (1992).All biochemical
tests viz., catalase test, indole, methyl red, Voges Proskauer test, citrate utilization were carried out as per the
methods described by the Pelezar (1957) and laboratory guide for identification of bacteria (Schaad, 1992).
Details of pot experiment with chrysanthemum (Dendranthemaindicum) as test crop under glass house
condition
Pot culture experiment was conducted in the glass house at Department of Agricultural Microbiology,
UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru. Yellow gold variety of chrysanthemum (seedlings procured from the S. L. N. V.
Nursery Pvt. Ltd.) cultivar were used in the study. The crops were sown on 25th January, 2015.
The soil used for the pot experiment was sourced from forest of GKVK, Bengaluru, which was sandy
loam in texture. The soil was sieved and 2 kg of soil was filled into 3 kg capacity poly bags to raise
chrysanthemum seedlings. The bags were punched with 2 or 3 holes at the bottom to drain out excess water.
The recommended dose of well-decomposed FYM was applied and cured for one week. At the time of sowing
the fifty per cent of nitrogen, entire quantity phosphorus and potassium fertilizers were applied in the form of
urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash to the potting mixture and two seedlings of chrysanthemum
were transplanted per pot and soil moisture was maintained. The remaining fifty per cent of nitrogen was
applied in the form of urea at 20 days after transplanting. The poly bags were kept on cement platforms (Plate
1) in a randomized design under glass house and maintained up to 60 days.
Freshly collected residual coconut water and spent wash were sprayed at the vegetative stage of the
crops. Two sprays were given at 30 and 45 days after transplanting as per treatment requirements. The plant
46
S Umesha, B Narayanaswamy and N Susheelamma
height, number of leaves, number of branches, enumeration of phyllosphere and rhizosphere microorganisms at
15, 30, 45, 60 days after sowing and dry weight of shoot and root were recorded after harvest of crops.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Isolation of microorganisms in residual coconut water and spent wash
In this experiment, microorganisms were isolated from residual coconut water and spent wash samples
(Table 1). The results indicated that spent wash recorded microbial population viz., bacteria (45.33 and 29.67x
105 cfu/ml), yeast (15.11and9.89 x 104 cfu/ml), actinobacteria (15.33 and 10.00 x 103 cfu/ml), free living N2
fixer (4.33and2.67x 105 cfu/ml), Pseudomonas sp. (9.67 and 3.33 x 105 cfu/ml), PSB (10.33 and 7.33 x 105
cfu/ml), coliforms (15.00 and 7.67 x 105 cfu/ml). This result explained that, the reaped nuts collected on the
ground or from coconut garden or some nuts were severely damaged during harvesting or transport, permitting
the seepage of coconut water, an ideal carrier of organisms (Nandana and Werellagama, 2001). The initial
contaminants must have been introduced during the washing of de-shelled coconut pieces. The water used in
washing, the utensils that came in contact with coconut milk, coconut shell, air and handlers are possible
sources of microorganisms (Priyanthi, 1997 and Appaiah et al. 2015).
Control (only water) 10 % Spent wash 20 % Residual coconut water
Plate 1: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on plant growth of chrysanthemum under glass
house condition
Bacteria Yeast Free living N2 fixer
47
Effect of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated Coconut Mills on Epiphytic Microflora and
Yield of Gherkin and Chrysanthemum
Pseudomonas sp. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria Coliforms
Plate 2: Microorganisms isolated from residual coconut water and spent wash
Table 1: Microbial population of residual coconut water and spent wash
Microorganisms Residual coconut water Spent wash
Bacteria (105 cfu / ml) 29.67 45.33
Yeast (104 cfu / ml) 9.89 15.11
Actinobacteria (103 cfu / ml) 10.00 15.33
Free living nitrogen fixing bacteria (105 cfu / ml) 2.67 4.33
Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (105 cfu / ml) 7.33 10.33
Pseudomonas sp. (105 cfu / ml) 3.33 9.67
Coliforms (105 cfu / ml) 7.67 15.00
Morphological and biochemical characteristics of isolated microflora of residual coconut water and spent
wash
The isolated microorganisms of residual coconut water and spent washwere examined and
characterized morphological as well as biochemical test (Table 2). Most of the isolated colonies were circular,
smooth, convex, whitish, opaque and rod shape. The majority of them showed catalase, indole test positive and
gram-negative reaction.
Table 2: Morphological and biochemical characteristics of microbial isolates of residual coconut water
and spent wash
Morphological
and
biochemical
Bacteria Free living N2
fixer Pseudomonassp
Phosphate solubilizing
bacteria Coliforms
Colony
morphology
Circular,
Glistening,
Cream
Circular,
Glistening,
Whitish mucoid
Circular, Smooth,
Creamy whitish
Circular,
Smooth,
Whitish
Circular,
Smooth,
Blackish
48
S Umesha, B Narayanaswamy and N Susheelamma
Elevation Convex Convex Raised Raised Flat
Opacity Translucent Translucent Opaque Opaque Opaque
Cell shape Coccus Coccus Rod Rod Rod
Gram staining + - - + -
Endospore - - - + -
Catalase + + + - +
Indole + + - - -
Methyl red + + - - +
Vogesproskauer - - - - -
Citrate test - + + - +
Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on growth parameters of Chrysanthemum under glass
house condition
The data on the plant height (cm), number of leaves, number of suckers per plantat harvest of
chrysanthemum as affected by the foliar application of residual coconut water and spent wash are presented in
Table 3 and 4, Plate 1.At 15 and 30 days after planting (before spraying), the plant height recorded 5.00 cm to
6.33 cm and 14.00 cm to 15.33 cm.The number of leaves ranged from 4.00 to 5.00 and 5.33 to 6.00,
respectively.At 45 DAP were significantly higher due to 10 per cent spent wash (26.60 cm, 13.67) as compared
to other treatments. Whereas, significantly lower growth parameters were observed at 10 per cent residual
coconut water (17.67 cm, 7.67 respectively). Whereas, at 60 DAP, application of 10 per cent spent wash
recorded maximum growth parameters (31.47 cm, 17.90and 5.60) as compared to other treatments. Whereas,
significantly lower plant height was observed at 10 per cent residual coconut water (22.00 cm, 9.50 and 1.32)
respectively. Increased plant height, number of leaves and suckers per plant due to the auxin, gibberellin and
cytokinin like activity of the coconut water and ability to supply amino acids, organic acids, vitamins, sugars
and minerals in available form (Kuraishi and Okumura (1961), Leetham (1982), George (1993), Gunawan
(1987), Hendaryono and Wijayani, (1994).
Table 3: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on plant height and number of leaves of
chrysanthemum under glass house condition
Treatments
Plant height (cm) No. of leaves
BS AS BS AS
15 DAP 30 DAP 45
DAP 60 DAP 15 DAP
30
DAP
45
DAP
60
DAP
T1 : Control
(water spray) 6.33 14.00 21.50 25.83 5.00 5.67 10.13
13.6
7
49
Effect of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated Coconut Mills on Epiphytic Microflora and
Yield of Gherkin and Chrysanthemum
T2: 10 % -
Residual coconut
water
7.30 14.00 17.67 22.00 4.00 5.33 7.67 9.50
T3: 15 % -
Residual coconut
water
6.00 15.33 19.00 23.10 4.13 5.60 8.40 10.1
3
T4: 20 % -
Residual coconut
water
5.33 14.37 24.33 30.60 4.33 6.00 11.60 17.0
3
T5: 10 % - Spent
wash 5.00 14.00 26.60 31.47 4.00 5.80 13.67
17.9
0
T6: 15 % - Spent
wash 5.30 15.00 20.03 24.40 4.30 5.33 9.00
12.3
0
T7 : 20 % - Spent
wash 6.00 14.30 18.40 22.60 4.00 5.67 8.03 9.80
S. Em. ±
C. D. at 1 % NS NS
0.61
1.87
0.42
1.28 NS NS
0.28
0.85
0.30
0.93
Plant biomass
The data indicated significant differences in dry weight of shoot, root and total dry weight of
chrysanthemum due to foliar spray of residual coconut water and spent wash are presented in Table 4. The
maximum total dry weight of chrysanthemum was observed in treatment 10 per cent spent wash (29.83 g/ plant)
and minimum total dry weight (14.07 g/ plant) was recorded in 10 per cent residual coconut water.This might be
due to accumulation of more metabolites and availability of reserve food for the reproductive growth. Similar
results were also obtained by Dutta and Ramdas (1998) and Sharma et al. (1995) in chrysanthemum.
Table 4: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on suckers and dry weight (g) of
chrysanthemum under glass house condition
Treatments
No. of
suckers
At harvest
Dry weight (g)
Shoot Root Total
T1 : Control (water spray) 3.40 16.80 7.27 24.07
T2: 10 % - Residual coconut water 1.32 10.13 3.93 14.07
T3: 15 % - Residual coconut water 2.00 14.00 4.40 18.40
T4: 20 % - Residual coconut water 4.00 19.17 7.73 26.90
T5: 10 % - Spent wash 5.60 21.23 8.60 29.83
50
S Umesha, B Narayanaswamy and N Susheelamma
T6: 15 % - Spent wash 3.00 16.07 5.53 21.60
T7 : 20 % - Spent wash 1.60 12.83 4.13 16.96
S. Em. ±
C. D. at 1 %
0.24
0.74
0.58
1.78
0.29
0.93
0.66
2.00
Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on phyllosphere and rhizosphere microflora of
chrysanthemum under glass house condition
Phyllosphere microflora of chrysanthemum
The phyllosphere microorganisms of chrysanthemum were significantly influenced by the foliar
application of residual coconut water and spent wash at different intervals and the results are presented in Table
5.
Table 5: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on phyllosphere microflora of chrysanthemum
under glass house condition
Treatments
Bacteria Yeast Actinobacteria
104 cfu /cm2
BS AS BS AS BS AS
15
DAP
30
DAP
45
DAP
60
DAP
15
DAP
30
DAP
45
DAP
60
DAP
15
DAP
30
DAP
45
DAP 60 DAP
T1 : Control
(water
spray)
0.110 0.117 0.148 0.243 0.106 0.109 0.125 0.169 0.078 0.087 0.099 0.108
T2: 10 % -
Residual
coconut
water
0.099 0.113 0.306 0.467 0.071 0.106 0.292 0.350 0.064 0.083 0.131 0.160
T3: 15 % -
Residual
coconut
water
0.103 0.120 0.225 0.426 0.103 0.107 0.227 0.292 0.092 0.099 0.110 0.143
T4: 20 % -
Residual
coconut
water
0.099 0.125 0.198 0.376 0.085 0.101 0.200 0.244 0.078 0.092 0.101 0.120
T5: 10 % -
Spent wash 0.099 0.119 0.375 0.526 0.092 0.103 0.350 0.383 0.071 0.098 0.137 0.183
51
Effect of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated Coconut Mills on Epiphytic Microflora and
Yield of Gherkin and Chrysanthemum
T6: 15 % -
Spent wash 0.114 0.114 0.262 0.461 0.106 0.119 0.268 0.303 0.064 0.092 0.116 0.151
T7 : 20 % -
Spent wash 0.107 0.124 0.202 0.387 0.099 0.112 0.214 0.272 0.085 0.094 0.106 0.139
S. Em. ±
C. D. at 1
%
NS NS 0.37
1.13
0.39
1.19 NS NS
0.36
1.11
0.37
1.10 NS NS
0.41
1.25
0.27
0.84
Bacteria
At 45 and 60 days after planting there was significant difference among the bacterial population. The
higher bacterial population was recorded with foliar application of 10 per cent spent wash (0.375and 0.526 x
104 cfu cm2). Lower bacterial population was recorded in control (water spray) (0.148and 0.243 x 104 cfu
cm2).
Yeast population
Significant difference among the treatments at 45 and 60 DAP were observed maximum yeast
population (0.350 and 0.383 x 104 cfu cm2 respectively) was found at 10 per cent spent wash as compared to
other treatments. Whereas, minimum yeast population was recorded in control (0.125 and 0.169 x 104 cfu cm2,
respectively)
Actinobacteria population
At 45 and 60 DAP there was significant difference among the treatments. The maximum actinobacteria
population was recorded at 10 per cent spent wash (0.137 and 0.183 x 104 cfu cm2, respectively) compared to
other treatments. Minimum was recorded in control (0.099 and 0.108 x 104 cfu cm2, respectively).
The increased phyllosphere microorganism was due to the exogenously applied coconut water solution.
This coconut water contained available essential nutrients viz., carbohydrates, amino acids vitamins and other
organic acids for their growth. The above results are in conformity with the findings of (Goldberg, 1980 and
Fry, 1989) who reported that the exogenous application of auxin stimulates the release of saccharides from the
plant cell wall and microbes utilized these compounds.
Rhizosphere microflora of chrysanthemum
The rhizosphere microflora of chrysanthemum was significantly influenced by the foliar application of
residual coconut water and spent wash at different intervals and the results are presented in Table 6.
Bacterial population
Higher bacterial population in rhizosphere at 45 and 60 DAP was recorded in treatment 10 per cent
spent wash (32.70 and 35.47 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil) and lower bacterial population (20.33 and 22.10 x 105 cfu g-
1 of soil) was recorded in 10 per cent residual coconut water.
Fungal population
Higher fungal population at 45 and 60 DAP was observed with 10 per cent spent wash (11.07 and 9.00
x 104 cfu g-1 of soil respectively) compared to other treatments. Whereas, the lower fungal population was
recorded in the treatment supplemented with 10 per cent residual coconut water (6.00 and 4.70 x 104 cfu g-1 of
soil, respectively).
52
S Umesha, B Narayanaswamy and N Susheelamma
Actinobacteria population
Significantly higher actinobacteria population at 45 and 60 DAP, was observed in treatment 10 per cent
spent wash which recorded significantly higher (9.50 and 12.00 x 103 cfu g-1 of soil respectively) compared to
other treatments. Whereas, lower actinobacteria population was recorded in treatment at 10 per cent residual
coconut water (3.70 and 5.70 x 103 cfu g-1 of soil, respectively).
Beneficial rhizosphere microflora of chrysanthemum
The beneficial rhizosphere microflora Azotobacter sp., Pseudomonas sp., and Phosphate solubilizing
bacteria population of chrysanthemum was significantly influenced by the foliar application of residual coconut
water and spent wash at different intervals and the results are presented in Table 7.
Table 6: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on rhizosphere microorganisms of
chrysanthemum under glass house condition
Treatments
Bacteria
(105) cfu g-1 of soil
Fungi
(104) cfu g-1 of soil
Actinobacteria
(103) cfu g-1 of soil
BS AS BS AS BS AS
15
DAP
30
DAP
45
DAP
60
DAP
15
DAP
30
DAP
45
DAP
60
DAP
15
DAP
30
DAP
45
DAP
60
DAP
T1 :
Control
(water
spray)
14.33 18.53 27.00 30.67 3.40 4.33 7.40 9.33 2.70 4.03 7.00 8.07
T2: 10 % -
Residual
coconut
water
14.70 18.68 20.33 22.10 3.60 4.67 6.00 4.70 1.63 3.00 3.70 5.70
T3: 15 % -
Residual
coconut
water
15.60 19.35 22.40 25.50 4.70 5.40 6.73 5.60 2.40 3.80 4.33 6.33
T4: 20 % -
Residual
coconut
water
11.93 19.37 29.33 34.50 3.33 5.00 9.68 7.40 2.00 3.67 8.67 10.03
T5: 10 % -
Spent
wash
14.60 18.00 32.70 35.47 4.00 5.13 11.07 9.00 2.33 4.00 9.50 12.00
53
Effect of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated Coconut Mills on Epiphytic Microflora and
Yield of Gherkin and Chrysanthemum
T6: 15 % -
Spent
wash
15.13 20.03 24.63 27.70 4.00 4.27 8.00 6.87 2.70 3.70 6.33 7.00
T7 : 20 % -
Spent
wash
13.00 19.13 21.83 24.03 3.64 4.70 6.30 5.53 3.00 3.43 4.00 6.17
S. Em. ±
C. D. at 1
%
NS NS 0.53
1.63
0.41
1.25 NS NS
0.22
0.67
0.69
2.11 NS NS
0.24
0.74
0.22
0.67
Table 7: Effect of residual coconut water and spent wash on beneficial microorganisms in rhizosphere
of chrysanthemum under glass house condition
Treatments
Azotobacter sp.
(105) cfu g-1 of soil
Phosphate solubilizing bacteria
(105) cfu g-1 of soil
Pseudomonas sp.
(105) cfu g-1 of soil
BS AS BS AS BS AS
15
DAP
30
DAP
45
DAP
60
DAP
15
DAP
30
DAP
45
DAP
60
DAP
15
DAP
30
DAP
45
DAP
60
DAP
T1 : Control
(water
spray)
2.00 2.70 8.00 10.13 1.40 2.00 4.03 8.50 4.00 5.00 10.3
2 11.70
T2: 10 %
Residual
coconut
water
2.33 3.33 5.00 7.67 2.00 2.70 3.13 5.00 4.13 6.03 7.03 8.07
T3: 15 %
Residual
coconut
water
2.70 4.00 5.67 8.33 1.70 2.33 3.73 6.03 4.00 6.13 7.70 9.03
T4: 20 %
Residual
coconut
water
2.03 3.00 9.03 11.50 1.60 2.67 5.00 10.10 3.67 5.67 11.4
0 14.03
T5: 10 % -
Spent wash 3.00 4.33 9.50 12.33 2.13 3.00 6.43 10.60 5.00 6.40
12.7
3 14.80
T6: 15 % -
Spent wash 2.68 4.00 7.00 9.00 2.00 3.13 3.90 7.00 4.30 6.60 8.67 10.60
54
S Umesha, B Narayanaswamy and N Susheelamma
T7 : 20 % -
Spent wash 3.00 4.30 5.13 8.03 2.33 2.70 3.50 5.80 3.33 5.13 7.43 8.50
S. Em. ±
C. D. at 1
%
NS NS 0.21
0.66
0.32
0.99 NS NS
0.17
0.54
0.22
0.67 NS NS
0.28
0.85
0.29
0.89
Azotobacter sp. population
Maximum Azotobacter population in rhizosphere at 45 and 60 DAP was recorded in the treatment of
10 per cent spent wash (9.50 and 12.33 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil respectively) as compared to other treatments.
Whereas, the lower Azotobacter population was recorded in 10 per cent residual coconut water (5.00 and 7.67 x
105 cfu g-1 of soil, respectively).
Pseudomonas sp. population
Higher Pseudomonas was recorded in rhizosphere at 45 and60 DAP at 10 per cent spent wash (12.73
and 14.80 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil) and least Pseudomonas in 10 per cent residual coconut water (7.03 and 8.07 x
105 cfu g-1 of soil).
Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) population
At 45 and 60DAP, the maximum phosphate solubilizing bacteria (6.43 and 10.60 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil)
was observed in the treatment of 10 per cent spent wash and minimum PSB population was recorded in 10 per
cent residual coconut water (3.13 and 5.00 x 105 cfu g-1 of soil).Increase in both general and beneficial
microflora in soil can be attributed to incorporation of organic manures which provided a conducive
environment for microbial proliferation due to increased organic C, mineral N and total N content of soils
(Dinesh et al., 2000). It was also suggested that within the highly active rhizosphere soil microbes are equipped
with necessary breakdown tools to compete with plant roots for free amino acids and other carbon sources (Ge,
et al., 2009).
REFERENCES
Appaiah, P., Sunil, L., Prasanth KUMAR, P. K. and Gopala Krishna, A. G., 2015, Physico-chemical
characteristics and stability aspects of coconut water and kernel at different stages of maturity. J. Food
Sci. Technol., 52(8): 5196–5203.
Bunt, J. S. and Rovira, A. D., 1955, Microbiological studies of subantartic soil. J. Soil Sci., 6: 119-122.
Chanakya, H. N., Himanshu, K. K., Niranjan, M., Aniruddha, R., Mudakavi, J. R. and Preeti, T., 2015, The
physicochemical characteristics and anaerobic degradability of desiccated coconut industry waste water.
Environ. Monit.Assess, 187: 3-12.
Coconut Development Board, 2010, http://coconutboard.nic.in.
Dinesh, R., Dubey, R. P., Ganeshamurthy, A. N. and Shyam Prasad, G., 2000, Organic manuring in rice-based
cropping system: Effects on soil microbial biomass and selected enzyme activities. Current Sci., 79:
1716-1719.
Dutta, J. P. and Ramdas, S., 1998, Growth and flowering response of chrysanthemum (Dendrathema
grandiflora) to growth regulators treatments.Orissa J. Horti., 26 (1): 70-75.
55
Effect of Residual Coconut Water and Spent Wash from Desiccated Coconut Mills on Epiphytic Microflora and
Yield of Gherkin and Chrysanthemum
Farhatullah, Abbas, Z. and Abbas, S. J., 2007, In vitro effects of gibberellic acid on morphogenesis of potato
explant. Inter. J. Agricul. Biol., 1:181–182.
Fry, S. C., 1989, Cellulases, hemicelluloses and auxin stimulated growth, a possible relationship. Physiol. Plant,
75: 532-536.
Ge, T., Song, S., Roberts, P., Jones, D.L., Huang, D. and Twasaki, K., 2009, Amino acids as a nitrogen source
for tomato seedling. The use of dual labeled glycine to test for direct uptake by tomato seedling.Environ.
Exper. Bot., 66: 357-361.
George, E. F., 1993, The components of culture media inplant propagation by tissue culture part I. Exgenetics
Ltd., Edition. England, pp 316-320.
Goldberg, R., 1980, Cell wall polysaccharides activities and growth processes, a possible relationship.Physiol.
Plant. 50: 261-264.
Gunawan, L. W., 1987, Tissue culture technique. Plant tissue culture laboratory, Inter university centre
biotechnology.Bogor Institute of Agriculture, Bogor. Indonesia.
Hendaryono, D. P. S. and Wijayani, A., 1994, Tissue culture technique. Kanisius. Yogyakarta., Indonesia.
Industrial Pollution Control Guidelines - desiccated coconut industry, 1993, Published by Central
environmental authority, Parisara Mawatha, Colombo 10, Sri lanka, 1:16.
Kuraishi, S. and Okumura, F. S., 1961, A new green leaf growth stimulating factor phyllococosine, from
coconut milk. Nature, 189:148-149.
Leetham, D. S., 1982, A compound in coconut milk which actively promoted radish cotyledon expansion but
exhibited negligible activity in tissue culture bioassay for cytokinins was identified as the 6 oxypurine, 2-
(3-methyl but-2-enyamino)-purine-6-one. Plant Sci. Lett., 26: 241-249.
Nandana, H. V. A. and Werellagama, D. I. R. B, 2001, Wastewater treatment in desiccated coconut industry.
Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Forestry and Environment Symposium, Sri lanka, pp: 30.
Pelezar, M. J., 1957, Manual of microbial methods, Society of American bacteriologists, Mc, Grew, New York,
pp-315.
Priyanthi, P. M. P., 1997, A case study of physic- chemical and bacteriological characters of the desiccated
coconut mill effluent. M. Sc. Thesis, University of Kelaniya, Srilanka.
Schaad, N. W., 1992, Laboratory Guide for identification of plant pathogenic bacteria Eds. N. W. Schad, The
American Psychopathological Society. Minneapolis, USA.
Sharma, H. G., Verma, V. J. and Tiwari, B. L., 1995, Effect of foliar application of some plant growth
regulators on growth and flowering of chrysanthemum var. carvin. Orissa J. Hort., 23 (1&2): 61-64.
Umesha, S. and B. Narayanaswamy, 2016 (a), Growth promoting substances and mineral elements in desiccated
coconut mills (DC) coconut water. Inter. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci., 5(4): 532-538.
Umesha, S. and B. Narayanaswamy, 2016(b), Effect of Residual coconut water and spent wash from Desiccated
coconut mills on growth parameters of Gherkin (Cucumis sativus L.) under Glasshouse condition. Ad.
Life Sci., 5(19):8861-8863.
Umesha, S. and B. Narayanaswamy, 2017©, Pivotal role of Residual coconut water and spent wash on
phyllosphere and rhizosphere microflora of Gherkin (Cucumis sativus L) under glasshouse condition.
Inter. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci., 6 (7): 3956-3963
Van Der Wal, A. and Leveau, J. H., 2011, Modelling sugar diffusion across plant leaf cuticles, the effect of free
water on substrate availability to phyllosphere bacteria. Environ. Microbiol.,13: 792-797.
56
Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
Forage Production and Quality of Berseem, Makkhan Grass and
Barley as Affected by Organic Inorganic Fertilization
Om Singh
Livestock Production Management, ICAR-IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly (U.P.), India
ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted to know the effect of organic and mineral fertilization on forage
crops, under the recycling of crop nutrients, animal and farm waste application in forage production. Berseem,
Makhan grass and barley are suitable fodder crops for the north part of the country. The field trial was
conducted during winter seasons of 2009 and 2010 at IVRI, Fodder Farm. In trial, three forage cultivars namely,
Berseem, Makkhan grass and barley were evaluated under two organic fertilizer treatments, vermi compost and
FYM and the control treatment (No fertilizer). Means of three cultivars demonstrated that the yield of Berseem
951.1 q/ha, was higher where as the direction of the variation among Makkhan grass (722.2q/ha) and Barley
(683.3 q/ha) cultivars was the same where, Barseem’s produced highest yield of DM and NDF contents. The
fertilizer levels caused highest variation in case yield and CP contents. Means revealed that application of
vermi-compost increased in a field (951.1 q/ha) fodder and accumulated the highest CP content amounting to
263.1 g kg-1. These results might be attributed to the correction of N deficiency and this improved soil
properties upon vermi-compost application. Increasing the N fertilizer levels from 60kg/ha to 120 kg/ha
increased fodder yield (810.1q/ha to 1095.2 q/ha) and C.P. (149.4g kg-1). The dry matter yield was also in the
similar trend. This trial was conducted under coloboratic Research project-Recycling of animal and farm waste
and application of their value-added products in sustainable crop production and animal husbandry. The results
indicate that application of vermicompost @10t/ha is suitable for recommendation of manures under organice
fodder production. These fodder crops were in sandy loam soils under irrigated conditions in Bareilly district of
western Uttar Pradesh, India. The author is PI of the sub project under which trial was conducted.
Keywords: Makkhan grass, fodder, berseem, barley, fertilisation
INTRODUCTION
Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) is the most important forage legume crop in India. Despite the
fact that its yield and protein content are high, it is characterized by low dry matter content especially in the 1st
cut, in addition to its limited energy supply, attributed tot he low carbohydrate content. Therefore, there is a
pressing need to introduce some promising winter annual forage grasses, like barley and makkhan grass and
investigate their performance under the western Uttar Pradesh. This would enhance the northizdic animal
production systems by providing a high-quality feed at a low cost. As nitrogen nutrient is a key input. The
introduction of high-yielding genotypes would greatly increase the prospect of increasing yields, but this goal
will not be reached without appropriately managing the application. Besides, organic farming is receiving
increased attention nowadays (Kavita et al., 2018). Therefore, objective of this study was to investigate the yield
and quality of the three testedfodder crops under varying levels of organic well as nitrogen approach. Fodder
rich in qualitative and nutritive traits can only solve problem of malnutrition in animals. Most of the fodder
crops grown on marginal lands with monoculture are deficient in these traits. Considering country highest
livestock population in the world (20% of the world livestock population), net deficit of 63% green
57
Forage Production and Quality of Berseem, Makkhan Grass and Barley as Affected by Organic Inorganic
Fertilization
fodder, 24% dry crop residues and 64% feeds, (Kumar et al., 2012) and increasing population of livestock
coupled with poor quality fodder leading to low productivity. Fodder cereal crops have a high content of
digestible starch, water-soluble carbohydrates and fibre creating a high energy feed for livestock when
harvested at the recommended stage of crop (Nadeau et al., 2010). However, supplementations of protein feed
to high producing ruminants are required since the crude protein content of fodder cereal crops is relatively low.
Cereal + legume intercropping system may improve fodder quality and yield on a given land area by making
more efficient use of the available resources (Lithourgidis and Dordas, 2010). In intercropping system, cereal
crops provide structural support for fodder legumes, improve light interception whereas legume crops leads to
higher protein content which improved the quality of fodder. The availability of quality and nutritive fodder is a
limiting factor leading to decline in potential of dairy sector. In view, the present work was undertaken aiming
to improve fodder quality and nutritive values.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted at ICAR-IVRI during 2009-10 to evaluate the above technical
programme. The soil experimental field was sandy clay loam. The experiment was laid out in randomized block
design with four replications. Field trials were conducted during the winter seasons of 2009 and 2010, at IVRI
Fodder Farm. Split plot design, with three replicates, was used for the two trials. In the 1st trial, three forage
crops, namely Berseem, Makkhan grass and barley were evaluated under two organic fertilizer treatments;
vermin-compost and FYM, and a control treatment (no fertilizer). In the 2nd trial, the same three fodder crop
were evaluated under three N fertilization levels 60, 90 and 120 kg ha-1). Main plots were assigned to test the
fertilizer applications, while, the fodder crops were tested in the subplots. Compost was produced in open
windrows and sourced mainly from animal manure (90%) and plant residues (10%). Whereas, vermi compost
was prepared from cow dung manure. Nitrogen was applied in the form of urea (46%). All the forage cultivars
were sown with the recommended seeding rate, amounting to 6 kg ha for both Berseem and Ryegrass, and 80
kg ha-1 for Barley. Plot size in both trials was 4 x 25 m. All plots were treated similarly. First cut was taken at
60 days after sowing. The plots were manually harvested to a 5 cm stubble height and the fresh hergage per plot
was weighed in the field. A representative sub-sample of approximately 116 g fresh matter per plot was dried to
determine the dry matter content.
The crops were grown Ryegrass, Barley and Berseem under testing of cultivars in the 1st and 2nd trials.
Among tested fertilizers applications in the Trial No. 1: Control, FYM and Vermi compost, Trial No. 2- 60, 90
and 120 kg/h Nitrogen were tested.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of variance for both trials revealed significant variation (P<0.001) among the three tested
monocultures for all the studied parameters. While, the fertilizer applications caused significant variations (P>
0.01) only in the yield, DM and CP contents, in the 1st trial, and the yield and CP content, in the 2nd trial.
Interaction between the two studied factors was non-significant in both trials.
Cultivar-related effects: Means of the three cultivars for all the tested parameters, presented in Table,
demonstrate that the direction of the variation among the three cultivars was the same in the case of two trials.
Where, Berseem monoculture produced the highest significant yield, DM contents in both experiments, with
values amounting to, 182.2 (ton ha-1), 176.2q/ha. Contrarily, the Berseem produced the highest significant CP in
both trials, with CP content amounting to 122.4 and 109.7, (g kg-1) for the 1st and 2nd trials, respectively. In
addition, Barley was significantly superior only in case of the carbohydrate content, with 263.1 and 269.4 (g kg-
1) for the 1st and 2nd trials, respectively.
Fertilization-related effects: The fertilizer levels caused significant variations only in case of yield and CP
contents in both trials and in case of DM content only in the 1st trial. Means presented in Table revealed that, in
58
Om Singh
the 1st trial, the application of vermi compost resulted in significantly increasing the yield upto 919 q/ha. In
addition, the same treatment accumulated the highest significant CP content, amounting to 149.78 g kg-1. These
results might be attributed to the correction of N deficiency and, thus, improved soil properties upon vermin
compost application. It was also reported that nitrogen concentration in plant tissues increased with vermin-
compst application. In the 2nd trial, increasing the N fertilizer level from 60 to 120 kg N ha-1, significantly
increased the fodder yield and CP content upto 11.02 ton ha-1 and 132.77 g CP kg-1. The higher crude protein at
higher nitrogen levels was mainly due to structural role of nitrogen in building up amino acids. The progressive
increase in crude protein contents with increasing nitrogen rates was documented.
Table: Forage yield (q/ha) and quality parameters (g/kg) among the tested cultivars in the 1st and 2nd
trials.
Treatments/Trials Yield DM CP Carbohydrate NDF
Trial 1 :
Ryegrass 722.1c 126.02c 169.29a 150.77c 433.24c
Barley 683.3b 149.55b 132.10b 263.15a 458.50b
Berseem 951.1a 176.25a 122.44c 241.33b 562.17a
L.S.D.0.05 1.77 6.30 5.69 17.98 20.35
Trial 2 :
Ryegrass 896.1b 121.09c 149.78a 168.93c 511.61c
Barley 810.3b 148.11b 122.13b 269.40a 499.91b
Berseem 1095.2a 182.20a 109.77c 229.78b 571.11a
L.S.D.0.05 1.89 5.48 3.97 19.85 18.05
Forage Yield, quality parameters (g/kg) among the tested cultivars in 1st trials
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Yield DM CP Carbohydrate
Ryegrass
Barley
Berseem
59
Forage Production and Quality of Berseem, Makkhan Grass and Barley as Affected by Organic Inorganic
Fertilization
Forage Yield, quality parameters (g/kg) among the tested cultivars in 2nd trials
Rhizobium and PSB seed innocuation in berseem and azotobactor and PSB in barley and ryegrass crop
recorded higher over control treatment (Sardar et al., 2016). Highest in Oat green fodder (896.2 q/ha) was
recorded with the application of 10 t/ha Vermi-bio-manure. Maximum yield in green fodder Berseem (1095.2
q/ha) was obtainted with the application of 10t/ha vermi-bio manure (Sudhakar et al., 2002).
CONCLUSION
The obtained results indicated significant variations in the yield and tested quality parameters among
the three forage monocultures. Berseem was superior in the CP content, while the forage ryegrass and barley
produced highest yield, DM, carbohydrates and fiber fractions. Organic, as well as mineral fertilizer
applications exerted a significant influence on the yield, DM and CP contents. Highest values were achieved
with application of vermi-compost (1st trial) and highest nitrogen level (2nd trial). The results suggest that
mixing the berseem with the tested forage ryegrass and barley would improve the forage yield and quality of the
1st cut. It is recommended to investigate the yield and quality of different forage ryegrass and barley with
legume berseem mixtures under organic and mineral fertilizer applications.
REFERENCES
A.O.A.C, 1990. Official Methods of Analysis (15th Ed.). Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
Arlington, VA.
Kavita Bhadu, K.K. Agarwal and Rakesh Choudhary, 2018. Productivity and Profitability of Black Gram as
Influenced by Nutrient Management under Organic Farming: Progressive Agriculture, 18 (2): 252-255.
Kumar, S., R.K. Agarwal, A.K. Dixit, A.K. Rai, J.B. Singh and S.K. Rai, 2012. Forage Production Technology
for Arable Lands. Technology Bulletin 39: 255-260.
Kumawat, N., Sharma, O.P. and Kumar R., 2009. Effect of Organic Manures, PSB and Phosphorus Fertilization
on yield and Economics of Mungbean Vigna radiate (L.) Wilczek, Environment & Ecology, 27(1): 5-7.
Lithourgidis, A.S. and C.A. Dordas, 2010. Forage yield, growth rate and nitrogen uptake of wheat, barley and
rye-faba bean intercrops in three seeding ratios. Crop. Sci. 50 : 2148-2158.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Yield DM CP Carbohydrate
Ryegrass
Barley
Berseem
60
Om Singh
Nadeau, E., B.O. Rustas, A. Arnesson, and C. Swensson, 2010. Maize silage quality on Swedish dairy and beef
farms. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Forage Conservation, Brno, Czech Republic,
pp. 195-197.
Sardar, S., Kumar, Y., Shahi, U.P. Kumar, A., Dhyani, B. P., Yadav, A.K. and Singh, S.P., 2016. Effect of
integrated use of bio-fertilizers and vermi-compost on nutrient availability, uptake and performance of
urd bean (vigna mungo) in sandy loam soil. Plant Archives, 16(1) : 18-22.
Sudhakar, G, Christopher, L. A. Rangasamy, A., Subbian, P and Velayuthan, A., 2002. Effect of vermicompost
application on the soil properties, nutrient availability, uptake and yield of rice-A review, Agriculture
Review, 23(2): 127-1.
Van Soest, P.J., J.B. Robertson and B.A. Lewis, 1991. Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and
nonstartch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J. Diary Sci., 74 : 3583: 3597.
61
Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
Agricultural Waste Management through Mushroom Cultivation
Nirmala Bhatt
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Pithoragarh (Uttarakhand), India
ABSTRACT
Secondary agricultural vocation like mushrooms are going to occupy a prominent place to fill the void of
quality food requirements with the ever increasing population and shrinking land. The demand for quality food
and novel products is increasing with the changes in life style and income. The present century is going to be
functional foods free from synthetic chemicals. Mushroom cultivation fits very well into this category and is
going to be an important vocation. Diversification in any farming system imparts sustainability. Mushrooms are
one such component that not only impart diversification but also help in addressing the problems of quality
food, health and environmental industrial, forestry and household wastes into nutritious foods (mushrooms).
India produces about 600 million tonnes of agricultural by-products, which can profitably be utilized for the
cultivation of mushrooms. Currently, we are using 0.04% of these residues for producing around 1.2 lakh tons
of mushrooms of which 85% is button mushroom. India contributes about 3% of the total world button
mushroom production. Even if we use 1% of the residues for mushroom production, we can produce 3.0 million
tons of mushrooms. Agricultural wastes are good source of the cultivation of mushrooms. Some of them are
most commonly used such as wheat straw, paddy straw, rice straw, rice bran, wheat bran, molasses, coffee
straw, banana leaves, tea leaves, cotton, saw dust, sugarcane bagasse etc.
The substrate Paddy straw and Wheat straw is almost similar in terms of yield. However, another
agricultural wastes such as Chicken manure, Wheat bran or Rice bran, different Cakes are used as a supplement
to meet the nutritional requirement of the Agaricus bisporus. The other agricultural wastes FYM, spent compost
and coir pith are utilized for the casing of A. bisporus beds which is precondition for fruiting of this mushroom.
Agricultural waste like Saw dust supplemented with Rice bran or Wheat bran are practiced as substrate for
growth of Lentinula edodes. The agricultural waste, Maize straw and Cobs, Soyabean straw, Banana leaves and
Pseudostem, paddy straw, Tea leaves etc. are utilized for growth of various species of Pleurotus. In the present
era to avoid hazardous environmental problems, the management of waste disposal has become necessity. The
inappropriate management of waste gives rise to many problems such as spread of infectious diseases,
development of new strains of disease-causing agents. Therefore, eco-friendly management of agriculture waste
produced brings to notice an immediate requirement to overcome the problem.
Keywords: Spent Mushroom Substrate, Mushroom Cultivation, Button Mushroom, Waste Management.
INTRODUCTION
The bioconversion of agricultural wastes into a value-added product is good mean of their use. The
property of edible mushroom fungi to convert complex organic compounds into simpler ones is used to
transform the useless agricultural waste into valuable products. Various edible mushroom species are cultivated
worldwide. Some of them are given below:
62
Agricultural Waste Management through Mushroom Cultivation
Mushrooms in world production (27 bn. Kg, 2012)
Mushroom species grow and yield on a spectrum of plant wastes. Chemically these plant wastes are
lignocelluloses, composed of various levels of lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses. In India mere food crops
alone, after the harvest and separation of edible portion lends to 1.15 billion tons of inedible wastes, which
obviously is renewable. Growing mushrooms on lignocellulosic wastes represent the most successful example
of solid-state fermentation, to generate and easier separation of valid and valued form of, biomass, represented
by the mushrooms. Such a biodegradation and biotransformation of lignocellulosic wastes serves to return
carbon to the atmosphere in its most natural form. In general, the growth substrate constitutes 10-35% of cost of
mushroom production. This includes physical, chemical and biological conditioning of the plant wastes to
render it suitable for the growth of a mushroom species in question. While preparing a substrate for mushroom
growth, competitors and contaminants assume another dimension of importance influencing the mushroom
yield. Chemistry of a growth substrate related to its pretreatments in turn to suit the elaboration of degrading
enzymes by a mushroom species, ultimately defines the duration for cropping and “Bioconversion Efficiency”
i.e., the yield output. The mushroom species thus could be lignicolous, humicolous or cellulocolous, and prefers
the growth substrate accordingly. India with her diverse geographic climatic conditions produces a range of
food corps, and wastes so generated, if utilized properly could render the mushroom technology to suit a range
of socio-economic conditions, with possible reduction in the cost of mushroom production.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
For the cultivation of Pleurotus paddy straw, wheat straw and cotton straw substrates were used while
for Agaricus, it is wheat straw was usually used. A disadvantage of straw is that it should be prepared first, as
mushrooms are grown hygienically indoors. Straw is laden with other microbes, and it is necessary to get rid of
those tiny competitors, as there will be no scope of mushroom mycelium to grow in their presence. Ganoderma
was cultivated using sawdust. Sawdust itself is often not nutritious enough and need to be supplemented with a
nitrogen source such as bran, urea and sunflower seeds. Cultivation of oyster mushroom is of most concern as
its spores are allergic to some people, so related preventive measures should be done in working facility.
Besides this, oyster mushrooms have a short life span, so they are beneficial to those growers who can sell them
fresh in market.
Agaricus
30%
Pleurotus
27%
Others 15%
Flammulina
5%
Auricularia
6%
Lentinula
17%
63
Nirmala Bhatt
Various agricultural wastes for mushroom cultivation:
S. No. Agricultural wastes Mushrooms
1. Rice straw,wheat straw, Cotton straw, soybean straw, Banana leaves Pleurotus spp.
2. Wheat straw, Poultry Manure, Wheat bran, Cotton seed cake and Soybean
meal
Agaricus bisporus
3. Rice bran, Saw dust, Coffee pulp+ Rice bran Lentinula edodes
4. Paddy straw, Cotton wastes Volvallella spp.
5. Sawdust, Wheat straw, Rice bran and sun flower seeds Ganoderma spp.
6. Wheat straw, Paddy straw Calocybe spp.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
For high yield of mushroom cultivation, it is necessary that the entire nutritional requirement should be
fulfilled in optimum concentration as various researches has reported low or high concentration. (Ahlawat et. al.
2004b). Banana stalk and Wheat and Paddy straw are used for the cultivation of Pleurotus sajor-caju with
biological efficiency of 74.4% and 74.12%, respectively but there is a low yield when they are supplemented
with other additives of high nitrogen concentration which lower its yield (Ahlawat and Vijay 2004). Growth of
Pleurotus ostreatus resulted similar in paddy straw and wheat straw while in sugarcane bagasse it resulted in
low yield. Reason behind this selective high yield must be appropriate concentration of Iignin, hemicelluloses,
cellulose in substrate. (Fahy and Wuest 1984).
Composition of various types of substrates
S. No. Substrate Composition
1. Wheat straw 1% protein
13% lignin
39% hemicelluloses
40% cellulose
2. Rice straw 41% cellulose
14% lignin
0.8% total nitrogen
0.25% P2 O5
0.3% K2O
6% SiO2
3. Sugarcane bagasse Cellulose 35-40%
Hemicellulose 20-25%
Lignin 18-24%
Ash1-4%
Waxes <1%
Nitrogen 0.7%
There is a Positive correction of cellulose: lignin with mycelia growth and high in Pleurotus ostratus
and carbon: Nitrogen ratio with mushroom yield in case of Pleurotus eryngii and Agaricus biosporus while in
many strains high yield is related to cellulose content.
Combination of Agricultural Substrates Used for Cultivation
In additions to the use of supplements with agricultural wastes as a substrate, various combinations of
agricultural wastes are also used for the cultivation and are reported to be an optimal substrate. Vegetable
wastes, when used in combination with paddy straw, resulted in a high yield of oyster mushroom. To cultivate
64
Agricultural Waste Management through Mushroom Cultivation
P. osreatus sawdust supplemented with rice bran is reported as an optimal substrate. The quality of P. eryngii
was significantly affected by substrate ingredients. On barley straw and sugar beet pulp substrate complemented
with rice bran, highest mushroom fresh weight and moisture content were achieved. For Pleurotus sajor-caju,
combination of soybean straw, wheat straw showed significantly highest yield while soybean straw and saw
dust combination showed significantly lesser yield.
Combination of substrates and their effects:
S.No. Substrate (in combination) Strain Effect
1. Barley straw+wheat bran and wood
chips+soybean powder+rice bran
treatments
Pleurotus eryngii 4.64 % protein content
2. Wheat straw+wheat bran+soybean
powder treatment
Pleurotus eryngii 13.66 % protein content
3. Soybean straw+wheat straw Pleurotus sajorcaju 87.3 % biological
efficiency
4. Soybean straw+saw dust Pleurotus sajorcaju 43.8 % biological
efficiency
5. Corncob (CC)+ sugarcane bagasse Pleurotus sajorcaju High content of protein,
ash and mineral (Ca, K,
Mg, Mn, and Zn)
Supplements Used With Agricultural Wastes
Agricultural wastes are used in addition to various supplements such as gypsum, lime and urea.
Gypsum contributes as a calcium source and regulates the acidity level. Water holding capacity of gypsum is
high which prevent excess wetting of the substrate. Lime is used to adjust pH. Mushroom cultivation needs
appropriate nitrogen content for high yield, which can be fulfilled by various components such as Poultry
Manure, urea, bran, sunflower seed or cake, soybean meal, cotton seed cake and molasses etc.
CONCLUSION
India, being a second major producer of vegetables in the world, estimated production of fruits and
vegetables in India at under license of creative commons attribution 3.0 license 150 million tons, the total waste
generation comes to about 50 million tons per annum. Due to their chemical composition fruits and vegetables
wastes are more prone to spoilage than cereals, which create unhygienic conditions leading to spread of diseases
and loss to resources. The vegetable wastes are a rich in nitrogen and carbohydrate but are on fit for
consumption. These wastes can be utilized for the production of various types of mushroom such as the oyster
mushroom species.
In recent times waste management is of most concern. Proper management and execution of waste
disposal practices have become today’s need. The inappropriate managements of waste give rise to many
problems such as rapid spread of infectious diseases, development of new varieties of diseases. The exponential
increase in the present amount of waste produced brings to notice an immediate requirement of solution to
overcome this problem.
An agricultural waste consists of lignin and cellulose, which are difficult to breakdown. They are
insoluble and bind to inert substances in soil and get out of reach of bacterial culture present in soil. While
mushroom’s mycelium releases extracellular enzymes, which are responsible for the lignin degradation.
Pleurotus and Lentinula have their own enzymes system based on endoglucanase, laccase and phenoxidasess.
A large amount of agricultural wastes and appropriate climatic conditions provide massive scope for oyster
mushroom cultivation.
65
Nirmala Bhatt
An agricultural waste provides the opportunity for cost-effective farming. Even after being used for
mushroom cultivation, it can be used later on as manure for agricultural field as now the nutrient contents are at
acceptable range. Cultivation of mushroom on these residual wastes is one of the most eco-friendly practices to
fight the malnutrition and environmental pollution caused by these wastes. (Dann 1996). Various researches are
still going on to exploit the potential of agricultural wastes either by using them in combination or by giving
them pretreatment. Rice bran, coffee pulps and saw dust are the main substrates used for the cultivation of
Lentinula edodes. Banana leaves, paddy straw and tea leaves are used for Volvallella, Calocybe and Pleurotus,
respectively.
REFERENCES
Ahlawat O.P. and Vijay B. (2004). Effect of casing material fermented with thermophilic fungi on yield of
Agaricus bisporus. Indian J. Microbiol 44(1): 31-35.
Ahlawat O.P., Sharma Vibuti, Indurani C. and Vijay B. (2004b). Physico-chemical changes in button
mushroom spent substrate recomposted by different methods. In: “Recent trends in Environmental
Science” from 24-26th April 2004 at National Environmental Science Academy, New Delhi.
Dann M.S. (1996). The many uses of spent mushroom substrate. Mushroom News. 44(8): 24-27.
Fahy H.K. and Wuest P.J. (1984). Best practices for environmental protection in the mushroom farm company.
Chested County Planning Commission. West Chester, PA, p65.
66
Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
Determination of Physical and Frictional Properties of Carrot
(Daucus carota L.)
J S Ghatge, S A Mehetre and S B Patil
Dr. D. Y. Patil College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Talsande, Maharastra, India
ABSTRACT
Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is one of the most important vegetable crops grown in the various states of
India mostly in Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Assam and Rajasthan for
local consumption as well as for export purpose. The total area under carrot in India during 2015-16 was 71
thousand hectares, and the production was 1136 thousand metric tons.
The physical properties of carrot i.e. weight, diameter, length and volume were studied. Average weight,
diameter, length and volume of carrot were observed as 102.08 g, 39.56 mm, 118.6 mm and 69.8 cm3
respectively. The frictional properties i.e. rolling angle, static coefficient of friction and dynamic coefficient of
friction of carrot were also studied. The rooling angle of carrot was found as 10.2 degree. The static coefficient
of friction of carrot on MS sheet and galvanized sheet was observed as 0.56 and 0.69 respectively. The dynamic
coefficient of friction of carrot on MS sheet and galvanized sheet was observed as 0.48 and 0.62 respectively.
Keywords: Physical Properties, Frictional Properties, Engineering Properties, Carrot, Rolling angle, Static
coefficient of friction, dynamic coefficient of friction.
INTRODUCTION
Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is one of the most important vegetable crops grown various states in India and
abroad. It is grown in India for local consumption as well as for export purpose. Carrot belongs to the class of
foods that provide energy in the human diet in the form of carbohydrates. Carrot is mainly starchy and has less
protein content. However, considering the large quantity of carrot consumed per day, their protein contribution
becomes significant. In addition, carrot contains an appreciable amount of vitamins and minerals. Carrot has a
competitive production advantage in terms of energy yield per hectare over cereals produced in difficult
ecological conditions. Carrot grows underneath the soil where they are able to absorb high amount of minerals
and other nutrients from the soil. They are also able to absorb important nutrients from the sun through their
leaves.
Carrot matures in about two months, although some gardeners find them more succulent when they are
pulled earlier than this. A tiny head or crown of orange colour will appear at the soil line when the carrots are
maturing. The diameter of the carrot is a good indication of its maturity level. The late summer crop can be
harvested in winter if mulched, a light frost is said to sweeten the carrot's flavour. The darkest and greenest tops
indicate the largest carrots.
Carrots are a nutritious addition to the diet as they are one of the richest sources of beta carotene. They
are also important sources of Vitamin C, Vitamin K, dietary fiber and potassium. They also contain Vitamin B6,
niacin, folate, Vitamin E, enzyme-supporting manganese and molybdenum, and energy-providing Vitamin B1,
Vitamin B2 and phosphorus.
67
Determination of Physical and Frictional Properties of Carrot (Daucus carota L.)
Carrot is often used in juice therapy for the treatment of certain diseases. In fact, carrots were initially
grown as medicine for treating a variety of ailments. This vegetable can be eaten both in its raw and cooked
forms. It serves as a fat substitute when used as a thickener in soups, sauces, casseroles and quick breads. A
steaming bowl of carrot soup is a great way to boost nutrition in winter.
There are many health benefits to eating carrots. They not only improve physical well-being, but also
improve mental health. This is due to their high amounts of antioxidants which help to remove harmful free
radicals and toxins from the body.
In India, the carrot is grown across the country. Haryana is the leading producer, followed by Andhra
Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Assam. The total area under this crop in India during 2015-
16 was 71 thousand hectares, and the production was 1136 thousand metric tons. India exports carrot to UAE,
UK, Maldives, Bangladesh and other countries. The total volume of export during 2014-15 was 278.97 metric
tons which valued 6.43 million rupees.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The shortage of processing and preservative equipment’s for carrot, which may be due to the fact that
data on the engineering properties of carrot required for the design of these machines is insufficient or not
available in some cases. Also, most agricultural products are visco-elastic, therefore, the determination of the
engineering properties of biomaterials are difficult and complicated.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objective of this study is to determine the selected engineering properties of Carrot; (shape, size,
volume, weight, rolling angle, static coefficient of friction and Dynamic coefficient of friction).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Selection of material
To study engineering properties of carrot, “Pusa Kesar” variety (commonly grown) was procured from
a farmer. Random samples were drawn from freshly harvested carrots. Ten numbers of carrots were taken as
(measurement of physical and frictional properties) study samples. For this particular study, the following
physical and frictional characteristics were determined in laboratories.
1. Weight of carrot
The weight (g) of carrot after harvesting was measured with the help of an electronic weighing balance
with least count of 0.02 g as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Measurement of weight of carrot
68
J S Ghatge, S A Mehetre and S B Patil
2. Diameter of carrot Size
The size of carrot was determined using the projected area method. In this method, three characteristic
dimensions are defined: (Mohsenin, 1970).
1. Major diameter, which is the longest dimension of the maximum projected area;
2. Intermediate diameter, which is the minimum diameter of the maximum projected area or the maximum
diameter of the minimum projected area; and
3. Minor diameter, which is the shortest dimension of the minimum projected area. Length, width, and thickness
terms are commonly used that correspond to major, intermediate, and minor diameters, respectively.
4. The diameters of carrot after harvesting were measured by using Vernier Caliper with least count of 0.2 mm
as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Measurement of diameter of carrot
3. Volume of carrot
Volume is defined as the amount of three-dimensional space occupied by an object, usually expressed
in units that are the cubes of length, such as cubic inches and cubic centimeters, or in units of liquid measure,
such as gallons and liters. In the SI system, the unit of volume is m3 (Mohsenin, 1970). The Volume of carrot
after harvesting was measured by water displacement method, as shown in Figure 3 and 4. The length of carrot
was measured with the help of steel tape as shown in Figure 5.
4. Length of carrot The frictional properties of carrot were studied with platform set-up as shown in Figure 6. The
coefficient of friction includes the magnitude of frictional force and normal force. The frictional force between
the two objects is not constant, but increases until it reaches a maximum value. When the frictional force is at its
maximum, the object will either be moving or will be on verge of moving. There was two methods to
measurethe coefficient of friction viz. horizontal and inclined method. In horizontal method t he friction
between horizontal plane surface and box containing sample material was determined by the variation of
weights in hanger, where as in inclined method the moment of the box by lifting an inclined plane along with
the protector to obtain tangent angle of friction. The coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of force of
friction to the normal force. (Razavi and Farahmandfar, 2008).
Figure 3: Initial water level Figure 4: Final water level
69
Determination of Physical and Frictional Properties of Carrot (Daucus carota L.)
Figure 5: Measurement of diameter of carrot
The coefficient of friction was measured against the galvanized and M.S. Sheet surface. Three
frictional properties viz. Rolling angle, Coefficient of static friction and Coefficient of dynamic friction by
horizontal plane method as per the procedure suggested in frictional properties manual by CIAE, Bhopal (2013)
was determined.
5. Rolling angle for carrot
To determine the rolling angle, a carrot was kept at the Centre of the corking surface. The platform was
inclined until carrot begins to roll. When the rolling of carrot was started, the position of platform was noted by
protractor; for the next test, the platform was brought to the initial horizontal position (Bayanar and Vanayak,
1985). In this experiment, the rolling angle was measured for two different platforms such as galvanized iron
sheet and mild steel sheet. The rolling angle was measured as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 6: Set up for study of frictional Figure 7: Measurement of rolling angle of carrot
properties of carrot
6. Coefficient of static friction
If the externally applied force is just equal to the force of static friction, then the object is on the verge
of slipping and the coefficient of friction involved is called the coefficient of static friction. It was determined
on two surfaces, i.e. galvanized iron sheet and mild steel sheet for carrot. A pan having weight was attached to
carrot by thread. The table was tilted slowly manually until movement of the carrot mass. The coefficient of
static friction was calculated by using following relationship, (Frictional properties manual by CIAE, Bhopal,
2013).
Static friction
μ =
W2 − W1
s W … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …1
70
J S Ghatge, S A Mehetre and S B Patil
Where,
μs = Coefficient of static friction;
W1 = Weight to cause the sliding of empty box;
W2 = Weight to cause the sliding of the filled box; and
W = Weight of the carrot.
The Coefficient of static friction was calculated by the horizontal plane method.
Figure 8: Measurement of the coefficient of static friction
6. Coefficient of dynamic friction
If the externally applied force is equal to the force of dynamic friction, then the object slides at a constant
speed, and the coefficient of friction involved is called the dynamic coefficient of friction. It was determined on
two surfaces, i.e. galvanized and mild steel for carrot. The coefficient of dynamic friction was calculated by
using following relationship, (Frictional properties manual by CIAE, Bhopal, 2013).
Dynamic friction
μ =
W2 − W1
d W … … … … … … … … … … … … 2
Where,
μd = Coefficient of dynamic friction;
W1 = Weight to cause the sliding of carrot, g;
μd = Coefficient of dynamic friction;
W1 = Weight to cause the sliding of carrot, g;
Figure 9: Measurement of coefficient of dynamic friction
71
Determination of Physical and Frictional Properties of Carrot (Daucus carota L.)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Engineering Properties of Carrot
Engineering properties such as physical properties and frictional properties of carrot were studied
according to the procedure explained above and the results are explained below.
1. Physical properties of carrot
The various physical properties of carrot such as length, diameter, weight and volume were measured as
per the procedure explained in material and methods. The obtained values are presented in Table 1. The
average length, diameter, weight and volume of carrot were found to be 118.6 mm, 39.56 mm, 102.08 g and
69.8 cc, respectively.
Table 1: Dimensions of Carrot
Sample
Number
Length,
mm
Diameter,
mm
Weight, g Volume, 000 mm3
1 117 39.58 102.24 73
2 118 39.62 101.86 65
3 120 40.22 103.12 74
4 117 40.90 103.00 72
5 119 38.60 100.56 67
6 121 39.31 101.34 69
7 118 38.96 102.89 70
8 122 40.43 101.65 71
9 115 38.76 102.49 68
10 119 39.22 101.71 69
Average 118.6 39.56 102.08 69.8
2. Frictional properties of carrot
2.1 Rolling angle
The rolling angle for carrot was measured as per the procedure explained in material and methods. The
obtained values for the ten samples are shown in Table 2. The average rolling angle for carrot was observed as
10.2 degrees.
Table 2: Rolling Angle for Carrot
Sample
Number
Rolling Angle
degree
Sample Number Rolling Angle, degree
1 11 6 7
2 10 7 9
3 9 8 13
4 12 9 11
5 10 10 10
Average Rolling Angle for Carrot = 10.2 degree
2.2 Static coefficient of friction
The ratio of applied force (F, gm) to the normal reaction (N, gm) is defined as the static coefficient of
friction. It was measured by a horizontal plane method as explained in material and methods. It was
determined on two surfaces, i.e. galvanized iron sheet and mild steel sheet. The values of static coefficient of
friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet were calculated and shown in Table 3 and Table 4 respectively.
72
J S Ghatge, S A Mehetre and S B Patil
Table 3: Static coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet
N, g F, g Static Coefficient of Friction
103 65 0.63
113 66 0.58
123 69 0.56
133 70 0.52
143 72 0.50
Average static coefficient of friction for galvanized iron
sheet, μav
0.56
Table 4: Static Coefficient of Friction for MS Sheet
N, g F, g Static Coefficient of Friction
103 77 0.74
113 82 0.72
123 86 0.69
133 89 0.66
143 93 0.65
Average static coefficient of friction for MS sheet, μav 0.69
Figure 10 and Figure 11 show the relationship between normal reaction and force applied for the static
coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet, respectively. The slope of the curve shows the
average static coefficient of friction for the galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet respectively. The static
coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet was found to be 0.56 and 0.69 respectively.
These findings were by the findings of Ambrose (2013).
Fig. 10: Static coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet
Fig. 11: Static coefficient of friction for MS sheet
75
70
65
60
μs=0.56
R² = 0.9759
100 120 140 160
Normal reaction, g
Forc
e ap
plie
d,
g
Forc
e ap
plie
d,
g
100
90
80
70
μs = 0.69
R² = 0.9928
100 120 140 160
Normal reaction, g
73
Determination of Physical and Frictional Properties of Carrot (Daucus carota L.)
2.3. Dynamic coefficient of friction
The dynamic coefficient of friction for carrot was measured by horizontal plane method as explained
in material and methods. It was determined on two surfaces, i.e. galvanized iron sheet and mild steel sheet.
The values of dynamic coefficient of friction for the galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet were calculated and
expressed in Table 5 and Table 6 respectively.
Table 5: Dynamic coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet
N, g F, g Coefficient of
Friction
103 59 0.52
113 62 0.50
123 64 0.48
133 65 0.45
143 67 0.46
Average dynamic coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet, μav 0.48
Table 6: Dynamic coefficient of friction for MS sheet
N, g F, g Coefficient of
Friction
103 67 0.59
113 77 0.62
123 81 0.60
133 89 0.62
143 96 0.67
Average dynamic coefficient of friction for MS sheet, μav 0.62
Figure 12 and Figure 13 shows the relationship between normal reaction and force applied for the
dynamic coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet respectively. The slope of the curve
shows the average dynamic coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet respectively. The
dynamic coefficient of friction for galvanized iron sheet and MS sheet was found to be 0.48 and 0.62
respectively. These findings were in accordance with the findings of Ambrose (2013).
Fig. 12: Dynamic coefficient of friction for Fig. 13: Dynamic coefficient of friction for MS
sheet galvanized iron sheet
70
68
66
64
62
60
μd=0.48
R² = 0.9704
100
120 140 160
Normal reaction, g
95
90
85
80
75
70
μd = 0.62
R² = 0.9879
100
120 140 160
Normal reaction, g
Forc
e ap
plie
d,
g
Forc
e ap
plie
d,
g
74
J S Ghatge, S A Mehetre and S B Patil
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The physical properties of carrot i.e. weight, diameter, length and volume were studied. The average
weight, diameter, length and volume of carrot were observed as 102.08 g, 39.56 mm, 118.6 mm and 69.8
cm3 respectively.
The frictional properties i.e. rolling angle, static coefficient of friction and dynamic coefficient of
friction of carrot were also studied. The rolling angle of carrot was found as 10.2 degree. The static
coefficient of friction of carrot on galvanized sheet was observed as 0.56 and 0.69 respectively. The
sdynamic coefficient of friction of carrot on MS sheet was observed as 0.48 and 0.62 respectively.
REFERENCES
Ahmadi H.; Mollazade K.; Khorshidi J.;Mohtasebi S.S.;Ali R. (2009). Some physical and mechanical
properties of fennel seed, Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 1(1): 66-75.
Balami, A. A., Adebayo, S. E. and Adetoye, E. Y. (2012). Determination of some engineering properties of
sweet potato (ipomoea batatas). Asian Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences. 1: 67-77.
Gamea, G. R., Abd El-Maksoud, M.A. and Abd El-Gawad, A.M. (2009). Physical characteristics and chemical
properties of potato tubers under different storage systems. Misr J. Ag. Eng. 26 (1): 385- 408.
Mohsenin, N.N. (1986). Physical properties of plant and animal materials.2nd Ed. Gordon and Breach Science
publ., New York. pp. 20-89.
Negar, A., Morteza, M.M., Shirmohamadi, G.R and Chegini-Reza A.A.Z (2012). Potatoes Physical Properties
Researching in Mechanized Harvesting (Agria Variety). Paper presented in Int. Confer. Agric. Eng. CIGR-
Ag. Eng. 2012, Valencia Conference Centre, July 8-12, 2012, Valencia, Spain.
Niveditha, V. R., Sridhar, K. R. and Balasubramanian, D. 2013. Physical and mechanical properties of seeds
and kernels of Canavalia of coastal sand dunes. International Food Research Journal, 20 (4): 1547- 1554.
75
Proceedings of Second International Conference on
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
Influence of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical
Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and Yield of Mango (Mangifera
Indica L.) cv. Amrapali
D S Nehete, R G Jadav and Ishwar Singh
Department of Horticulture, B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University’ Anand
(Gujarat), India
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted to find out the most appropriate combination of bio-fertilizers and
chemical fertilizers for mango production during 2011 - 13 at the Horticultural Research Farm, Department of
Horticulture, B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand. The trial was laid out in
randomized block design, replicated thrice, with thirteen treatments including control. It was found that the
application of 100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T6) significantly increases tree height (m) at initial
and harvesting stage, tree spread N- S (m) at initial and harvesting stage and canopy volume (m3) at initial
stage, whereas tree spread E - W at harvesting stage and canopy volume (m3) at harvesting stage found
superior with 100% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T4). The application of 85% N + 85% P2O5 +
Azotobacter + PSB (T10) appeared as the most suited combination for providing maximum number of panicles
per branch, length of panicle (cm), number of flowers per panicle, sex ratio, total chlorophyll content of leaf
(mg/g) at 50% flowering and before harvesting, leaf area (cm2) at 50% flowering and before harvesting,
marketable fruit weight (g), number of fruits per tree and fruit yield (kg/tree). Shelf life (days) and fruit
volume (cc) significantly increased with 70% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T13). Tree spread E - W at
initial stage was found non significant. Treatment 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB proved as the
next better treatment followed by 100% RDF.
Keywords: Mango, Growth, Flowering, Yield and Amrapali
INTRODUCTION
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae. It is grown almost in 63 countries
of the world. This fruit crop occupies a unique place amongst the fruit crops grown in India. In Western India,
several mango varieties viz., Alphonso, Kesar, Rajapuri, Pairi, Dashehari, Langra, Neelum, Amrapali and
Mallika are commercially grown and accepted by the consumers. Amrapali is a hybrid developed at IARI,
New Delhi through crosses between Dashehari × Neelum. It is precocious dwarf (suitable for high-density
planting), regular bearer and good cropper. Fruits are green, apricot yellow, medium-sized sweet in taste with
high T.S.S. and pulp content (75%), while flesh is fibreless and deep orange-red. Application of manures and
fertilizers through soil is not enough to produce qualitative mango fruits. A decline in soil health due to
excessive dependence on chemical inputs left us with no other option but to utilising biological inputs like
biofertilizers which is sought to be one of the answers to restore the soil health apart from solving nutrition
problem of plants. Biofertilizers are microbial preparations containing living cells of different
microorganisms that have the ability to mobilize plant nutrients in soil
76
Influence of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and Yield of
Mango (Mangifera Indica L.) cv. Amrapali
from unusable to usable form through biological process. They are environmentally friendly and play
significant role in crop production. It is mainly used for field crops but now a days it is used for fruit crops
also. Biofertilizers are able to fix 20–200 kg N/ha/year, solubilize P in the range of 30–50 kg P2O5 ha/year
and mobilizes P, Zn, Fe, Mo to varying extent. Biofertilizers are used in live formulation of beneficial
microorganisms which on application to seed, root or soil, mobilize the availability of nutrients particularly
by their biological activity and help to build up the lost micro flora and in turn improved the soil health in
general (Hazarika and Ansari, 2007). Considering the importance and future scope of mango fruit, it was
decided to conduct the present experiment with the objectives to find out the effect of bio-fertilizers in
combination with chemical fertilizers on growth of mango cv. Amrapali.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted at the Horticultural Research Farm, Department of Horticulture,
B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand during Rabi – Summer season of the year
2011 - 12 and 2012 - 13. The soil samples of location before conducting an experiment in main field were
analyzed for essential nutrients, organic carbon, EC and pH (Jackson, 1973). The details of value are given in
Table 1, which shows the soils to be medium in available nitrogen and available phosphorous was low,
whereas available potash is high at location of experiment, while organic carbon was low at the location.
The experiment consisted of thirteen treatment combinations, comprised of three nitrogen levels (100, 85 and
70% of RDF), two levels of phosphorous (100 and 85% of RDF) and bio-fertilizers (Azotobacter, PSB each
of 5 ml/ tree). The details of treatments are given in Table 2. According to treatment, 50% N and 100% P2O5
of each treatment were applied at the time of onset of monsoon by (18th July and 12th July during 2011-12 and
2012-13, respectively) making ring with 15 cm deep and 1.5 m away from main trunk Second dose of 50% N
was applied at flowering stage (21st February and 12th February during 2011-12 and 2012-13, respectively).
According to treatment, 5ml of each of Azotobacter and PSB were dissolved in 1 litre water and mixed with
80 kg FYM (well decomposed organic manure). This mixture was applied at the time of onset of monsoon (1st
August and 23rd July during 2011-12 and 2012-13, respectively). At the time of flowering stage 5ml of each
of Azotobacter and PSB were dissolved in 1 litre water and mixed with 20 kg finely powdered FYM. This
mixture was given on 3rd March and 23rd February during 2011-12 and 2012-13, respectively.
Potassium 100%, FYM @ 100 kg/tree was applied as a common dose to ten year old experimental trees.
The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design with four replications. The soil of the
experimental site was sandy loam, locally known as “Goradu”. Data obtained from study for two consecutive
years were pooled and statistically analyzed as procedure given by Panse and Sukhatme (1967).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
In respect of growth parameters the results revealed that pooled results recorded significantly
maximum tree height at initial stage by the application of 100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T6)
which was at par with T4, T2, T13, T10, T5, T8, T3 and T12. Tree height at harvesting stage was found non-
significant during first year of study. On pooled basis, maximum tree height at harvesting stage was found by
the application of 100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T6) and was at par with T4, T2, T13, T10 and T8
as compared to control T1. Initially tree spread East-West (E - W) was found non-significant due to the
combined application of biofertilizers and chemical fertilizers. Later on at harvesting stage significantly
higher tree spread was observed under 100 % N + 100 % P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T4) in pooled results,
which was at par with T10, T8, T12, T6, T13, T3 and T2.
Likewise, the influence of biofertilizers in combination with chemical fertilizers on tree spread N –
S at initial stage on pooled basis significantly maximum tree spread were obtained under T6 (100% N +
77
D S Nehete, R G Jadav and Ishwar Singh
85 % P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) and it was at par with T13 followed by T2, T3, T5, T4, T11, T12, T8 and T7.
However, maximum tree spread N – S at harvesting stage during pooled results were recorded under T6
(100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB). It was at par with T4, T13, T3, T5, T2 and T8.
In a pooled analysis, maximum canopy volume at initially was observed with the application of 100% N +
85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T6) and was at par with T4, T13, T2, T10 and T8. It is seen that significantly
higher canopy volume at harvesting stage by the application of 100% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB
(T4) and was at par with T6 and T13.
Table 1: Chemical properties of the experimental soil
S. No. Soil characteristics Value
1. Organic carbon (%) 0.34
2. Available nitrogen (kg ha-1) 260.37
3. Available phosphorus (kg ha-1) 21.84
4. Available potash (kg ha-1) 415.71
5. Soil pH
(1:2.5, soil : water ratio) 7.08
6. EC (dsm-1) 0.29
The positive influence of bio-fertilizers in combination with chemical fertilizers on growth
performance in respect of tree height, tree spread and canopy volume might be due to the application of NPK
and FYM along with Azotobacter and PSB. The useful effect of nitrogen is certainly reflected by an increase in
growth attributes. As nitrogen is the major constituent of fertilizers and it is a constituent of the protein, which
is essential for formation of protoplasm and thus increasing the cell division and cell elongation and there by
more vegetative growth. The application of N made a more rapid synthesis of carbohydrate, which is converted
into protein and protoplasm and increasing the size of cells. Similarly inoculation of Azotobacter a biological
nitrogen fixer improved the nitrogen use efficiency of the plant (Dutta et al., 2009).
Table 2: The treatment details in the present investigation are as under
S.
No.
Treatments Treatment details
T1 Control - 750 N + 160 P2O5 g/tree
(RDF)
Control - 750 N + 160 P2O5 g/tree (RDF) (100% N + 100%
P2O5)
T2 100% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter 750 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree)
T3 100% N + 100% P2O5 + PSB 750 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + PSB (5ml/tree)
T4 100% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter
+ PSB
750 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
T5 100% N + 85% P2O5 + PSB 750 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + PSB (5ml/tree)
78
Influence of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and Yield of
Mango (Mangifera Indica L.) cv. Amrapali
T6 100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter
+ PSB
750 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
T7 85% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter 637.5 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree)
T8 85% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter
+ PSB
637.5 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
T9 85% N + 85% P2O5 + PSB 637.5 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + PSB (5ml/tree)
T10 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter +
PSB
637.5 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
T11 70% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter 525 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree)
T12 70% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter
+ PSB
525 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
T13 70% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter +
PSB
525 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
In addition to this phosphorus plays an important role in energy transformation which potassium plays an
important role in the maintenance of cellular organization by regulating the permeability of cellular membranes.
Treatment T10 i.e. 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB recorded significantly the highest number of
panicles per branch as compared to the rest of the treatments except T13 and T8. The length of panicle was
significantly increased by the application of T10 (85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) which remained at
par with T11 and T8. It is clearly indicated that treatment 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T10)
significantly increased the number of flowers per panicle and reduction in sex ratio i.e. male and hermaphrodite
flowers. It remained at par with T8 followed by T13 and T12 during pooled analysis. These might be due to facts
that in conditions of adequate nutrition provided through NPK, FYM and biofertilizers, the trees remained more
vegetative and hence, accumulation of carbohydrates induce early flowering. It was also helps in maintaining a
particular C: N ratio (CCC: NN) in shoots which is essential to produce flowers (Kunte et al., 2005). The
increased in flowers may be due to increased in nutrients availability from FYM, the organic phosphorous
through phosphobacteria and IAA from Azotobacter which may have increased various endogenous hormonal
levels in plant tissue might be responsible for enhancing flowering.
Table 2: The treatment details in the present investigation are as under 1.
S.
No.
Treatments Treatment details
T1 Control - 750 N + 160 P2O5 g/tree
(RDF)
Control - 750 N + 160 P2O5 g/tree (RDF) (100% N + 100%
P2O5)
T2 100% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter 750 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree)
T3 100% N + 100% P2O5 + PSB 750 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + PSB (5ml/tree)
T4 100% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter
+ PSB
750 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
T5 100% N + 85% P2O5 + PSB 750 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + PSB (5ml/tree)
T6 100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter
+ PSB
750 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
T7 85% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter 637.5 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree)
T8 85% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter
+ PSB
637.5 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
T9 85% N + 85% P2O5 + PSB 637.5 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + PSB (5ml/tree)
79
D S Nehete, R G Jadav and Ishwar Singh
T10 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter +
PSB
637.5 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
T11 70% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter 525 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree)
T12 70% N + 100% P2O5 + Azotobacter
+ PSB
525 N g/tree + 160 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
T13 70% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter +
PSB
525 N g/tree + 136 P2O5 g/tree + Azotobacter (5ml/tree) + PSB
(5ml/tree)
In the present study treatment of 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB (T10) recorded significantly the
maximum total chlorophyll content of the leaf at 50% flowering stage and it remained at par with T12 followed by
T6, T4 and T13. While, before harvesting total chlorophyll content of leaf was significantly increased under T6
(100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) and remained at par with T10, T8 and T4.
The maximum leaf area was noticed under T6 (100% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) at 50% flowering
stage and just before harvesting, during the period of experiment and on pooled basis and it remained at par with
T8, T10 and T13.
The increased in chlorophyll content and leaf area might be due to the application of NPK along with FYM
and biofertilizers secreted plant growth-promoting substances like IAA, GA3 and cytokinins besides increasing
the availability of atmospheric nitrogen which enhanced rapid synthesis of carbohydrate. While, phosphobacteria
bring about dissolution of bound forms of phosphates in soil. Thus, phosphorus plays an important role in energy
transformation and potassium plays an important role in maintenance of cellular organization by regulating the
permeability of cellular membrane.
Treatment T10 i.e. 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB recorded significantly the maximum fruit
weight as compared to the rest of the treatments on pooled basis. This might be due to accumulation of more food
material in the trees by an efficient utilization for development of fruits. The marked effect of nitrogen on various
characters of fruits was due to increased in the efficiency of metabolic processes and thus encouraged the growth
of the plant in general and consequently the various parts of the plant including fruit. The application of N, P and
K fertilizers might have resulted in high rate of photosynthesis results leads to higher carbohydrate accumulation
in fruit and thereby increasing in fruit size and weight. They also enhanced the plant growth through their
beneficial effects, which in turn resulted in higher fruit size (Singh et al. 2003).
Significantly the highest number of fruits per tree was recorded in treatment T10 i.e. 85% N + 85% P2O5 +
Azotobacter + PSB and remained at par with treatments T8. Similarly, the highest fruit yield per tree was also
recorded by the treatment T10 i.e. 85% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB and it remained at par with treatments
T8 and T13. The increased in number of fruits per tree and fruit yield (kg/plant) might be attributed due to
increasing levels of nutrients near the assimilating area of plant enhanced the rate of dry matter production and its
rational partitioning to economic part improved the yield (Dalal et al., 2004).
Maximum shelf life was reported by the treatment T13 (70% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) which was
closely followed by the treatments T12, T8, T10 and T11. Similarly, the fruit volume was also significantly highest
with the treatment T13 (70% N + 85% P2O5 + Azotobacter + PSB) as compared to rest of the treatments, except
T10 followed by T9, T8, T4, T6, T12, T11 and T7.
Table 3: Growth parameters at initial and harvesting stage of mango cv. Amrapali as influenced by bio-
fertilizers in combination with chemical fertilizers
S.
No
.
Treatments
Tree height (m) Tree spread E - W
(m)
Tree spread N - S
(m) Canopy volume (m3)
At
Initial
stage
At
Harvesting
stage
At
Initial
stage
At
Harvesting
stage
At
Initial
stage
At
Harvesting
stage
At
Initial
stage
At
Harvesting
stage
80
Influence of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and Yield of Mango
(Mangifera Indica L.) cv. Amrapali
T1 Control - 750 N
+ 160 P2O5
g/tree (RDF)
5.55
5.79
5.38
5.59
5.44
5.74
88.65
101.50
T2 100% N +
100% P2O5 +
Azotobacter
6.12
6.46
5.76
6.16
6.17
6.53 118.75 140.13
T3 100% N +
100% P2O5 +
PSB
5.84
6.18
5.96
6.33
6.16
6.58 109.22 129.79
T4 100% N +
100% P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
6.16
6.68
6.12
6.81
6.13
6.76 124.48 160.75
T5 100% N + 85%
P2O5 + PSB
5.93
6.28
5.42
5.79
6.14
6.54
108.25 129.11
T6 100% N + 85%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
6.19
\6.69
6.04
6.64
6.34
6.91 125.81 160.72
T7 85% N + 100%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter
5.76
6.10
5.46
5.81
5.89
6.34 102.41 121.54
T8 85% N + 100%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
5.91
6.37
6.13
6.71
5.91
6.45 112.68 142.32
T9 85% N + 85%
P2O5 + PSB
5.44
5.81
5.49
5.86
5.44
5.87 85.98 105.18
T10 85% N + 85%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
5.97
6.43
6.22
6.76
5.77
6.27 113.33 142.27
T11 70% N + 100%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter
5.53
5.88
5.57
5.95
6.00
6.37 93.86 112.89
T12 70% N + 100%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
5.82
6.21
6.20
6.69
5.94
6.40 109.25 133.95
T13 70% N + 85%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
6.03
6.44
5.98
6.58
6.31
6.76 118.59 146.53
S.Em ± 0.14 0.13 0.25 0.24 0.17 0.17 5.11 5.63
C. D. (P
=0.05)
0.40 0.38 NS 0.68 0.48 0.48 14.39 15.93
C. V. (%) 7.19 6.45 12.61 11.72 8.70 7.96 13.58 12.31
81
D S Nehete, R G Jadav and Ishwar Singh
Table 4: Flowering and physiological parameters of mango cv. Amrapali as influenced by bio-fertilizers in
combination with chemical fertilizers
S.
No
.
Treatments
No. of
panicles
per
branch
Length of
panicle
(cm)
No. of
flowers
per
panicle
Sex
ratio
Total chlorophyll
content of leaf (mg/g)
Leaf area
(cm2)
At 50%
flowering
Before
harvesting
At
50%
flower
ing
Before
harvesti
ng
T1 Control - 750 N +
160 P2O5 g/tree
(RDF)
5.75 23.50 1470.63 1.50 2.14 1.27 50.36 51.18
T2 100% N + 100%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter
6.63 26.38 1520.25 1.38 2.14 1.25 61.02 61.93
T3 100% N + 100%
P2O5 + PSB 6.75 30.13 1527.50 1.28 2.18 1.25 73.04 73.90
T4 100% N + 100%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
7.50 30.13 1606.25 0.95 2.33 1.32 79.12 79.99
T5 100% N + 85%
P2O5 + PSB 7.50 30.00 1570.63 1.20 2.18 1.22 78.47 79.33
T6 100% N + 85%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
7.75 33.88 1682.50 0.93 2.37 1.36 85.91 86.84
T7 85% N + 100%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter
6.25 36.63 1558.13 1.10 2.22 1.21 77.07 78.13
T8 85% N + 100%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
8.88 41.50 1764.13 0.74 2.38 1.30 81.74 82.99
T9 85% N + 85%
P2O5 + PSB 7.38 37.63 1595.63 1.08 2.22 1.23 79.73 80.74
T1
0
85% N + 85%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
9.38 43.38 1779.38 0.73 2.41 1.32 83.03 82.26
T1
1
70% N + 100%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter
6.25 42.38 1550.38 1.15 2.19 1.19 73.22 72.89
T1
2
70% N + 100%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
8.13 37.88 1728.13 0.83 2.35 1.27 79.21 80.38
82
Influence of Bio-Fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth, Flowering and Yield of Mango (Mangifera Indica L.) cv. Amrapali
Table 5: Yield parameters, shelf life and fruit volume of mango cv. Amrapali as influenced by bio-
fertilizers in combination with chemical fertilizers
T1
3
70% N + 85%
P2O5 +
Azotobacter +
PSB
9.13 39.38 1760.13 0.79 2.33 1.28 81.03 83.22
S.Em ± 0.38 0.94 38.19 0.06 0.4 0.2 2.07 2.18
C. D. (P =0.05) 1.08 2.65 107.58 0.18 0.12 0.6 5.83 6.14
C. V. (%) 14.32 8.21 7.17 18.24 5.38 5.35 8.35 8.63
S.
No. Treatments
Marketable
fruit weight
(g)
Number
of fruits
per tree
Fruit
yield
(kg/tree)
Shelf life
(Days)
Fruit volume
(cc)
T1
Control - 750 N +
160 P2O5 g/tree
(RDF)
132.38 341.00 36.63 10.00 107.12
T2 100% N + 100%
P2O5 + Azotobacter 146.23 351.13 37.88 10.88 119.09
T3 100% N + 100%
P2O5 + PSB 153.18 361.00 38.38 10.88 115.76
T4
100% N + 100%
P2O5 + Azotobacter
+ PSB
164.11 367.68 46.00 11.50 124.80
T5 100% N + 85% P2O5
+ PSB 151.43 359.88 37.38 10.63 118.06
T6
100% N + 85% P2O5
+ Azotobacter +
PSB
160.91 401.38 41.25 11.00 124.11
T7 85% N + 100% P2O5
+ Azotobacter 152.89 360.63 37.50 11.50 121.51
T8
85% N + 100% P2O5
+ Azotobacter +
PSB
166.95 541.75 52.13 12.63 125.14
T9 85% N + 85% P2O5
+ PSB 151.55 371.00 38.14 11.75 125.94
T10
85% N + 85% P2O5
+ Azotobacter +
PSB
179.21 556.00 54.00 12.38 126.13
T11 70% N + 100% P2O5
+ Azotobacter 143.08 354.50 42.13 12.38 122.63
T12
70% N + 100% P2O5
+ Azotobacter +
PSB
155.11 432.75 47.63 12.88 122.84
83
D S Nehete, R G Jadav and Ishwar Singh
The NPK application along with bio-fertilizers viz., Azotobacter and PSB and FYM resulted in an overall
improvement in fruit quality and thereby shelf life of mango. The increased in fruit quality may be attributed to
the use of these bio-fertilizers which enhances the nutrient availability by enhancing the capability of plants to
better solute uptake from rhizosphere and also helped in mitigating stresses in plants (Patel et al., 2009). The
potassium is known to be a vital element for the development of fruit, movement of sugar and indirectly
photosynthesis. The increased in fruit volume was due to use of NPK along with FYM and biofertilizers which
caused accumulation of more food material and leads to efficient utilization of the same for the development of
fruits.
REFFERENCES
Dalal, S. R.; Gonge, V. S.; Jogdande, N. D. and Anjali Moharia (2004). Responce of different levels of nutrients
and PSB on fruit yield and economics of sapota. PKV Res. J. 28: 126 -128.
Dutta, P.; S. B. Maji and B. C. Das (2009). Studies on response of biofertilizer on growth and productivity of
guava. Indian J. Hort., 66 (1): 39-42.
Hazarika, B. N. and Ansari, S. (2007) biofertilizers in fruit crops - A review Agric.Rev., 28 (1) :69-74.
Jackson, M. L. (1973). Soil chemical Analysis prentice Hall of India. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi: 498.
Kunte, Y. N.; Kawthalkar, M. P. and Yawalkar, K. S. (2005). Principles of horticulture and fruit growing. 10th
edition, Agri-Horticultural Publishing House, India.
Panse, V. G. and P. V. Sukhatme (1967). Statistical methods for Agril. workers 2nd enlarge edition ICAR New
Delhi.
Patel, V. B., S. K. Singh, Ram Asrey, Lata Nain, A. K. Singh and Laxman Singh (2009). Microbial and inorganic
fertilizers application influenced vegetative growth, yield, leaf nutrient status and soil microbial biomass in
sweet orange cv. Mosambi. Indian J Hort. 66 (2): 163-168.
Singh, G., Mishra, A. K., Hareeb, M., Tandok, D. K. and Pathak R. K. (2003). The guava. Extension bulletin 17,
Published by CISH, Lucknow: pp. 1.
T13
70% N + 85% P2O5
+ Azotobacter +
PSB
160.83 483.63 53.13 13.50 128.68
S.Em ± 4.27 15.03 2.00 0.45 2.64
C. D. (P =0.05) 12.02 42.35 5.64 1.25 7.44
C. V. (%) 8.23 10.99 13.92 11.49 6.39
84
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
Security Through Pulse production Under Climate Uncertainties In
Jammu and Kashmir
B S Jamwal and 1Shahid Ahamad
Pulses Research Sub-Station, SKUAST-J Samba-184121 Jammu (J&K), India 1Directorate of Research, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agriculture Sciences and Technology-
Jammu (J&K), India
ABSTRACT
Pulses provide protein of high biological value in vegetarian diets, overcoming malnutrition in masses.
About 90% of the global pigeopea, 65% of chickpea and 37% of lentil area falls in India while as a share of
production is 93%, 68% and 32% respectively (FAO STAT 2012). The situation of pulses in J&K is quite
dismal. The area under pulses in J&K which stood at 55 thousand ha in 1968-69 has come down to approximately
half in recent years. The same is the situation of total production and productiviy has also stagnated. Pulses which
shared 6.85% of total crop area in J&K state in 1960-61, has come down to 2.58% in 2012-13. A number of
constraints can be attributed to this down fall in area but very low SRR can be attributed as main reason. It is
11.83% and 3.66% for two respective seasons in J&K state which is quite low in comparison to other states and
national level SRR of pulses.
Seeing this dismal position, Govt. of India has sanctioned two “Seed Hubs on Pulses” for J&K state one
of which will be operated through SKUAST-Jammu. Out of the total state pulses area, approx 66% area falls in
Jammu region. As the major area under pulses during earlier decades has now been occupied by wheat and paddy
crops due to coverage under Ravi-Trawi command area, now with plenty of irrigation facility and pulses are
marginalized to rainfall Kandi belt or other non-productive areas; the ‘Seed Hub on Pulses’ will take care of
quality seed requirement of Kandi based rainfed pulses farmers, who don’t have timely availability of pulses
quality seed and are compelled to panicky adoption of other options than pulses cultivation at eleventh hour
during sowing seasons.
Also timely availability of quality seed of high yielding pulse varieties to command area farmers will
boost the coverage of area. Under pulses in this highly productive tract of the region which is more than 50
thousand ha. A total quantity of 2500 Qtl of quality seed of different pulses is targetted to be produced over
different seasons in three years project period and there after the activity will be carried over after the completion
of the project on self-sustainable basis, thereby addressing the problem of protein malnutrition of poor farmers,
ameliorating the soil health and improving the financial and social status of the target area farmers as well as will
increase area, production and productivity of pulses in Jammu region of J&K state.
Key words: Food Security, Pulse production, Climate Uncertainties
INTRODUCTION
The land which is basic to agriculture is finite and fragile. Water is life but limited and getting polluted.
Despite soil fertility degradation, ground water depletion, bio-diversity erosion, soil, water and air pollution; total
factor productivity reduction and increase in the cost of production in conjunction with other growth retarding and
cost escalating factors, 70% increase in grain yield would be required to feed your people by 2050. Globally, only
85
Security Through Pulse production Under Climate Uncertainties In Jammu and Kashmir
3.0 billion hectares of land is irrigated, And of total water available, 70% is used in agriculture which is likely to
reduce further due to its other pressing demands. To meets the ends, high-quality seed of improved varieties of
different crops to increase production through productivity enhancement per unit area, input and time would be
required.
The country has advanced from a situation of food scarcity and imports to that of food security and
exportable surpluses. However, the growth of agriculture sector has not kept pace with the growth of the
population and has stagnated. The imperative of national food security, nutritional security and economic
development demand a very focused and determined approach to raise productivity and production in agriculture.
In view of the fact that the area under cultivation is unlikely to increase significantly, thrust will have to be on
raising productivity per unit of cultivated land with 17 percent of world population in India and it has only 2.4%
global land area and 4% water bodies. The second major challenge is climate change.
Seed is the critical and most important input in agriculture that acts as a catalyst for all other inputs to
realize higher productivity in any crop species. With good quality seeds, the investment on all other inputs will
not pay the desired divided. It is well known fact that the direct contribution of quality seeds alone to the total
production is around 20%. With efficient management of other inputs viz. water, fertilizer, plant protection,
growth-regulating chemicals etc, the added dividend in production can be raised to 45%.
Inspire of the release of several improved varieties/hybrids in each crops, their spread among the farming
community is not satisfactory resulting in the wastage of huge resources spent on the development and release of
such varieties hybrids over long period. It could be because of the lack of seed availability in sufficient quantity or
non-performance of released variety/hybrid farmer fields due to late sowing etc. In view of these fact timely
availability of quality seeds of improved varieties/hybrids at right place in adequate quantities, at affordable price
is crucial in realizing the better performance and decides the health of Indian agricultural economy. J & K state
which is one of the important state of India, the seed situation is quite dismal. The SRR (seed replacement rate)
which was 22.4 in 2004-05 at national level increased to 39.9 in 2013-14. But in J & k state the quality seed
distributed to farmers was in 19.13% of total wheat area, 2.81% in rice area and 6.14% in total maize area
cultivated in Jammu region while as it was 7.23% for all other crops combined area during 2016-17.
Approximately 75% area in Jammu region which forms one of the major agricultural production areas, is rainfed
and depends on rains. The total rainfall which different districts of this region experience from 2010 to 2016 were
quite variable. The Rajouri district which is having majority of rainfed area experienced as low as 70.70 mm and
142mm rainfall during 2015 and 2014. The same is the situation in Poonch district which received 122 mm,
173mm and 181 mm rainfall during 2016, 2010 and 2015 year.
Table 1: Minimum-Maximum temperature (0C) at Jammu
S.
No.
Month 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
1. Jan. 5.8 17.5 6.4 16.8 6.1 18.4 6.7 16.5 6.9 19.1 6.8 16.8 7.0 17.0
2. Feb. 10.6 23.3 10.2 20.4 7.7 20.0 9.1 19.8 8.8 19.3 10.4 21.7 10.0 23.0
3. March 17.6 31.0 14.8 27.9 13.5 27.6 13.7 26.8 12.9 24.5 12.9 23.8 15.0 27.0
4. April 23.2 37.5 19.1 32.2 18.5 32.6 18.9 32.5 16.5 30.2 18.5 29.3 19.9 33.6
5. May 25.4 39.1 25.2 39.1 22.9 38.1 24.5 39.1 22.4 36.0 22.7 36.8 24.5 38.6
6. June 26.2 39.0 25.1 36.2 26.4 41.5 26.7 36.9 26.8 40.1 24.8 36.8 26.5 38.1
7. July 25.8 34.3 24.9 33.0 26.1 36.3 25.3 33.4 26.0 34.6 25.0 33.0 25.0 30.4
86
B S Jamwal and Shahid Ahamad
8. Aug 25.3 32.6 24.6 32.5 24.1 32.7 24.4 31.4 24.3 33.4 24.7 32.5 24.7 32.4
9. Sept 23.1 32.5 23.7 32.8 22.3 31.9 22.5 32.5 22.5 30.9 22.0 33.0 33.2 23.9
10. Oct. 19.9 31.1 18.5 30.6 17.1 30.0 19.5 30.2 17.9 29.8 17.4 29.7 18.4 31.8
11. Nov. 14.0 27.1 14.0 26.4 12.2 25.6 10.7 25.5 11.2 26.0 NA NA 11.8 26.4
12. Dec. 8.4 21.0 8.7 22.4 8.4 19.6 7.6 20.0 6.7 19.2 NA NA 18.6 22.3
In other nearly district like Udhampur, Reasi, Doda, Kishtwar and Ramban the situation is still more
grim. Only three districts of Jammu, Samba and Kathua, which have, though, significant rainfed area. The rainfall
was normally during 2010-2016 but the rainfall pattern was variable. To add to this the temperature fluctuations
are playing their role in miseries of the farmers and abrupt temperature rise even upto 5 c above than normal
during February, April, May drought-like situation in October.-December months during early Rabi season,
increase the miseries of rainfed farmers, especially pulse farmers as pulses have 90% rainfed area.
Seeing all this condition, ICAR (GOI) has sanctioned two “pulses seed Hub” in 2016-17, one for Jammu
region and the other for Kashmir region and the seed availability of pulses farmers is picking up. Such types of
activities needs to be taken up in other crops also, which will boost quality seed availability for poor farmers this
climatically ecologically fragile region and will be a poor for food as well nutritional security of these poor
farmers and their families.
A systematic strong and vibrant seed production system is needed to attend to sustainable food security.
Increase in SRR to 35% in case of open-pollinated varieties in self-pollinated crops; 50% and above in cross-
pollinated crop varieties and 100% case of hybrids will certainly help in doubling the food grain production in J
& K state. An increase in variety replacement following logical system of notified high yield varieties/hybrids will
also add to the productivity gain. Up-gradation of existing seed system is need of the hour to attend to the great
challenge of reducing the usage of farm saved seeds. An effective farmer’s friendly model should be developed to
make available the quality seeds of improved varieties/hybrids timely at affordable price.
In tribal hilly regions, farmers varieties/local varieties are still popular may be because of excellent
quality associated with therapeutic/medicinal value, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, climate resilience and
special attributes association with these varieties. But as these varieties are not in seed chain, efforts should be
made to bring such varieties in informal seed chain with some amount of genetic purity through special
maintenance breeding methods. These farmers varieties are quite important in future breeding programme as they
process useful
Table 2: Annual Rainfall Jammu Division
Stations 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Kathua 710.00 1050.00 1372.00 1279.00 1201.00 1086.00 1253.00
Bashal 867.00 1545.00 2280.00 2194.00 2032.00 1799.00 1774.00
Rajouri 1136.02 1055.60 891.00 987.30 142.00 70.70 858.30
Akhnoor 1467.60 1653.00 1908.00 2113.40 2275.80 1359.02 1383.00
Poonch 173.00 362.00 326.00 390.00 479.00 181.00 122.00
Billawar 1341.00 1700.00 1891.00 2806.00 2843.00 2001.00 1941.00
Kishtwar --- --- --- --- --- 776.56 780.00
87
Security Through Pulse production Under Climate Uncertainties In Jammu and Kashmir
Table 3: Area sown under different food crops
Dis
tric
t
Net
Are
a S
ow
n
(ha)
Net
Are
a i
rrig
ated
(ha)
Net
Are
a cr
opped
(ha)
Tota
l cr
opped
Are
a
Irri
gat
ed (
ha)
Are
a
sow
n
under
dif
fer
ent
food
crops
as
bel
ow
in
(ha)
.
Dru
gs
Ric
e
mai
ze
Baj
ra
Whea
t
Bar
ley
Mil
lets
gra
ins
Puls
es
Sugar
cane
Condim
ents
& S
pic
es
Oil
see
ds
Fodder
cro
ps
fiber
Nar
coti
cs
and
Pla
nta
tion
crop
Jam
mu
106798
66115
196241
116800
67551
24061
5559
79936
422
4935
3456
130
1928
5143
15
17
Kat
tua
58797
21218
117008
41800
35913
15304
1454
50195
1698
32
2403
28
232
3366
5932
_
02
Sam
b
a 3264
5
1006
7
6471
8
2080
0
1932
8
2667
4437
2954
9
512
83
2175
_
188
4050
1721
6
_
Udha
mpur
48885
10212
92765
13300
8325
35307
1585
36906
855
626
1576
_
333
1773
267
8
_
Rea
si
20937
1439
36464
2100
1125
18531
270
14232
106
25
352
_
17
1130
652
_
_
Raj
ou
ri
53632
4768
10154
3
8400
4410
47475
563
45587
97
_
307
17
445
1584
849
_
_
Poonch
27336
3501
44728
5900
2859
24201
_
14956
_
_
28
_
290
132
2145
_
_
Doda
29848
2495
49817
3400
1509
26428
01
3357
1446
24
1488
_
80
983
814
_
_
Ram
b
an
19661
1372
25396
1500
5280
14681
_
5416
_
_
_
_
19
_
_
_
_
Kis
tw
ar
16
044
28
15
20
027
32
00
11
74
11
577
_
24
05
15
97
17
44
11
70
_
01
25
_
_
_
To
tal
41
48
83
12
40
02
74
87
07
21
72
00
14
74
75
22
12
32
13
86
9
28
25
39
67
33
74
69
12
95
5
45
17
35
14
97
1
17
52
3
29
19
gene/gene blocks for specific traits. These varieties are the products of dynamic evolution in a target ecosystem
and quite adapted to the region.
Enabling the resource poor farmers with quality seed and suitable production technology for sustainable
likelihood is a big challenge that needs a concentrated focus. Since majority of the farmers in J & k are small and
marginal, providing quality seeds at affordable price is also a challenge as seeds produced by using
varieties/hybrids with bio-tech traits in plant breeding which can be made available to resources poor farmers at
88
B S Jamwal and1Shahid Ahamad
affordable price, good infrastructure facilities are to be created and capacity building to undertake such advance to
research be given the priority. These are urgent need to bestow attention by policy makers to promote healthy
seed industry and achieve second green revolution through seeds in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India.
The area under pulses in J&K which stood at 55 thousand ha in 1968-69 has come down to
approximately half in recent years. The same is the situation of total production and productiviy has also
stagnated. Pulses which shared 6.85% of total crop area in J&K state in 1960-61, has come down to 2.58% in
2012-13. A number of constraints can be attributed to this down fall in area but very low SRR can be attributed as
main reason. It is 11.83% and 3.66% for two respective seasons in J&K state which is quite low in comparison to
other states and national level SRR of pulses.
REFERENCES
Ahamad, S. (2009). Plant Disease Management for Sustainable Agriculture Published by Daya Publishing House
New Delhi. pp 373.
Ahamad, S. (2012). Recent Trends in Plant Diseases Management in India, Published by Kalyani Publisher,
Ludhiana, India. Pp 478.
Ahamad, S. (2013). Hill Agriculture. Published by Astral Publishing House, New Delhi.pp 550.
Ahamad, S. and Ali Anwar (2014). Terminology on Plant Pathology Published by Jaya Publishing House, Delhi-
110006 pp. 159.
Ahamad, S. and Jag Paul Sharma (2018). Transformation of Agriculture trough Innovative Technologies.
Published by Astral Publishing House, New Delhi. pp 450.
Ahamad, S. and Narain, U. (2007). Eco-friendly Management of Plant Diseases Published by Daya Publishing
House New Delhi. pp 412.
Ahamad, S., Anwar, A and Sharma, P.K. (2011).Plant Disease Management on Horticultural Crops., Published by
Daya Publishing House New Delhi. pp 405.
B. Lal, Ahamad, S. and De, D. (2016). Modeling in Communication behaviors of Farmers, Published by Astral
International Publisher, New Delhi.
Nasim Ahmad and Shahid Ahamad (2017). Green House gases and IPM. Published by Educationist Press, A
division of Write and Prints Publications, New Delhi. pp 292.
Shahid Ahamad and Nasim Ahmad (2017). Pathogenic Fungi in Plant Organisms. Published by Educationist
Press, A division of Write and Prints Publications, New Delhi. pp286.
89
Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies
Bangkok, Thailand, June 23-27, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-87922-74-7
Problem of Sugarcane Sustainability: Indian Cash Crops versus
Thailand Cash Crops
Niharika Srivastava
Department of Economics, Pratap Bahadur Post Graduate College, Pratapgarh (UP), India
ABSTRACT
Sugarcane is one of a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. It is an important cash crop of the
primary sector grown in India. On the other side, Sugar cane production is one of the major economic sectors in
Thailand.For comparing the variables between both countries for sugarcane, researcher has following objectives-
1) To assess the trend of Area, Production and Yield for Sugarcane in both countries. 2) To build a model among
the variables- Production, Area and Yield for sugarcane in both countries. 3) To highlights the impulse-response
and decomposition impact for sugarcane in both countries. To fulfill the above objectives, two hypotheses are
used for testing the study.Explanatory Research is used in this paper. This paper is based on secondary data that
was collected from the website of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO). Time Series
data from 1961 to 2016 has been used in this paper that is analyzed through econometrics tools. EViews 10
package is used to analyze the data.
After analyzing the data, researcher comes to this conclusion that Thailand production rate is higher than
India and Thailand’s area change in a constant term means linear pattern while India’s area has exponential
pattern. Therefore yield of Thailand is near about equal to India. Due to applying mechanization and
commercialization policy in agriculture, yield has been increasing in both countries while causing widespread
ecological and environmental damage.To increase biological nitrogen fixation and solubility of phosphatic
fertilizers, setts should be treated with N supplying bio-fertilizers or phosphate solubilising inoculants and the
introduction of machinery also has two faces good and bad therefore the balance of advantage will depend upon
local agricultural circumstances which must be closely studied in order to elucidate what degree of mechanization
will be the most advantageous economically in both countries.
Keywords: Agriculture, Cash Crops, Sugarcane.
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock. The major agricultural products can
be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels and raw materials (such as rubber). Since 1900, large rises have been
seen in productivity introducing by mechanization, and assisted by synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and selective
breeding. Agriculture has been converting into Mechanization and Commercial Agriculture. Now a days,
approximately 70% of the world's food is produced by 500 million smallholder farmers. For their livelihood they
depend on the production of cash crops, basic commodities that are hard to differentiate in the market. Sugarcane
is one of a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. It is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral
shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, typically three to four m (10 to 13 ft) high and about 5 cm (2 in) in
diameter. The stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A
mature stalk is typically composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars, and 63–73% water.
90
Problem of Sugarcane Sustainability: Indian Cash Crops versus Thailand Cash Crops
A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, and
the harvest period. The average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare (24–28 long). Now a days,
approximately 70% of the world's food is produced by 500 million smallholder farmers. For their livelihood they
depend on the production of cash crops, basic commodities that are hard to differentiate in the market. Sugarcane
is one of a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. It is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral
shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, typically three to four m (10 to 13 ft) high and about 5 cm (2 in) in
diameter. The stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A
mature stalk is typically composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars, and 63–73% water.
A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, and
the harvest period. The average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare (24–28 long ton/acre; 27–31 short
ton/acre) per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge
and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation. Many parts of the sugarcane are commonly used as
animal feeds where the plants are cultivated. The leaves make good forage for ruminants. In most countries where
sugarcane is cultivated, there are several foods and popular dishes derived directly from it. Global production of
sugarcane in 2016 was 1.9 billion tones, with Brazil producing 41% of the world total followed by India 18%.
Thailand was in fourth position (Table-1).
Table-1: sugarcane production – 2016
Country Production (millions of tonnes)
Brazil 768.70
India 348.40
China 122.70
Thailand 87.50
World 1890.70
Source: FAOSTAT, United Nations
AGRICULTURE/CROPS
TRADITIONAL /
SUBSISTENCE CROPS
FARMING WITH HIGH LABOUR LESS TOOLS / TO FEED THEMSELVES AND THEIR FAMILIES
MECHANICAL /
CASH CROPS
FARMING WITH LOW LABOUR HIGH
TOOLS/TO SELL FOR PROFIT
91
Niharika Srivastava
Sugarcane is important to the cash crop of primary sector grown in India. Sugarcane cultivation and
development of sugar industry runs parallel to the growth of human civilization and are as old as agriculture. The
average sugarcane yield in the country plays a vital role towards in the socio-economic development of the rural
areas by mobilizing rural resources and generating higher income and employment opportunities. About 7.5% of
the rural population, covering about 60 million sugarcane farmers is dependent and a large number of agricultural
labors are involved in sugarcane cultivation, harvesting and ancillary activities. Therefore in the current day rural
economy set up sugarcane cultivation and sugar industry have been focal point for socio-economic development
in rural areas by mobilizing rural resources, generating employment and higher income, transport and
communication facilities. About 7 million sugarcane farmers and large number of agricultural laborers are
involved in sugar cane cultivation and ancillary activities. Apart from this, the sugar industry provides
employment to 5 lakh skilled and semi-skilled workers in rural areas. On the other side, Sugar cane production is
one of the major economic sectors in Thailand. There are several activities involved in the production process
such as sugarcane growing, sugar milling, credit banking, exportation, etc. The sugar production activities provide
significant full time and temporary employment in sugar factories, sugar transformation, transportation and
exports.
Usaborisut 2018, studyis related to the progress in Mechanization of Sugarcane Farms in Thailand.
According to Usaborisut, Sugarcane is an important cash crop in Thailand. With a contribution of 5.5% to the
total world production, Thailand is the fourth largest producer of sugarcane next to Brazil, India, and China.
During the crop year 2014/15, about 103.7 million tonnes of cane was produced with a national average of about
76.6 tonnes/ha, higher than the world average of 69.5 tonnes/ha and also of those countries ranking higher in
terms of total production. The major sugar-producing regions of Thailand are northeastern, central, and northern
parts, for which the share of production was 44.59, 28.98, and 26.43%, respectively, in crop year 2016/17.
Sugarcane is labor-intensive for almost all operations, from land preparation to harvesting. Machinery can help in
labor-saving and timeliness of operations, improving quality of work, reducing drudgery and operation cost, and
more importantly, increasing effective utilization of resources. Sugarcane growers are facing serious problems
such as labor shortage and high minimum wage for manual labor. Sometimes, mishandling of a problem may
result in other serious consequences. For instance, burning sugarcane to reduce labor requirement in harvesting
may lead to other problems. Mechanization can play a vital role in solving problems and in improving efficiency
of the present sugarcane production system. This paper presents the progress of farm mechanization in sugarcane
cultivation in Thailand through an overview of the machinery used in different farm operations based on farming
practices as well as their impact and also factors influencing the extent of mechanization in this crop. Future
prospects of mechanization are also discussed.
According to the Indian Council of Agriculture, in the conventional system, for cultivating sugarcane in
an acre (0.4 ha) of land about 1170 man hours and 130 bullock pair hours are required, which is laborious hence it
not only increases drudgery but also cost of production. Moreover, due to attractive job offers and wages in non-
farm sectors, labourers are reluctant to work in sugarcane fields. In States like Punjab and Haryana where the use
of farm machinery is quite high, the cost of cultivation excluding the cost on family labour and fixed costs is
around Rs. 35,000 per acre; approximately 45-48% of the total cost goes to payment on human labour and only
15-16% is spent on machinery rent including transport. Therefore, to increase net returns from sugarcane
cultivation there is a need incorporate cost-effectiveness in the production system. Mechanization is the
immediate option through which there is possibility of minimizing expenditure on human labour. Mechanization
has brought about significant improvement in agricultural productivity in developed countries. Taking into
consideration the time, precision of field operations, increased input use efficiency and productivity per unit, there
is a need to making sugarcane cultivation at least a semi-mechanized one by popularizing machinery like
sugarcane cutter planter, inter-culture implements, tractor-mounted-sprayers and harvesters which are available in
the country. If the initial cost of machinery is high, then it can be hired on co-operative basis.
Charnchayasuk (1965) is a Comparative Study of Economic Development between Thailand and India.
The objectives of this study are to compare the economic systems in Thailand and India. To assess the
92
Problem of Sugarcane Sustainability: Indian Cash Crops versus Thailand Cash Crops
effectiveness of the economic programs they have outlined, and to compare their achievements and
accomplishments in economic growth and development. India has to go cautiously in letting them work and not
throw them out by too much mechanization. In Thailand techniques of cultivation have not improved with the
expansion of area. It was being concluded that there is no time for experimentation. Mistakes in the past must be
corrected.
Kishore et al (2017) shows that present mechanization status in sugarcane in a review form.The crops
grown by the Indian farmers include different food crops, commercial crops, oil seeds etc.; sugarcane is one of the
important commercial crops grown in India. The area under sugarcane is covering around 5.08 million hectares
and with an average annual production of 350.02 million tonnes in the year 2013-14 and with an average
productivity of 68 tonnes/ha. India is a second largest producer as well as consumer of the sugar in the world and
during 2014-15; it produced 28 million tonnes of sugar, which was nearly 11.8 per cent of the total sugar
production of the world. The major producing state s are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. Though, the area under cultivation of sugarcane is more in the world as well as in
the country, the extent of la bour consuming is more and mechanization is less and also the energy consumption in
sugarcane production is more as compared to other crops like paddy, wheat, potato, maize, etc. Since the cost of
labour in country is increasing rapidly and the price of local sugar is uncompetitive with the product from
mechanized international producers, India needs to change its sugarcane production methods from manual work to
mechanization in order to catch up with international trends in this global industry. The use of mechanization
helps in labour saving, timeliness of operations, human drudgery reduction, reduces cost of operation, helps in
improving quality of work and ensures effective utilization of resources. The major operations in sugarcane
cultivation right from land preparation, sugarcane planting, ratoon management, weeding, harvesting, detrashing
and trash management, respectively needs mechanization effectively. Almost all of the sugarcane grown in India
is still harvested and detrashed the leaves by hand. In order to summarize past experience and promote the
mechanization of sugarcane production in India, this paper reviews the whole process of developing
mechanization for years and describes the current state of sugarcane mechanization in India. The mechanization
used in all the operations is discussed in this study.
OBJECTIVES
For comparing the variables between both countries for sugarcane, researcher has following objectives-
1. To assess the trend of Area, Production and Yield for Sugarcane in both countries.
2. To build a model among the variables- Production, Area and Yield for sugarcane in both countries.
3. To highlights the impulse-response and decomposition impact for sugarcane in both countries.
HYPOTHESIS
To fulfill the above objectives, following hypothesis are used for testing the study.
H0: ROPI=ROPT & ROAI=ROAT
H1: ROPI≠ROPT &ROAI≠ROAT
H0: Both countries have same impulse-response and decomposition impact for Sugarcane.
H1: Both countries have not same impulse-response and decomposition impact for Sugarcane.
METHODOLOGY
Explanatory Research is used in this paper. This paper is based on secondary data that was collected from
the website of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO).Time Series datafrom 1961 to 2016
has been used in this paper that is analyzed through econometrics tools. EViews 10 package is used to analyze the
data.
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE STUDY
93
Niharika Srivastava
Productions of both countries are seen in pictorial form in Chart-1. The chart shows that the production of
India is greater than Thailand.
CHART-1
Same as the area of sugarcane in India is higher than Thailand. (See Chart-2)
CHART-2
Table 1 shows the individual estimated equation for the area and productionof Indian sugarcane crop in
respect of time. The estimated values of parameters are significant.The adjusted R2 gives us some idea of how
well on model generalizes and ideally we would like its value to be the same, or very close to, the value of R2.
Change in R2 is significant because the probability of value of F-ratio is less than 0.001 (p<0.001).
Table-1: Estimated equation and related values for India
S.
No.
Estimated
Equation
Parameters Value Godness of Fit
S.E. T Values Significane
Value
R R2 F Ratio Significane
Value
1 A=2195791.75
3* exp(.015* t)
0.001 23.507 0.000
0.954
0.911 552.579 0.000 46588.436 47.132 0.000
2 P=
90378845.745*
exp( 0.025 * t )
0.001 26.750 0.000
0.964 0.930 715.566 0.000 2980560.
190 30.323 0.000
0
100,000,000
200,000,000
300,000,000
400,000,000
1961
1965
1969
1973
1977
1981
1985
1989
1993
1997
2001
2005
2009
2013
IN T
ON
NES
YEAR
PRODUCTION OF SUGARCANE
INDIA
THAILAND
01,000,0002,000,0003,000,0004,000,0005,000,0006,000,000
1961
1965
1969
1973
1977
1981
1985
1989
1993
1997
2001
2005
2009
2013
IN H
ECTA
RE
YEAR
AREA OF SUGARCANE
INDIA
THAILAND
94
Problem of Sugarcane Sustainability: Indian Cash Crops versus Thailand Cash Crops
Table 2 shows the individual estimated equation for area and productionof Thailand sugarcane crop in the
respect of time. The estimated values of parameters are significant.The adjusted R2 gives us some idea of how
well on model generalizes and ideally we would like its value to be the same, or very close to, the value of R2.
Change in R2 is significant because the probability of value of F-ratio is less than 0.001 (p<0.001).
Table-2: Estimated equation and related values for Thailand
S.
No.
Estimated
Equation
Parameters Value Godness of Fit
S.E. T
Values
Significane
Value
R R2 F Ratio Significane
Value
1 A=93121.533
* exp(.057* t)
0.003 16.645 0.000
0.915 0.837 277.048 0.000 10380.86
6 8.970 0.000
2 P=-
16721314.202
+1736173.24
2* t
73456.96
5 23.635 0.000
0.955 0.912 558.625 0.000 2600729.
299 -6.429 0.000
The pattern of area in both countries are same but the rate is differs in both countries. After applying T-
Test on this difference, researcher finds the p value is less than 0.0001. By conventional criteria, this difference is
considered to be extremely statistically significant. It shows that both are not equal (ROPI≠ROPT). The null
hypothesis is rejected in this case and alternative is accepted. Thailand production rate is higher than India.
In the case of the area, both have different pattern. India’s area has exponential pattern while Thailand’s
area change in a constant term means linear pattern. Therefore both are not equal (ROAI≠ROAT) or it can be said
that in this case Null hypothesis is also rejected and alternative is accepted. Therefore yield of Thailand is near
about equal to India.
CHART-3
0
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
700,000
800,000
900,000
1961
1966
1971
1976
1981
1986
1991
1996
2001
2006
2011
2016
TO
NN
ES P
ER H
ECTA
RE
YEAR
YIRLD OF SUGARCANE
INDIA
THAILAND
95
Niharika Srivastava
For building a model, the researcher tests the stationary and causality (through unit root test) of the series.
Both series are non stationary and casual. Therefore VAR model is developed among the variables in both series
that shows the dynamic form of both series and the impact of all variables to each other can be seen in short run as
well as long run through impulse-response and decomposition.
INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE = 0.596788238125*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE (-1)
-0.258397550655*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE (-2)
+ 0.00425466220224*INDIA_PRPDUCTION (-1)
+ 0.00227295674405*INDIA_PRPDUCTION (-2)
+ 5.29214678658*INDIA_YIELDING (-1)
– 5.0723253597*INDIA_YIELDING (-2)
+ 799755.996442
INDIA_PRPDUCTION = - 44.7228863531*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE(-1)
+ 45.906714866*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE(-2)
+ 1.36632777989*INDIA_PRPDUCTION(-1)
- 0.584073300803*INDIA_PRPDUCTION(-2)
+ 244.955771096*INDIA_YIELDING(-1)
- 79.2206229447*INDIA_YIELDING(-2)
- 52045724.5417
INDIA_YIELDING = - 0.106080022676*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE(-1)
+ 0.154520807112*INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE(-2)
+ 0.000881914400328*INDIA_PRPDUCTION(-1)
- 0.00161266851456*INDIA_PRPDUCTION(-2)
+ 0.657217560285*INDIA_YIELDING(-1)
+ 0.498674839827*INDIA_YIELDING(-2)
- 97211.7493724
CHART-4
-20,000,000
-10,000,000
0
10,000,000
20,000,000
30,000,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Response of INDIA_PRPDUCTION to INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE
-10,000
0
10,000
20,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Response of INDIA_YIELDING to INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE
Response to Cholesky One S.D. (d.f. adjusted) Innovations ± 2 S.E.
96
Problem of Sugarcane Sustainability: Indian Cash Crops versus Thailand Cash Crops
In India, due to the shocks of the area of India, production is constant upto 2 period then decreases till 10
periods (some fluctuations are also found on 5-6 periods). Due to same shocks, yield decreases upto 2 periods. It
is negative from 2-3 periods then starts to increase upto 5 periods. After that it decreases further till 7th periods
and then starts to increase till 10th periods.
In the short run, that is quarter 3 impulse or innovation or shocks to Area account for 68.49% variation of
the fluctuation in Area (Own Shocks). Shock to Area can cause 53.96% fluctuation in Production while shock to
Area can cause 8.95% fluctuation in Yield. In long run, shocks to Area account for 54.78% (decrease from the
short run) variation of the fluctuation in Area (Own Shocks). Shock to Area can cause 41.87% (decrease from the
short run) fluctuation in Production while shock to Area can cause 7.63% (decrease or like constant from the short
run but having very low effects) fluctuation in Area. It means thatProduction is highly effected due to the shock to
Area.
If we throw the light on the Thailand, the value of response is lying between upper and lower limits on
the 95% of confidence level. Due to the shocks of area of Thailand, the effects of production will be decrease upto
2 periods. After that it will increase. Same results are founded on Yield of Thailand.
In the short run, that is quarter 3 impulse or innovation or shocks to Area account for 82.49% variation of
the fluctuation in Area (Own Shocks). Shock to Area can cause 39.61% fluctuation in production while a shock to
Area can cause 10.05% fluctuation in Yield. In long run, shocks to Area account for 69.14% (decrease from the
short run) variation of the fluctuation in Area (Own Shocks). Shock to Area can cause 45.79% (increase from the
short run) fluctuation in Production while shock to Area can cause 16.75% (increase or like constant from the
short run but having very low effects) fluctuation in Area. It means that Production is highly effected due to the
shock to Area.
It can be concluded that impulse-response is same but the decomposition is different in both countries.
Therefore Null Hypothesis is accepted in impulse-response but rejected in decomposition impact.
TABLE-3
Variance Decomposition of INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE:
Period S.E. INDIA_AR... INDIA_PR... INDIA_YIE...
1 221181.6 100.0000 0.000000 0.000000
2 388121.1 81.02359 16.99595 1.980453
3 468098.6 68.49117 29.81709 1.691736
4 496343.3 65.32657 33.09867 1.574765
5 518551.5 64.52945 33.30484 2.165707
6 546271.4 62.59172 33.80978 3.598500
7 570250.7 59.95494 35.23050 4.814556
8 587189.3 57.90882 36.33054 5.760646
9 601281.5 56.31854 36.91936 6.762101
10 615143.6 54.78453 37.37806 7.837415
Variance Decomposition of INDIA_PRPDUCTION:
Period S.E. INDIA_AR... INDIA_PR... INDIA_YIE...
1 20611944 80.36761 19.63239 0.000000
2 32966994 61.63986 37.77204 0.588101
3 38389992 53.96431 45.36841 0.667286
4 40977372 52.19440 46.56933 1.236274
5 43627022 51.05109 45.85650 3.092410
6 46405184 48.83510 45.89664 5.268256
7 48617923 46.52471 46.56067 6.914625
8 50318848 44.75137 46.93018 8.318449
9 51855562 43.27156 47.00662 9.721820
10 53323725 41.87027 47.08447 11.04526
Variance Decomposition of INDIA_YIELDING:
Period S.E. INDIA_AR... INDIA_PR... INDIA_YIE...
1 27537.51 16.84378 69.10915 14.04707
2 36578.53 9.551414 79.04856 11.40003
3 38709.82 8.951722 78.43416 12.61412
4 40876.14 8.622805 73.46871 17.90849
5 44491.29 8.812439 68.05489 23.13267
6 47551.04 8.251351 66.16459 25.58406
7 49577.20 7.805761 65.03585 27.15839
8 51315.51 7.660578 63.64033 28.69909
9 53111.36 7.671981 62.34434 29.98368
10 54776.90 7.635152 61.49728 30.86756
Cholesky Ordering: INDIA_AREA_IN_HECTARE INDIA_PRPDUCTI
ON INDIA_YIELDING
97
Niharika Srivastava
CHART-5
Problem of Sugarcane Sustainability: Indian Cash Crops versus Thailand Cash Crops
TABLE-4
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
The researcher comes to this conclusion that Thailand production rate is higher than India and Thailand’s
area change in a constant term means linear pattern while India’s area has exponential pattern. Therefore yield of
0
2,000,000
4,000,000
6,000,000
8,000,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Response of THAILAND_PRODUCTION to THAILAND_AREA_IN_HECTARE
-10,000
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Response of THAILAND_YIELDING to THAILAND_AREA_IN_HECTARE
Response to Cholesky One S.D. (d.f. adjusted) Innovations ± 2 S.E.
Variance Decomposition of THAILAND_AREA_IN_HECTARE:
Period S.E. THAILAND... THAILAND... THAILAND...
1 68263.14 100.0000 0.000000 0.000000
2 102141.1 89.73725 8.589255 1.673500
3 126263.0 82.49796 14.44190 3.060144
4 145824.4 78.00492 17.23705 4.758022
5 162271.0 75.14539 18.62857 6.226041
6 176549.1 73.14305 19.26397 7.592973
7 189051.6 71.70504 19.49093 8.804031
8 200142.2 70.62771 19.47383 9.898468
9 210051.8 69.80097 19.31981 10.87921
10 218972.5 69.14732 19.08940 11.76328
Variance Decomposition of THAILAND_PRODUCTION:
Period S.E. THAILAND... THAILAND... THAILAND...
1 7502130. 53.56452 46.43548 0.000000
2 10877809 41.89754 58.09303 0.009433
3 12877702 39.61544 60.26612 0.118439
4 14285115 39.86139 59.83469 0.303919
5 15399441 40.82098 58.53537 0.643653
6 16323925 41.92828 56.99868 1.073040
7 17117074 43.02176 55.38390 1.594343
8 17811498 44.04160 53.78811 2.170288
9 18429894 44.96675 52.24900 2.784251
10 18986649 45.79395 50.79185 3.414196
Variance Decomposition of THAILAND_YIELDING:
Period S.E. THAILAND... THAILAND... THAILAND...
1 65708.27 13.70794 56.93423 29.35783
2 80550.02 10.13388 70.28190 19.58422
3 87141.54 10.05936 71.58499 18.35565
4 90370.95 10.69212 72.10197 17.20591
5 92724.97 11.75488 71.53696 16.70816
6 94475.16 12.82589 70.88751 16.28660
7 95965.94 13.90429 70.04774 16.04797
8 97243.55 14.91998 69.20337 15.87665
9 98395.02 15.87385 68.33831 15.78783
10 99437.58 16.75522 67.49780 15.74698
Cholesky Ordering: THAILAND_AREA_IN_HECTARE
THAILAND_PRODUCTION THAILAND_YIELDING
98
Problem of Sugarcane Sustainability: Indian Cash Crops versus Thailand Cash Crops
Thailand is near about equal to India. Due to applying mechanization and commercialization policy in agriculture,
yield has been increasing in both countries.
Haber-Bosch method allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly
increasing crop yields and sustaining a further increase in the global population. Results of this Modernfarming
agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and technological developments have
sharply increased yields, while causing widespread ecological and environmental damage. On the other side,
Machinery also increases the tendency of "modern agri-culture" toward monoculture. The purchase of an
expensivemachine specialized for only one crop will certainly induce theowner to continue growing that crop.
Thus, monoculturesbecome more attractive and even justifiable on narrow economic grounds. However,
monoculture tends to bring with it aset of problems such as a buildup of diseases, insects, andweeds that parasitize
or compete with the single crop. Rotationof crops usually aids in control of these problems. In addition,using very
large machinery makes it more difficult to followproper erosion-control practices such as strip cropping orterrace
maintenance. This, in addition to the loss of soilorganic matter which accompanies continuous growing of
rowcrops by conventional tillage systems, can create a situation ofaccelerated soilerosion.
To increase biological nitrogen fixation and solubility of phosphatic fertilizers, setts should be treated
with N supplying bio-fertilizers or phosphate solubilising inoculants and the introduction of machinery also has
two faces good and bad therefore the balance of advantage will depend upon local agricultural circumstances
which must be closely studied in order to elucidate what degree of mechanization will be the most advantageous
economically in both countries.
REFERENCES
AIORP(S) Technical Bulletin No.1.
http://sugar-asia.com/the-new-cane-cultivation-technique-reduces-cane-sett-costs-by-4-times.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/X0513E/x0513e24.htm.
http://www.nationmultimedia.com/detail/national/30348512in Si Boon.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarcane.
https://knoema.com/atlas/Thailand/topics/Agriculture/Crops-Production-Yield/Sugar-cane-yield.
https://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/ttest1/?Format=SEM.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture.
https://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/ttest1/?Format=SEM.
https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4073&context=etd.
https://sugarcane.icar.gov.in/index.php/en/?id=317&phpMyAdmin=11c501a2a5dt8788ed6.
AIORP(S) Technical Bulletin No.1.
9 789387 922747