Probiotic Organisms

8/2/2019 Probiotic Organisms

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Probiotic OrganismsThe following are microorganisms considered to be human Probiotics:

Lactobacillus species: L. acidophilus, L. amylovorus, L. brevis, L. casei,L. caseisubsp. rhamnosus (Lactobacillus GG), L. caucasicus, L.

crispatus, L. delbrueckiisubsp.bulgaricus (L. bulgaricus), L. fermentum

(L. fermenti), L. gasseri, L. helveticus, L. johnsonii, L. lactis, L.

leichmannii, L. paracasei, L. plantarum, L. reuteri, L. rhamnosus Bifidobacterium species: B. adolescentis, B. bifidum, B. breve, B.

infantis, B. lactis (B. animalis), B. licheniformis, B. longum

Other lactic acid bacteria: Enterococcus faecium, Lactococcus lactis,

Leuconstoc mesenteroides, Pediococcus acidilactici, Streptococcus

thermophilus

Nonlactic acid bacteria: Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli strain nissle,

Saccharomyces boulardii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Lactobacillus organisms are normal inhabitants of the human intestine

and vagina. They are the main ones that produce lactic acid in the digestive

tract, which is important for overall health. Some nutritional benefits gained

from lactic acid include an improved nutritional value of food, control of

intestinal infections, improved digestion of lactose, control of some types ofcancer, and control of serum cholesterol levels.

Lactobacilli are gram-positive facultative anaerobes; non-spore forming; and

non-flagellated, rod or coccobacilli. To date, some 56 species

ofLactobacillus have been identified.

L. acidophilus is the most commonly known probiotic bacterium. It is

found primarily in the small intestine where it produces natural

antibiotics called lactocidin and acidophilin. These increase immuneresistance against such harmful bacteria and fungi as Candida

albicans, Salmonella, E. coli, and Staphylococcus aureus.

L. acidophilus implants itself on the intestinal walls, as well as on the

lining of the vagina, cervix, and urethra, thereby preventing other

organisms from multiplying to the extent that they can cause


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infections. For years, it was assumed that it was the most beneficial

form of the good bacteria; but recent research has revealed thatL.

rhamnosus may be just as important.

L. acidophilus helps control intestinal infections, thus reducing thepotential of diarrhea and other infections or diseases. It also inhibits

some types of cancer and helps control serum cholesterol levels.

However, reaching the intestines is the problem because the L.

acidophilus found in most commercial yogurts cannot live with

stomach acids and bile.

L. amylovorus is a bacterium found normally in the intestinal tract of

animals and humans, as well as in the mouth and vagina of humans. It

can sometimes be found in acidophilus milk, but it is mainly being

studied as a potential for a silaging agent and a commercial producer

of lactic acid.

L. brevis is a lactic acid-producing organism important in the

synthesis of vitamins D and K. Research studies have shown that L.

brevis decreases intestinal permeability (leaky gut syndrome),

improves intestinal micro flora, and has a positive effect on the

intestinal immune system. A recent study showed that this friendly

bacterium also has a positive effect in eliminating the ulcer-causingbacteria Heliobacter pylori.

L. bulgaricus is an important bacterium used in fermenting yogurt. It

helps produce lactic acid, thereby providing a good environment for

other beneficial bacteria to grow, especially Lactobacilli and

Bifidobacterium. It was the first organism to be implicated in providing

benefits to human health and so named after its discoverer, a

Bulgarian scientist, when he isolated it from yoghurt cultures in 1908.

L. bulgaricus is considered to be a transient microorganism. Thismeans that it does not implant itself in the intestinal tract, but roams

throughout providing an important protective role. Studies indicate

that certain strains ofL. bulgaricusimprove the digestion of milk, and

stimulates the production of interferon and tumor necrosis factor,

regulators of the immune system. L. bulgaricus assists in the


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metabolism of lipids (fats) and may help control cholesterol levels. It

also produces natural antibiotic substances and helps reduce the

proliferation of less desirable microorganisms.

L. caseiiis closely related to L. acidophilus and L. rhamnosus. Itsecretes a substance calledpeptidoglycan, which supports the

natural defences of the body and stimulates immune responses in the

intestinal tract. L. caseihas demonstrated effectiveness in increasing

circulating IgA (immunoglobulin A) in infants infected with rotavirus

and has shortened the duration of associated diarrheal episodes.

As with many of the Lactobacillus strains, this one also has some of

the same immune-enhancing effects provided through the production

of bacteriocins, compounds that inhibit the growth of pathogenic

bacteria in the small intestine. In a 2003 issue of theJournal of

Nutrition Health and Aging, fermented milk containing the probiotic L.

caseihad a positive effect on lessening winter infections in the elderly.

It is a highly prolific organism and has strong resistance to digestive

enzymes.

L. caseii rhamnosus (Lactobacillus GG) is a name given in honor

its discoverers, Drs. Sherwood Gorbach and Barry Golden who isolated

the bacterium in 1985. Lactobacillus GGdoes survive and grow in the

acidic environment of the digestive tract. Once there, it shows an

exceptional ability to adhere to the intestinal mucosa and proliferate.

According to the November 1999Journal of Pediatrics, when it was

given to children who were taking antibiotics for minor bacterial

infections, Lactobacillus GG reduced the number and severity of the

bouts of diarrhea, including those hospitalized with rotavirus. It has

also been successful in eradicating Clostridium difficile in patients withrelapsing colitis. During research experiments,Lactobacillus

GGdemonstrated the ability to inhibit chemically induced intestinal

tumors, as well as binding to some chemical carcinogens.

Lactobacillus GG and Bifidobacterium lactis were found to produce

significant improvement of atopic eczema in children with food


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allergies. Lactobacillus GG along with other lactic acid bacteria,

including strains ofLactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus,

Bifidobaterium longum andStreptococcus thermophilus, have also

demonstrated antioxidative ability, especially the chelation of metal

ions, particularly iron and copper.

L. caucasicus is commonly found in kefir a word likely originating

from the Turkish word "Keif" which means"good feeling". The scientific

name caucasicus comes from the area of the Caucasus Mountains

where shepherds diets consisted mainly of kefir and who often lived to

be over 100 years of age.

L. crispatus is a part of the normal vaginal

microflora.Lactobacillus organisms help keep the vagina free from

infection by producing hydrogen peroxide, a substance that is highly

acidic. When the ecology of the vagina is disrupted through infection,

douching, or poor hygiene, for example,Lactobacillican die off, leading

to a condition known as bacterial vaginosis. In recent studies, L.

acidophilus, L. crispatus, and L. delbrueckiisubspecies delbrueckiiall

inhibited bacterial vaginosis-associated species in vitro, causing

researchers to conclude that these probiotics might be useful for

vaginal recolonization in women with recurrent symptoms. There are

vaginal suppositories available in some countries that promote thisbacterium to increase vaginal acidity. These suppositories also hold

promise as another protective agent against such diseases as

gonorrhea and AIDS.

L. fermentiis one of the friendly flora bacteria useful in protecting

the vaginal area from vaginitis. It is used in making sourdough bread,

yogurt, and kefir.

L. gasseriappears to be the main Lactobacillus species that inhabits

the human gastrointestinal tract, havving a good survival rate, even in

the elderly. Other probiotic organisms (S. thermophilus and L

bulgaricus) did not survive when the elderly were given yogurt or

pasteurized yogurt. Tests have revealed that L. gasseriplays a

significant role in reducing gastic inflammation and in suppressing H.

pylori, the ulcer-causing bacterium.


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L. helveticus is often used in making Swiss-type cheeses to enhance

flavour. It is also added specifically to certain fermented milks. The

surprising thing about this bacterium is in the studies conducted on

post-menopausal women by the University of Helsinki (2004), L.

helveticus proved to have significant effects on bone density and in

preventing trabecular bone loss when compared to other milk products

that did not contain the organism. In addition, by adding L. helveticus,

the results proved to increase bone formation of osteoblasts (bone

cells), as well as serum calcium concentrations. The conclusion was

that L. helveticusproduces superior active components not found

elsewhere. In a separate study by the same university, the bacterium

also demonstrated some effect on hypertension by lowering blood

pressure somewhat. L. johnsoniiis an important probiotic because it survives passage

through the digestive tract. It adheres to intestinal cells, blocking the

colonization of potentially pathogenic bacteria. L. johnsoniistimulates

important mechanisms of the body's natural immune defences,

demonstrating the ability to produce an increase in the phagocytic

activity of peripheral blood monocytes and granulocytes.

Studies have shown that when fermented products containing this

organism were eaten, colonization of the small intestine by E. coliwasreduced significantly. In addition, a single oral dose ofL. johnsoniiwas

sufficient to suppress all aspects of colonization and persistence ofC.

perfringens and may be a valuable tool in controling the endemic

disease of necrotic enteritis common in the poultry industry. C.

perfringens can cause lesions in chicks and food poisoning in humans.

Preliminary studies have shown that L. johnsoniimay also have a

protective effect against Campylobacter jejuni. L. johnsoniihas shown

not only to help stimulate the immune system but also to help with

lactose intolerance and travellers diarrhea.

L. lactis is used in the making of some cheeses, as well as in starter

cultures for making fermented milk products. The bacterium appears

to inhibit both gram positive (eg. listeria) and gram negative (eg. E.

coli) pathogens.


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L. leichmanniiis another bacterium that helps to produce lactic acid

and is often used to determine the concentrations of vitamin B12 in

products. Normally present in rye grain, it is one of the bacteria use in

making German rye bread.

L. paracaseiis both acid and bile resistant, meaning it survives the

journey through the gastrointestinal tract to lodge in the intestines.

Recent research indicates that it is effective in the prevention and

treatment of certain types of diarrhea, as well as irritable bowel

syndrome. In addition, it has the ability to alter the activity of the

intestinal micro flora, modulate the immune system, and perhaps

reduce the risk of some cancers.

Studies have also been done as to its effects on the intestinal

microflora of the elderly. When fermented milk products containing L.

paracaseiwere consumed twice daily, dramatic reductions in the

occurrences ofClostridium difficileand Helicobacter pyloriwere

noticed in the elderly. In addition, it was also noticed that there was

an increase in the numbers of other Lactobacillus strains.

In other studies from the University of Nebraska, it was found that the

transport ofL. paracaseiwas reduced significantly with the use of

glucose, fructose, and sucrose, but that other mono-, di-, andtrisaccharides did not affect it nearly as much.

L. plantarum has been studied for the treatment of

recurrentClostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and for Candida yeast

infections. A particular strain called 299v, derived from sour dough

and used to ferment sauerkraut and salami, has demonstrated that it

can improve the recovery of patients with enteric bacterial infections.

The adherence of this bacterium reinforces the barrier function of the

intestinal mucosa, thus preventing the attachment of the pathogenicbacteria.

L. plantarum has many significant uses including:

o Preserving key nutrients, vitamins, and antioxidants


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o Manufacturing vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B12, vitamins A and

K, and short chain of fatty acids

o Helping to produce lactolin, a natural antibiotic

o Contributing to the destruction of moulds, viruses, and parasites

o Eradicating such pathogens as Staphylococcus aureusfrom

fermented food

o Helping to maintain healthy cholesterol and triglycerine levels

o Increasing the number of immune system cells

o Providing protection from such environmental toxins as

pesticides and pollutants

o Reducing toxic waste at the cellular level

o Stimulating the repair mechanism of cells

o

Synthesizing the anti-viral amino acid, L-lysineo Producing glycolytic enzymes which degrade cyanogenic

glycosides

o Eliminating toxic components from food including nitrates

L. reuteriis naturally found in the intestinal flora of animals, as well

as in humans, including breast milk. This bacterium strengthens the

immune system and helps to maintain the equilibrium of other friendly

microorganisms because it secretes an antibacterial substance called

reuterin. According to a 1997 issue of theJournal of Pediatric

Gastroenterology and Nutrition, L. reuteriis an effective treatment for

rotaviral diarrhea in children.

L. rhamnosus is closely related to L. caseiiand L. acidophilus but

more transient. It is a healthier species of good bacteria and easily

colonizes in the lining of the intestines and in the vaginal tract. It is

very prolific and has a high tolerance for bile salts and digestive

enzymes, meaning it survives the digestive process.

Certain strains of this organism have been shown to stimulate an

immune response against foreign intestinal organisms, as well as

preventing rotoviral or Clostridium difficile-induced diarrhea. Some of

its other abilities include:


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o Relieves hypersensitivity reactions and intestinal inflamation in

individuals with exzema and food allergies, especially those

caused by a "leaky gut" condition

o Stabilizes over a wide range of temperatures and pH levels

o Inhibits the growth of bad bacteria, especially Streptococci and

Clostridia

o Enhances the immune system

o Demonstrates anti-tumor activity

o Assists those with lactose intolerance by releasing the lactase

enzyme in the stomach and small intestine that breaks down the

lactose molecule

o Demonstrates significant health benefits, especially in infants

and the elderlyo Produces the desirable lactic acid

L. salivarius is most abundant in the mouth and gums (hence its

scientific name), but it is also flourishes in the lining of the small

intestine. It is important in helping to normalize the flora of the gut,

especially in those with chronic bowel conditions. In one study printed

in theAmerican Journal of Gastroenterology(1998), only L. salivarius,

and not L. caseior L. acidophilus, was able to produce high amounts of

lactic acid and completely inhibited the growth ofH. pyloriin a mixed

culture.

L. salivarius appears to help digest protein and may assist in the

breakdown of any incompletely digested proteins and their undesirable

by-products left in the gut which can cause putrefication. L.

salivarius is classified as a facultative bacterium, which means that it

can survive and grow in both anaerobic (without oxygen) and aerobic

(with oxygen) environments, although its main effects take place in

anaerobic conditions. This is a decided advantage over the well-

known Lactobacillus acidophilus, which has little or no growth in an

aerobic environment. L. salivarius is a very resilient bacterium which

doubles its population every twenty minutes.

Bacillus strains are found in soil, manure, and plant matter. Most species

are harmless; but others are not only harmful, but can be deadly. Some


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strains are used to make antibiotics while others are used as insecticides.

The two that are considered to be probiotics and, therefore, beneficial, are

listed below.

B. lichenformis is a soil-based organism that has proven to inactivatesuch lipid-enveloped viruses as HIV (human immunodeficiency virus),

SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus), HHV-6 [A and B] (human herpes

virus), EBV (Epstein-Barr virus), and CMV (Cyto-megalo-virus

related to herpes). It also is effective against other organisms

including bacteria, mycoplasmas (a type of bacteria), and fungi.

This ability is attributed to its production of surfactin, a substance

that has an antibiotic effect. In one follow-up of the effects of soil-

based organisms on 100 people, all but one reported some sort of

improvement. While many noticed improvements in the first two

weeks, some required up to 2 or 3 months of use before they found

benefit.

B. subtilis is a non-pathogenic bacterium that is widespread in soil,

water, and air. Certain strains are known to control the growth of, or

inhibit, harmful bacteria and fungi.

Bifidobacterium strains are common in the natural flora of human and

animal digestive systems. Some strains show a tendency to inhibit the

growth of such harmful bacteria asSalmonella. As probiotics, they stimulate

the immune system, aid in digestion, and assist in the absorption of food

ingredients and nutrients. They are also capable of synthesizing some

vitamins.

Bifidobacteria are gram-positive anaerobes; non-motile, non-spore forming

and catalase-negative. They have various shapes, including short, curved

rods, club-shaped rods, and bifurcated Y-shaped rods. Their name is derived

from the way they often exist; that is in a Y-shaped or bifid form.

Bifidobacteria are classified as lactic acid bacteria,and, to date, about 30

species have been isolated.


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Breastfed newborns begin to colonize bifidobacteria within days of birth.

However, populations begin to decline with advancing age unless they are

supplemented in the diet. Bifidobacteria are influenced by a number of

factors, including diet, antibiotics, and stress.

B. adolescentis inhabits the lower large intestine and appears to

have anti-tumor effects. B. adolescentis shares similar characteristics

with B. breve. Along with B. infantisand B. longum, B.

adolescentis accounts for almost 99% of the cultivatable flora. They

have strong effects against gram negative bacteria and prevent the

colonization of invading pathogens by competing for nutrients and

attachment sites. At the same time, they increase vitamin production

and calcium absorption. These beneficial bacteria also help ferment

over 20 kinds of carbohydrates into lactic acid.

B. bifidum (also known as Bacillus bifidus, Bacterium bifidum,

Lactobacillus bifidus, and Lactobacillus parabifidus) resides mainly in

the lining of the large intestine and the vaginal tract.

Strains of this species have been used in the production of certain

fermented foods and in therapeutic preparations for the treatment of

the following: digestive disorders in infants, enterocolitis, constipation,

cirrhosis of the liver, imbalance of intestinal flora following antibiotictherapy, and for promotion of intestinal peristalsis.

In hospitalized children, it has been shown that supplementation of

infant formula milk with Bifidobacterium bifidum and Streptococcus

thermophilus reduced rotavirus shedding and episodes of diarrhea.

B. bifidum is the most beneficial form of lactic acid and acetic acid

production. It has the ability to:

o Digest lactose

o Ferment indigestible fibers, thereby producing more energy

o Synthesize some vitamins, especially several of the B vitamins

o Assist in mineral absorption, especially iron, calcium,

magnesium, and zinc


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o Inhibit the growth ofSalmonella, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus

aureus, Candida albicans, Campylobacter jejuni, Listeria,

Shigella, E. coliandClostridium by crowding them out and eating

the nutrients they need

o Fight bad bacteria by lowering the intestinal pH through its

production of fatty acids, lactic acid, and acetic acid

o Absorb large quantities of ferrous ions, thereby inhibiting the

growth of bad bacteria that use it for food

o Help decompose nitrosamines (cancer-causing substances) and

suppress the production of nitrosamines in the intestines

o Help lower serum cholesterol

B. breve is probably the most common bifidobacterium in infants but

remains in the gut throughout adulthood. It is a lactic acid-producingbacterium found in the small and large intestines. B. breve shares

many common characteristics with B. adolescentis. B. breve assists in

the production of the natural antibiotic called lactobrevin. It appears

to have an affinity for absorbing carcinogenics, especially those

produced by charred meats. It tolerates bile acid well thereby

surviving its trip through the digestive system. It has been shown

that B. breve was able to eradicate Campylobacter jejunifrom the

stools of children with enteritis, although less rapidly than in those

treated with erythromycin.

B. infantis is also known as B. lactentis, B. liberorum,

andActinomyces parabifidus. B. infantis is found mainly in the large

intestines of infants (and thus its scientific name), but it can also be

found in adults and in the vaginal tract of women. This bacterium is

important because it has proven to stimulate the production of such

immune agents as cytokines. Like other bifidobacteria species, this one

can produce acids that may retard the colonization of the colon by

certain foreign or harmful bacteria including Clostridia, Salmonella,and Shigella.

B. lactis (Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis) is a strain of friendly

bacteria known to stimulate the immune response. According to

researchers in New Zealand, B. lactis proved to be an effective means

of enhancing cellular immunity in the elderly. Those who consumed

fermented products containing this bacterium showed a significant


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increase in the proportions of total, helper, and activated T

lymphocytes, as well as natural killer cells. In addition, their immune

cells ability to phagocytize (engulf and destroy) invaders and the

tumor cell killing ability of their natural killer cells was also increased.

The greatest improvements in immunity were found in those subjects

who previously had poor immune responses before receiving B. lactis.

This strain appears to resist acid digestion and the action of bile salts,

thus surviving intestinal transit to reach the colon in significant

numbers. B. lactis also helps to relieve constipation and prevents

diarrhea, especially in children. It also has the ability to decrease

chronic inflammation of the sigmoid colon. In addition, its anti-

microbial properties decrease the effect of negative bacteria, especially

Clostridium.

B. longum is found in high concentrations in the large intestine. It

helps prevent the colonization of invading pathogenic bacteria by

attaching to the intestinal wall and crowding out unfriendly bacteria

and yeasts. Along with other microorganisms, it produces lactic and

acetic acids that lower the intestinal pH, which further inhibits

undesirable bacteria.

In studies, B. longum was found to reduce the frequency of such

gastrointestinal disorders as diarrhea and nausea during antibiotic use

and can improve the nutritional value of foods. Some strains have the

ability to produce B vitamins, as well as digestive, casein phosphatase,

and lysozyme enzymes. It also increases calcium absorption. B.

longum has a strong antitumor activity by regulating markers and

reducing incidence of colon tumors.

Enterococcus strains are found in the intestines of animals and humans.They are gram-positive, facultative anaerobic cocci of the Streptococcaceae

family; spherical to ovoid in shape and occur in pairs or short chains. They

are also catalase-negative, non-spore forming, and usually nonmotile.

In most cases, they cause no infection. In some people though, enterococci

can cause serious infections, especially those found in the urinary tract


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(UTIs), wounds, and the blood. Vancomycin is often the last resort

antibiotic used to treat enterococcal infections, but even this is becoming

ineffective as new strains are formed.

A new strain called "Enterococcus faecalis TH10 is proving to be highlyeffective against even the most deadly antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains,

including MRSA (methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus). Enterococcus

faecium SF68 is another probiotic strain that has been used in the

management of diarrheal illnesses.

E. faecalis should not be confused with the pathogenic strain

called Enterococcus faecium. Although often used synonymously,

preliminary studies have shown that E. faecium has virulent factors

while E. faecalis does not. E. faecium is found mainly in animals other

than humans, but it can be found in humans as a pathogen.

E. faecalis is an important nutritional support in the event of diarrheal

diseases, especially in cases when such pathogenic microbes,as

rotavirus, invade the bowel. It is a transient bacterium so needs to be

replaced continually. In several studies, it has proved resistant to a

wide variety of antibiotics and proved to be more effective than L.

acidophilus in shortening the duration of diarrheal episodes. However,

because of the concern over the similarities intheEnterococcus (Staphylococcus) strains, many fermented foods

manufacterers have stopped adding E. faecalis to their products.

Lactococcus strains are lactic acid producers and commonly used to sour

milk. They are gram-positive facultative anaerobes. Several strains are being

used or are being developed as protiotics.

L. lactis (formerly known as Streptococcus lactis) has the ability to

synthesize both folate and riboflavin, two important B vitamins. It isone of the most important microorganisms used in the dairy industry,

particularly in cheese making, since it produces copious amounts of

lactic acid. Scientists are now experiementing with it by creating a

genetically modified version which secretes interleukin 10. This is

expected to provide a therapeutic approach for inflammatory bowel


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disease. However, the release of any genetically modified organism

always raises many safety concerns.

Leuconostoc strains may be found in various environments. The genus

belongs to the lactic acid-producing family of bacteria used in fermentingfoods to increase their nutritive quality. Some strains produce the

characteristic flavor in cultured milk products and vegetables (sauerkraut)

.

L. mesenteroides is the organism most often used in fermenting

vegetables, particularly in the making of pickles and sauerkraut where

it initiates the desirable lactic acid. It is also used in the fermentation

of sour dough bread, sorghum beer, all fermented milks, and cassava.It differs from other lactic acid species in that it can tolerate fairly high

concentrations of salt and sugar (up to 50% sugar). It also initiates

growth in vegetables more rapidly over a range of temperatures and

salt concentrations than any other lactic acid bacteria.

L. mesenteroides produces carbon dioxide and acids which rapidly

lower the pH and inhibit the development of undesirable micro-

organisms. The carbon dioxide produced replaces the oxygen, making

the environment anaerobic and suitable for the growth of subsequent

species of lactobacillus. Removal of oxygen also helps to preserve the

colour of vegetables and stabilizes any ascorbic acid that is present.

Pediococcus strains are found in foods, on plants, and as beer-spoilage

agents. They produce inactive lactic acid and are used mainly for making

fermented vegetables, mashes, beer, and wort.

P. acidilacticiis a specific strain of lactic acid-producing bacteria

helping to keep a proper balance of microflora in the digestive system.

The organism has been used to controlListeria monocytogenes in

temperature-abused vacuum-packaged wieners.

Saccharomyces strains are beneficial yeast organisms used in making

beer, bread, and as a nutritional supplement.


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S. boulardiiis a lactic acid yeast that does not promote the growth

ofCandida albicans nor is it related to the Candida yeast species which

cause infections in the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts. In fact,

studies have shown it prevents Candida from spreading. However,

prescription antifungals should not be taken at the same time as

supplements withS. boulardiisince these will kill it as well. Alcohol will

also inactivate this organism.

S. boulardiiis considered to be a non-pathogenic, non-colonizing

bakers yeast species which is closely related to brewers yeast (S.

cervesiae). S. boulardiiis a unique probiotic in that it is known to

survive gastric acidity and is not adversely affected or inhibited by

antibiotics or does not alter or adversely affect the normal flora in the

bowel. For this reason, other friendly probiotic organisms can be takenat the same time as S. boulardii.

In a study published in a 2003 issue of the European Journal of

Gastroenterology and Hepatology, S. boulardiiproved to be helpful in

ulcerative colitis. Studies suggest that it also protects the gut from

amebas and cholera. In addition, it has proven to alleviate the

diarrhea caused by Clostridium difficile, Crohn's disease, and that of

other causes. S. boulardiihas been found to secrete a protease which

digests two protein exotoxins, toxin A and toxin B, which appear tomediate diarrhea and colitis caused by Clostridium difficile.

In Europe, S. boulardiiis sold in capsules over-the-counter for the

treatment of diarrhea and for preventing and treating various other

digestive disorders.

S. cerevisiae is commonly known as baker's or budding yeast used in

making bread and beer. Budding refers to how the yeast multiplies.

It is also the strain that makes the nutritional dried supplement knownas Brewers Yeast. Some nutritional yeasts are made from the by-

products of breweries, distilleries, or paper mills; but a superior kind

should be that which is grown on a base of molasses. This gives it a

higher content of vitamins and minerals, as well as other beneficial


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components. Brewers nutritional yeast also does not contribute to

Candida yeast infections.

Streptococcus strains are mostly noted pathogens causing illnesses that

range from sore throats to rheumatic fever. However, there is one beneficialstrain which is found in cultured milk products.

S. thermophilus, in combination with L. bulgaricus, is used

commercially to produce yogurt. This organism is known to be efficient

in breaking down lactose, a desirable trait for those who are lactose-

intolerant. S. thermophilus is found in fermented milk products,

especially in the production of yogurt. S.

salivarus subspecies thermophilus type 1131 is another probiotic

strain.

S. thermophilus is a gram-positive facultative anaerobe;

cytochrome-, oxidase- and catalase-negative; nonmotile, non-spore

forming and homofermentative; an alpha-hemolytic species of the

viridans group; and, classified as a lactic acid bacteria.

S. thermophilus is known to destroy such pathogens

asPseudomonas, E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella,

and Shigella. This activity is likely because of its ability to produce

methanol acetone, a potent anti-pathogenic agent. In addition, itstimulates the production of cytokine which are involved with the

immune system.

Other research suggests that S. thermophilus can improve the

nutritional value of foods by making micronutrients available to the

host. In hospitalized children, it has been shown that supplementation

of infant formula milk withBifidobacterium bifidum and Streptococcus

thermophilusreduced rotavirus shedding and episodes of diarrhea.

Other

Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a very familiar bacterium. Although

found everywhere, including the human body, E. colistrains are

usually harmless; but some can cause diarrheal diseases and even

death. However, their presence in the human intestine is necessary for


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normal health and development. Some strains help synthesize B

vitamins and vitamin K. Keeping the intestines healthy with probiotics

will automatically keep this one in check so that its numbers will not

get out of hand to where it becomes a pathogen.

Escherichia coli strain nissle 1917is the most studied probiotic

strain ofE. coli. Its name is derived from the fact that it was isolated

from a World War I soldier who survived a particularly severe outbreak

of diarrhea.

The Nissle strain has been found to reduce significantly allergy

incidences in children by the age of ten. The use of this strain in

treating Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis is generating some

attention. In well-controlled, double-blind trials, Nissle was found to be

as effective as the drug mesalazine in maintaining periods of remission

in these patients. In addition, it was found to inhibit adhesion of the

pathogenic strains ofE. coli, isolated from patients with Crohns

disease. These findings validate the long-time belief that probiotics in

general, and this strain in particular, play a significant role in

preventing and curing many cases of Crohn's disease and ulcerative

colitis.

Control of Salmonella and other pathogens in broilers the importance of a coherent approachPublished on: 02/01/2010Rating:Author :Mathieu Cortyl

1) What isSalmonella?

Salmonellae are gram-negative bacteria, which belong to the genusSalmonellawhich is part of the familyofEnterobacteriaceae(bacteria living in the intestine). Salmonellae are non-encapsulated bacteria that can grow

under either aerobic or anaerobic conditions. The optimum temperature for growth is 35 to 43C while the optimumpH is 6.6 to 8.2. However, Salmonellae can continue to grow at pH values between 4.5 and 9.5 and at temperaturesbetween 5 and 54 C. A water activity above 0.94 is also required (Hanes, 2003).

Most of the salmonellae are motile bacteria that use flagella to move. Some serotypes like S. Gallinarum or S.Pullorum are non-motile. Among the differentSalmonellaserotypes, SalmonellaEnteritidis and S. Typhimurium arepresented separately from others because, on the one hand, these bacteria are often specifically cited in zoonosiscontrol legislation, and, secondly, because there are differences in the epidemiology as compared to othersalmonellae. Salmonella Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium are the predominant serotypes associated with humandisease in most countries. Indeed, Salmonella spp. is one of the major causes of food poisoning in humans.
http://en.engormix.com/mbr-21648/mathieu-cortylhttp://en.engormix.com/mbr-21648/mathieu-cortylhttp://en.engormix.com/mbr-21648/mathieu-cortylhttp://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/topics/salmonella-poultry_t826-p1.htmhttp://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/topics/salmonella-poultry_t826-p1.htmhttp://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/topics/salmonella-poultry_t826-p1.htmhttp://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/topics/salmonella-poultry_t826-p1.htmhttp://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/topics/salmonella-poultry_t826-p1.htmhttp://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/topics/salmonella-poultry_t826-p1.htmhttp://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/topics/salmonella-poultry_t826-p1.htmhttp://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/topics/salmonella-poultry_t826-p1.htmhttp://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/topics/salmonella-poultry_t826-p1.htmhttp://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/topics/salmonella-poultry_t826-p1.htmhttp://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/topics/salmonella-poultry_t826-p1.htmhttp://en.engormix.com/mbr-21648/mathieu-cortyl


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According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA, 2009), a total of 154,099 cases of human salmonellosiswere reported by the 25 EU Member States in 2004. The major sources of food borne salmonellosis are eggs andpoultry meat (EFSA, 2005).

2) Prevalence of Salmonella at the farm level

In the European Union, a report from EFSA published in 2007 indicates that an average of 23.7% of broiler farms inEU were Salmonella positive, with a wide variation (0 to 68%) between countries (see Figure 1). The most commonserotypes were S. Enteritidis, S. Infantis, S. Mbandaka, S. Typhimurium and S. Hadar. As a consequence, theCommission Regulation (EC) No 646/2007 of 12 June 2007 states that The Community target shall be a reduction ofthe maximum percentage of flocks of broilers remaining positive for SalmonellaEnteritidisand SalmonellaTyphimurium to 1 % or less by 31 December 2011.

In the United States, non typhoidal Salmonella was reported to cause 1.3 million cases of food borne illness, 15,608associated hospitalizations, and 553 deaths per year (Mead et al., 1999). A new Federal Regulation that is applicablesince September 2009 requires egg producers with more than 3,000 laying hens to take steps to prevent the spreadof Salmonella Enteritidis. Farms with more than 50,000 laying hens need to comply with the rules by July 2010, andthe rest must comply by July 2012. The rules, which affect the purchase of chicks and young hens, sanitation inproduction facilities, testing for the bacteria, and storage of eggs at farms, are expected to affect 99% of the nation'segg production. The FDA estimates the measures will cost egg producers about $81 million annually.

In Thailand, different publications describe the extent of contamination at the farm level. For instance, Sasipreeyajanet al. (1996) investigated Salmonella contaminations in 35 different poultry farms. The bacteria were found in allbroiler flocks (13) and all breeder farms (7) while 13 out of 15 layer farms were positive. A total of 1,488 sampleswere analyzed and salmonellae were found in samples of litter (42%), water in drinking troughs (36%), feed left overin the feed trays (28%), water in the main tanks (17%), cloacal swabs (13%) and stock feed (8%). Jerngklinchani etal. (1994) observed that 66% of 705 chicken meat samples collected from nine open markets, nine supermarkets andfour poultry processing plants in Bangkok were positive for Salmonella. A similar survey was made by Boonmar et al.(1997) who found that 72% of chicken meat samples purchased from 10 retail markets in Bangkok were positive,while 10% of samples from one slaughterhouse for export were contaminated with the bacteria. Chicken faecesobtained from three farms located in the east region of Thailand were also analyzed and 7% were positive. In thisreport, the most predominant serotype was S. Enteritidis, which was isolated from 28% of the retail chicken meat, 5%of the chicken meat from slaughterhouse, and all the positive samples of chicken faeces.

More recently, Boonprasert et al. (2009) evaluated the prevalence of Salmonella in two broiler breeder farms in

Northern Thailand (Lamphun province). Samples were taken in a total of twenty nine flocks, at different ages of thebirds. The overall Salmonella prevalence (at least 1 pair of boot swab faecal samples positive) of the breeding flockswas 82.8% and this increased with age, from 15.4% at the early stage (24-28 weeks of age), to 84.2% at middle (42-49 weeks of age) and 100.0% at late stage (57-69 week of age). Chaengprachak et al. (2009) made a similar study inbroiler flocks of the 77 contract farms of an industrial poultry production company in Northern Thailand (Chiang Maiand Lamphun provinces). The Salmonella-positive flock prevalence was 91.6% in one-day-old chicks and 98.6% at 3weeks before leaving for slaughter, respectively. The authors concluded that Salmonella infection was not due to theproduction farms themselves, but came from the one-day-old chicks, vertically infected from their breeder flocks orduring transport from the hatchery. Tangkawattana et al. (2009) assessed the extent of contamination in chickenstalls in fresh markets of five upper northeastern provinces of Thailand. Out of more than 100 samples of meat andliver, 42% were contaminated. The strains were evaluated for their resistance to antibiotics. Highest incidence ofresistance was for tetracyclin (59.2%), followed by amoxicillin (36.7%), ciprofloxacin (32.7%), gentamicin (18.4%),norfloxacin (16.3%), chloramphenicol (12.2%) and sulfamethoxazole + trimethoprim (10.2%).

Indeed, of particular concern is the increasing number of human Salmonella infections that are resistant to antibiotics,and this is the main reason for phasing out antibiotics in animal farming. For instance, one strain of S. Typhimuriumhas emerged as resistant to five drugs: ampicillin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, sulfonamides, and tetracycline(Helms et al., 2002). In Brazil, Duarte et al. (2009) observed that out of 19 Salmonella isolates found in broilerchicken carcasses and tested for antimicrobial resistance, 94.7% were resistant to at least one antimicrobial agent.Resistance to streptomycin (73.7%), nitrofurantoin (52.3%), tetracycline (31.6%), and nalidixic acid (21%) were theprevalent amongst Salmonella strains tested.

3) Control of Salmonella in broiler farms


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Reducing Salmonella contamination on poultry carcasses requires a complete approach that includes the entireintegrated broiler operation, the breeding flocks, hatchery, broiler growers, feed mills and transporters. Therefore, inorder to control Salmonella, one should consider the critical points of the farm to table continuum (see Figure 2).

According to the European Food Safety Agency, the primary production is the most important source of Salmonellaspp. entering the food chain (EFSA, 2004a) and a strict control of Salmonella spp. in all parent flocks reduces thefrequency of contamination at the broiler production stage (SCVPH, 2000). This was demonstrated in Denmark where

a control programme based on top-down eradication, has permitted a reduction from more than 65% of Salmonella-infected broiler flocks in 1989 to less than 5% in 2000 (Wegener et al., 2003). Similar control programmes in Finland,Sweden and Norway have allowed reducing the prevalence of Salmonella spp. in broiler flocks since 1996 to lessthan 1% (EFSA, 2004a). According to Hald et al (2004), the reduction of prevalence in the broiler farms leads to areduction of prevalence in meat and a reduction of human cases of salmonellosis.

The sources ofsalmonellainfection in poultry farms are various (see Figure 3). Infection can take place via verticaltransmission (poor hygiene and Salmonella contamination in the previous flock, contaminated chicks) or horizontaltransmission (feed, water, contact with rodents, insects, pets, birds or other domestic and wild animals, personnel orvisitor, litter and faeces, dust, etc...). Some less obvious risk-factors like the size of the farm (farms with more than 3houses have higher risks presumably because of increased human traffic between multiple sheds) or the climate(humid and warm) have been reported by Rose et al. (1999).

In order to efficiently control Salmonella spp. at the farm level, a set of biosecuritymeasures needs to be applied.

More than often, people believe that a new technology or product will solve all their problems, while only a long termand complete strategy can help them to succeed. Presently, there is not enough data allowing prioritizing betweenthe different intervention strategies. Therefore, a combination of different interventions will allow achieving significantreductions in the frequency of Salmonella-contaminated broilers sent to slaughter. The rest of this paper will reviewthe possible actions that should be part of a comprehensive programme.

a) Management of the animals and their environment

Vertical transmission can occur either by egg shell contamination or internal contamination of the yolk. Of course thefirst measure will be to ensure that non-contaminated day old chicks are delivered to the farm.

Mixing different species or different batches of animals will increase the risk of contaminating a flock that was free ofpathogens. Consequently, isolation practices such as mono-species segregation and all in-all out segregation by agewill be helpful. Once again, relying on only one technique will increase risks of failure. Indeed, Lo Fo Wong et al.(2004) explained that the reason why limited and contradictory evidence exists to support the effectiveness of all in-allout is probably because the practice of personnel changing clothing and boots prior to entering or leaving the area isnot always applied.

Another risk factor is the level of stress. Although this parameter is not easy to quantify and some stresses such asfeed withdrawal or transport are inevitable, any management practice that will reduce stress can be helpful inreducing contamination levels. Feed withdrawal is used prior to slaughter to prevent the carcass contamination by gutcontent. However, Byrd et al. (1998) observed that feed withdrawal significantly increasesCampylobacterandSalmonella contamination levels in the crops of broilers. Hinton et al. (2002) report that giving a glucose-basedtreatment to broilers helps to counter the undesirable effects of feed withdrawal.

An important target must be the reduction of exposure of the broilers to animals (wild or not), other birds, insects, andof course visitors. Different strategies such as using nets, fences, insecticides, etc... can be implemented. Forvisitors, their access should be restricted to only essential personnel. They should use disinfectant foot dips that are

frequently replaced. Inside the buildings, good management of litter can help reducing contamination. Carr et al.(1995) reported that litter moisture is normally between 25% and 35% and that limiting water activity to these levelscreates a less favourable environment for the growth of Salmonella than more humid litters.

Vaccinationof poultry against Salmonella uses live or inactivated vaccines. However, according to EFSA(2004b),vaccinationof chickens should be considered as an additional measure to enhance the resistance of birdsagainst Salmonella and reduce the shedding. Not all vaccines are effective against all serotypes and basic practicessuch as good farming and hygienic procedures (involving feed, birds, management, cleaning and disinfection, controlof rodents etc.) combined with testing and removal of positive flocks remain necessary for a successful control ofSalmonella in poultry.
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b) Water management

Water can be a source of contamination for the broilers. Treating the water with disinfectants such as chlorine, ozone,or sodium chlorate will only be efficient if the water system is clean. Indeed, these chemicals will react with organicmatter and be neutralized. Mohyla et al. (2007) report for instance that acidified sodium chlorite (600 g / 1000 litres ofdrinking water) reduced Salmonella in the crop. However, a double dosage was needed to reduce Salmonella in thelower digestive tract of the broilers. A shortcoming to the use of disinfectants is they reduce water intake by animals.

In order to reduce these negative consequences, a sporadic usage followed by a flushing is usually practiced.

Salmonella in broilers may also be reduced by acidifying the drinking water with organic acids, especially during feedwithdrawal. For example Byrd et al. (2001) report that lactic acid or formic acid at 0.5% in drinking water beforeslaughter were effective to reduce Salmonella populations in broilers. Such dosages are high and it is advisable togradually expose the birds to the acid in the water during the week before harvesting to p revent a drop in waterintake. Combinations of organic acids such as Gustor Liquid, developed by Norel & Nature, allow reducing thedosage while maintaining the efficacy. Figure 4 shows the results obtained during a trial conducted on a broiler farmin Thailand. Using 2 kg / 1,000 liters water for the first 2 weeks, and then reducing the dosage to 1 kg / 1,000 liters (6hours per day), has allowed to improve growth performance by 11% while mortality decreased by 24%.

c) Feed management

It has been estimated that about 15% of the Salmonella contaminations in poultry products are caused by feed andthat 90% of the Salmonella present in feed is caused by contaminated raw materials, especially those with highprotein levels such as animal by-products or fishmeal, as well as heat treated products that are easily re-contaminated. Henken et al. (1992) calculated that farms receiving contaminated feed were 5.3 times more likely toproduce Salmonella-positive flocks than farms supplied with microbiologically safe feed.

Besides raw materials, major risk factors in the feed mill are the bottom of the elevators, aspiration filters, top ofcooler and cooler room, and top of bin for finished feed. Shut down periods usually increase the risk of proliferation ofpathogens.

Different strategies have been suggested to control Salmonella in feed (Wray, 2001). Meal seems to reduce the riskwhen compared to pelleted feed (probably because of recontamination issues), but Salmonella prevalence is greaterwhen finely ground as compared with coarsely ground.

Heat treatment of feed, combined with increased moisture, is a common practice in feed mills. In theory, Salmonellais inactivated by a temperature of 77C for one second, but in practice it is not always easy to guarantee ahomogeneous heat treatment and therefore stricter conditions are applied. Cox et al. (1986) reported a good controlduring pelleting of poultry feeds at temperatures exceeding 83C. A supplier of equipment thermal conditionersrecommends a minimum retention time of 90 seconds, with a temperature of 80 to 88C (Rousseaux, personalcommunication, 2009).

Appropriate heat treatment of feed is efficient, but recontamination, in the feed mill, during transport or on the farm, islikely to happen. Moreover, Salmonella is able to survive prolonged periods in dry environments. Therefore it isadvisable to use also a chemical treatment. Products such as Salmonat, developed by NOREL&NATURE, are basedon buffered organic acids, to minimize corrosion of feed equipment and negative effects to animal growth or health.They will reduce pathogen contamination and ensure protection of the feed even after pelleting. Last but not least, weshould not forget that excessive heat treatment of feed will usually result in reduced animal performance (reducedgrowth and higher FCR).

d) Feed formulation and feed additives

Use of specific formulation strategies or additives will modify the environment of the gastrointestinal tract and mayhelp control pathogens such as Salmonella. For instance, using 10% egg yolk powder in feed of broilers reduced S.Typhimurium in faces to undetectable levels at 2 weeks of age (Kassaify and Mine, 2004).


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Several types of feed additives can help controlling Salmonella and other Enterobacteriaceaein the gut of broilers.They can be categorized as antibiotics, organic acids and their salts, plant extracts, prebiotics and probiotics.Antibiotics, especially when used at low doses, are raising concerns that broiler food products may be a source ofresistantsalmonellafor humans. The appearance of cases of multi-resistance in food borne Salmonella isolatessuggests the need for more prudent use of antibiotics by farmers, veterinarians, and physicians (Carraminana et al.,2004). Indeed, the trend is that fewer antibiotics can be used in broiler feed as it becomes a strong demand from theconsumer in many countries.

Organic acids

Organic acids are typical products of microbial metabolism and have a long history as food preservatives due to theirantimicrobial properties. In solution, organic acids exist in pH-dependant equilibrium between uncharged, acidmolecules and their respective charged anions (for example acetic acid / acetate). The key basic principle of theirmode of action is that when non-dissociated (non-ionized, more lipophilic) they can penetrate the bacteria cell walland disrupt the normal physiology of certain types of bacteria. Since the proportion of dissociated acid increases aspH increases, once inside the cell, they will be exposed to the near neutral intracellular pH of the bacteria anddissociate, liberating an anion (A-) and a proton (H+) in the cytoplasm (Russell and Diez-Gonzalez 1998). Theinternal pH will decrease and because pH sensitive bacteria do not tolerate a big difference between the internal andthe external pH, a specific mechanism (H+ -ATPase pump) will act to bring the pH inside the bacteria to a normallevel. This phenomenon consumes energy and eventually can stop the growth of the bacteria or even kill it. Theanionic (A-) part of the acid is trapped inside the bacteria because it will diffuse freely through the cell wall only in its

non-dissociated form. The accumulation of (A-) becomes toxic to the bacteria (Russell 1992) by complexmechanisms resulting in to inhibition of metabolic reactions (Krebs et al. 1983), reduction the synthesis ofmacromolecules (Cherrington et al. 1991), or disruption membranes (Freese et al. 1973). On the contrary, the non-pHsensitive bacteria (such as lactic acid bacteria) will tolerate a larger differential between the internal and the externalpH, if the internal pH becomes low enough, organic acids will re-appear in a non-dissociated form and exit thebacteria by the same route it went in. Another explanation for this may be that Gram-positive bacteria have a highconcentration of intracellular potassium, which provides a counter cation for the acid anions (Russell and Diez-Gonzalez 1998). An important parameter to take into account is the constant of dissociation of the acid (pKa), whichis the pH value for which the concentrations of dissociated and undissociated species are equal. This means forexample that formic acid (pKa = 3.75) will be 50% dissociated and 50% undissociated at a pH value of 3.75. So anti-bacterial activity of organic acids will also be influenced by the pH of the intestinal tract. The higher the pH value, themore they will tend to dissociate.

Among organic acids, butyric acid possesses interesting characteristics that make it "not just an acid". Butyric acid isa natural product of the bacterial fermentation of the carbohydrates in the intestine of monogastrics, or in the rumen

of ruminants. With acetic and propionic acid, butyric acid belongs to the group of VFAs (Volatile Fatty Acids). It isusually applied in feed as a salt of sodium (sodium butyrate) which makes its handling easier since it is solid, stableand much less odorous. In the large intestine, sodium butyrate is rapidly absorbed to provide energy to the epithelialcells and promote sodium and water assimilation. Over many years, different researchers have shown positive effectsof sodium butyrate on the intestinal epithelium, such as increase in the villi length and crypt depth, which result in abetter absorption of nutrients. More recent research demonstrates an anti-inflammatory effect of sodium butyrate ongastric and intestinal mucosal cells. The immune system seems less challenged, which results in a better overall useof the nutrients absorbed. This explains the positive influence of sodium butyrate on the body weight gain and feedconversion of poultry, swine or calves.

For several years already Norel & Nature has been investigating the benefits of using butyric acid in different species(swine, poultry, ruminants but also aquaculture) as well as the production and handling aspects. Indeed, the free formof this acid is difficult to handle due to its highly corrosive properties. Since 2005, when the Spanish companypresented Gustor B-coated (micro-encapsulated sodium butyrate) the R&D department has continued their

investigations with the aim of producing a more concentrated, though still protected, product to add to their range ofslow-release, natural growth promoters. This has led to the development of Gustor BP-70.

In Gustor BP-70, a specific fat coating is used to protect the active ingredients. This allows the sodium butyrate toreach the distal sections of the GI tract, not only acting as a natural growth promoter but also reducing the levels ofpathogenic bacteria, especially Salmonella. This was demonstrated during a recent trial conducted at the Universityof Leon in Spain. Two groups of 100 broilers each were given either a standard diet (control) or the same feedcontaining 1.3 kg of Gustor BP-70 per ton feed. The test lasted for 42 days. At day 1, all birds were confirmed beingnegative for Salmonella Enteritidis and at day 5, twenty percent of birds from each group were challenged by oralinoculation with 10

5UFC of Salmonella. Cloacal samples were taken on days 6, 9, 13, 27, and 41 to monitor infection
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levels. At day 42 all birds were slaughtered and crop, caecum, liver and spleen were tested. It was observed that thenumber of birds shedding Salmonella (positive birds) increased steadily during the experiment in the control group. Atthe end of the trial, all broilers from the control group were positive for Salmonella. On the contrary, birds fed withGustor BP-70 showed a consistent and significant (p


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CONCLUSION

Salmonella are one of the major sources of food-borne infections in humans, and poultry meat and eggs are amongthe major Salmonella carriers in the food chain. Reducing Salmonella contamination in poultry products requires acomplete approach that includes the entire integrated broiler operation, the breeding flocks, hatchery, broiler growers,feed mills and transporters. Therefore, in order to obtain a substantial reduction of pathogen loads, the application ofa combination of intervention strategies is required. A variety of promising intervention practices are available, but, tobe useful on the farm they must demonstrate their efficacy, being practical and economically acceptable. They alsoneed to be safe and not interfere with animal growth and development. Last but not least, they must be acceptable tothe consumer.

Figure 1: Prevalence (%) of Salmonella-positive flocks in different countries of the European Union. Data betweenbrackets indicate the number of farms tested. Source: EFSA, 2007.


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Figure 2: The farm to table continuum (adapted from Codex Committee on Food Hygiene, 2007).

Figure 3: Infection routes of Salmonellain broiler production (Adapted from Oostenbach, 2004).

Figure 4: Performances of broilers when using Gustor Liquid in the drinking water. Results obtained on a broiler farmin Thailand (Norel & Nature SA, Madrid, Spain)


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Figure 5: Faecal shedding of Salmonella Enteriditis-infected broilers fed with the partially protected Gustor XXI BP70butyrate-based additive (Norel & Nature SA, Madrid, Spain)

Figure 6: Faecal shedding of S. Enteritidis-infected broilers after 6, 9, 13, 20, 27, 34 and 41 days post-hatchingincontrol and ECOBIOL supplemented group.

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Boonprasert, N., Patchanee, P., Hafez H. M., and Zessin, K-H. 2009. Prevalence of Salmonella spp. in BroilerBreeding Flocks during Production in a Poultry Compartment in Northern Thailand (abstract). In: Food Safety andZoonoses Symposium for Asia Pacific. 27-28 July 2009, Chiang Mai, Thailand. p. 13.
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EFSA (European Food Safety Agency). 2009. The Community Summary Report on trends and sources of zoonosesand zoonotic agents in the European Union in 2007. The EFSA Journal: 223.

Fernandez, F., M. Hinton, and B. van Gils. 2002. Dietary mannan-oliogosaccharides and their effect on chickencaecal microflora in relation to Salmonella Enteritidis colonization. Avian Pathol. 31:49-58

Fernndez-Rubio , C. Ordez , C., Abad-Gonzlez , J., Garcia-Gallego , A., Honrubia , M. P., Mallo, J.J., andBalaa-Fouce. 2009. Butyric acid-based feed additives help protect broiler chickens from Salmonella Enteritidisinfection. Poultry Science 88 :943-948
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Drinking Water Acidification in Poultry: A Novel Approach

Dr R Sureshkumar, Product Manager, Pathogen Reduction Program,

Kemin AgriFoods India, Chennai - 600 029, Tamil Nadu.www.kemin.com

Water is the mostessential nutrientfor poultry and livestock. Birds consume more water than

feed. Water is involved virtually in every physiological process. Water is a medium for transporting

nutrients and food along the gastrointestinal tract. Water plays an important role in regulating

body temperature and is a component of many basic chemical reactions. Unfortunately, Water is

the one ingredient that does not always receive the attention that it deserves.

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In modern day poultry production water should be provided as clean as possible in order to avoid

the contamination with microorganisms. Good quality water is very important for good digestion

and to create a healthy gut flora, which will help the bird to absorb all the essential nutrients.

Microbial Growth

Factors, which influence the growth of the microorganisms, are the water activity, pH,

temperature and the nutrients.

Water activity is the most important factor for the growth of pathogenic microorganism such as

E.coli, Salmonella, and Campylobacter. The pathogenic microorganisms requires a water activity

of > 0.9 which is found in the drinking water.
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The hydrogen ion concentration in water determines the pH level and is very critical for microbial

growth. Salmonella, E.coli and Campylobacter can survive in a pH range 4.5 to 8 with an optimum

pH for growth around 7. The drinking water pH ranges between, 6.5 to 8 are favourable for the

growth and multiplication of the pathogenic microorganisms.


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The effect of pH on microbial growth

pH

Temperature is the important factor, which can influence the microbial growth of microorganisms.

The microorganisms can survive and grow better at an optimum temperature of 370 C.

The Pathogenic microorganisms can rapidly grow and multiply in the presence of combination of

favourable factors like, water activity, pH, temperature and the nutrients from the feed and

manure.

Water Quality

Water quality is determined by analyses of water samples. A bacterial analysis indicates if water

contains microorganisms, such as bacteria, which may be harmful. A chemical analysis determines

the levels of various minerals present in water. The standard acceptable level of total bacterial

count should be less than 100cfu/ml and the Coliform count should be less than 50 cfu/ml.

Control of Microbial Quality using Combination of Organic acids


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Normally sanitizers based on chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, per acetic acid are used to sanitize the

drinking water. The use of this sanitizer effect will be significantly reduced in the presence of

organic matter.

Organic acid mixture is able to kill Salmonella and E.coli within 45 minutes in water at the

inclusion level of 0.05 % to 1 %. The low pH and the buffered organic acid salts are responsible

for this effect. Combination of organic acid proved to be more effective than using single organic

acid. Organic acid mixture exerts antimicrobials effect both in water and gastrointestinal tract.

Organic acids in water help the bird to populate with Commensal in the gut. Thus organic acids in

water improve the total gut health, which helps in absorption of nutrients and overall performance

of the birds.

Effect of Combination of Organic acid at the inclusion level of 0.05 % on Salmonella


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Effect of Combination of Organic acid at the inclusion level of 0.05 % on E.coli

How do organic acidswork?

The antimicrobials activity of organic acids is related to reduction in pH and its ability to

dissociate, which is determined by the pKa value of the respective acid and the pH of the

surrounding environment. The organic acids are lipid soluble in undissociated form. The more the

undissociated form of organic acids the better the efficacy. Hence the selection of organic acid is

very critical in determining the efficacy of the product. The undissociated form of the organic acid

penetratesthe cellmembrane of bacteria

. Inside the cell the acid dissociates according to internal pH: acid anion +H+ (proton)

. The H+ (proton) decreases pH in the cell. The bacteria use its energy resources trying to remove

the protons and dies.

Anions of organic acids deactivate RNA transferaze enzyme, which damage nucleic acid

multiplication process and eventually result in death of the organism.

Precautions during Cleaning and Acidification of watersystems
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While cleaning poultry house the first thing is to clean the inside of the water lines, removing the

bio-film and the scale. Ordinary sanitizers will not remove the bio-film, neither the scale. A

stabilized combination of sanitizer and organic acids will dissolve the debris in a couple of hours. It

is very important to flush the lines abundantly to eliminate all residues. This is an absolute

preliminary condition to further optimize the water quality, with the goal to improve your

production result. Otherwise these biofilms and scale will block the watering system.

Water Acidification: Benefits in poultry

The proper cleaning and acidification of the drinking system at the start and the correct use of a

good water sanitizer-acidifier can eliminate most of the wet-dropping problems. It helps the bird

to populate with Commensal in the gut, which in turn improves the total gut health and improves

the absorption of nutrients. It reduces mortality levels and the use of medication as well. It

produces healthier birds, a better metabolism in the bird, better quality carcasses, stronger

eggshells, better feed conversions and last but not least better results in general and more profits.
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