Principles of Sedimentary Basin Analysis

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH

Andrew D. Miall

Principles of Sedimentary Basin Analysis

Third, updated and enlarged edition

With 468 Figures and 24 Tables

Springer

Professor Andrew D. Miall University of Toronto Geology Department 22 Russell Street Toronto, Ontario MSS 3Bl Canada e-mai!: miall@quartz.geology.utoronto.ca

ISBN 978-3-642-08506-2

Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Miall, Andrew 0.: Principles of sedimentary basin analysis / Andrew D. Miall. - 3., updated and en!. ed.

ISBN 978-3-642-08506-2 ISBN 978-3-662-03999-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-03999-1

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in date banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is only permitted under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law.

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2000

Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York io 2000 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 3rd edition 2000

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and re­gulations and therefore free for general use.

Production Editor: Christiane Messerschmidt, Rheinau Typesetting: Fotosatz-Service Köhler GmbH, Würzburg Cover design: Design & Production GmbH, Heidelberg Cover: Models of overfilled and underfilled foreland basins (from Jordan, 1995; see Fig. 7.31) superimposed on a sand isolith map of an ancient river-dominated delta (from Bhattacharya, 1991; see Fig. 5.6) SPIN: 10723024 32/3020 - 5432 1 0 - Printed on acid-free paper

Por Charlene

Preface

Basin analysis is a proeess that requires the eolleetion and integration of a wide variety of different types of data. Many review articles and books are available that deal with some of the individual speeialized fields that together eonstitute basin analysis, such as stratigraphie methods, facies analysis, geophysical methods, sedimentation and teeto­nics, and sequence stratigraphy; but this is one of the few books that has attempted, now through three editions, to show how these different types of data and the varying types of analytical methodology used in basin analysis need to be brought together to tackle specific basin-analysis problems. The emphasis in this book continues to be on the traditional geologieal skills of observation, deseription and synthesis.

Some of the major components of basin analysis have stabilized over the last de­eade. Facies analysis and the definition of proeess-response models (Chap. 4) consti­tute an area that has reached a level of maturity and stability to the extent that only minor refinements are now to be expeeted, although many more case studies explor­ing local variability will continue to be generated. The methods of lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy (Chap. 3) have also ehanged little in reeent years, whereas the widespread aeceptance of sequenee-stratigraphie principles and the introduction of allostratigraphie mapping methods (Chap. 6) have led to fundamental changes in the nature of regional basin analysis. These developments, in turn, have lent support to the continuing complex, interdisciplinary effort to improve the aceuraey and preci­sion of the geological time scale and its practical applieability to loeal and regional problems of dating and correlation (Chap. 3). Many questions about the extent and origins of stratigraphie sequences require precise chronostratigraphic correlation, and much remains to be done in this area. The refinements in data eollection brought about by the inereasing resolution of the reflection -seismic method (Chaps. 5,6) con­tinue to demonstrate a complexity in the preserved stratigraphie record that challen­ges our powers of description and interpretation.

Methods for numerieal and graphical modeling of sedimentary basins and basin fills continue to provide exciting new insights, such as the new links em erging between climate, sediment supply and basin subsidence rates, but the causes of crustal subsi­dence and uplift and the relationship of these motions to mantle processes and plate tectonics seem to have been largely worked out.

The most signifieant ehanges in basin analysis methods sinee publication of the se­cond edition of this book are in the area of sequenee stratigraphy (Chap. 6). The defi­nitions of systems traets had only just appeared when the last edition of this book was being eompleted, and the applieation of sequence models to an analysis of the evolv­ing paleogeography of a basin was a subject in its infancy. In addition, we now have a mueh more eomplete base of case studies from which to assess the many and varied mechanisms that generate stratigraphie sequenees, so that the rather simplistic ideas about global eustasy that were popular a decade ago can now be re-evaluated. All this has required complete rewriting of Chapters 6 and 8 of this book, whereas the remain­ing chapters have been substantially rewritten while retaining their original form, and have been updated with new and useful case studies. Developments in such fields as dynamic topography and basin inversion have been added to Chapter 7, and improve­ments in our understanding of foreland basins and in the tee tonic processes of the Preeambrian eonstitute some of the more substantial ehanges to Chapter 9.

VIII Preface

Much work remains to be done in the area ofbasin analysis. The search for non-re­newable resources will continue into the foreseeable future, with many frontier basins remaining to be explored, while the task of extracting additional petroleum reserves from the heterogeneities in mature fields provides basin analysts with some of their most complex challenges. The development of water resources, the search for sedi­ment-hosted minerals, and the need to integrate basin histories into broad-based stu­dies of regional, national and continental geologieal histories will continue to create a demand for basin analysis and the skills with which to perform it. The need for this new edition of the book is therefore clear, and it is to be hoped that it will continue to provide a useful reference manual and resource of ideas for advanced students and professionals.

Acknowledgments. The writing of the first edition of this book took about 3 years, but the ideas and experience on which it was based had been accumulating since I first discovered geology at the age of 15 years, during an optional one-period-a-week course at Brighton Grammar School. I am deeply indebted to the late Arnold Berry, geography master at the school, for his lectures and field trips, which rapidly con­vinced me I had found my vocation. I received every encouragement during my undergraduate years at the University of London (Queen Mary and Westfield College), where instruction in stratigraphy and historieal geology was given by Professor Kirkaldy.

My introduction to modern sedimentological principles came through the stimu­lating graduate seminars held by Brian Rust at the University of Ottawa. Later, the op­portunity to gain extensive practical experience was made possible by Don Stott, who took me on staff at the Geologieal Survey of Canada. Writing of this book began shortly after I moved to the fertile academie climate of the University of Toronto, an appointment brought about by the efforts of Frank Beales, Geoff Norris, and David Strangway.

Many colleagues helped me formulate my ideas on basin analysis during the 1970s and 1980s, and I am grateful to them for their stimulating company over the years. Foremost among these are Don Campbell and John Stuart-Smith at J.c. Sproule and Associates and my former Survey colleagues Jim Dixon, Ashton Embry, Ulrieh Mayr, Ross McLean, Ray Thorsteinsson, and Hans Trettin. More recently, my understanding of sequence stratigraphy has been aided by contact with individuals such as Phil Allen, Makoto Ho, Dale Leckie, Dag Nummedal, Guy Plint, and Roger Walker.

For specific advice relating to specialized parts of this book, I am indebted to Norm Evensen (radiometrie dating), Gary Jarvis (geophysical basin models and plate pro­cesses), George Klein (backare basins and shelf depositional systems), and Geoff Norris (stratigraphie methods).

Photographs were contributed by Jim Dixon, Ashton Embry, Rolf Ludvigsen, Brian Pratt, A. Easton Wren, and the Royal Ontario Museum. My particular thanks to David Rudkin at the museum for his assistance with the photographs of fossils in Chapter 2. Neil Ollerenshaw and the staff at GSC, Calgary, are thanked for assistance in obtaining two illustrations for the sections on the dipmeter. About one-third of the figures in the book were drafted by Subash Shanbhag and the remainder in the first edition were re­produced from other sources by photographer Brian O'Donovan. Their efforts and their patience during the long gestation of the manuscript are much appreciated.

During preparation of the first edition, Geoff Orton and Winston Mottley worked as research assistants for short but crucial periods. Typing and word processing were carried out by Diane Gardner and Naomi Frankei, with the final text prepared at the University of Toronto Secretarial Services unit under the supervision of Vera Baker. The text of the second and third editions were prepared by the author, thanks to the magie ofWindows '95 and Microsoft Word.

Andy Baillie and Tony Tankard undertook the task of critieally reading the entire manuscript of the first edition. Their comments were most useful and are much ap­preciated. In addition, the author is grateful to Roger Walker (who read parts of

Preface IX

Chap. 4), Geoff Norris (Chap. 3), and Ray Ingersoll (Chap. 9), who provided some much-needed specialized commentary.

Comments from students and colleagues were of considerable use in the prepara­tion of the second edition of the book, as were published reviews of the first edition, which made several valuable points. A one-semester administrative leave from teach­ing and other duties in the fall of 1988 enabled me to complete the initial draft, and I am grateful to the University of Toronto for making this time available to me. The en­tire manuscript was then critically read by Ray Ingersoll. I am honored by his wil­lingness to undertake this considerable task, and I wish to express my considerable gratitude for the conscientious and thoughtful way in which he completed it. While we do not agree on all of the finer points of basin analysis, his comments have been invaluable in helping me to re fine the final draft. However, the content of the book, induding any errors or omissions, remains my responsibility.

Chapters 6 and 8 of the third edition were critically read by Guy Plint and, once again, Ray Ingersoll provided critical reading of the material dealing with sedimenta­tion and tectonics - Chapters 7 and 9. The assistance of these colleagues is much ap­preciated.

Finally, I must thank my wife Charlene, whose assistance, advice, and support throughout my career have been irreplaceable. I am particularly grateful for her love and patience during my long obsession with "the book:'

Toronto, July 1999 Andrew D. Miall

Preface to the First Edition

This book is intended as a practical handbook for those engaged in the task of analyz­ing the paleogeographic of ancient sedimentary basins. The science of stratigraphy and sedimentology is central to such endeavours, but although several excellent text­books on sedimentology have appeared in re cent years, litde has been written about modern stratigraphic methods. Sedimentology textbooks te nd to take a theoretical approach, building from physical and chemical theory and studies of modern en­vironments. It is commonly difficult to apply this information to practical problems in ancient rocks, and very little guidance is given on methods of observation, map­ping, and interpretation.

In this book, theory is downplayed and the emphasis is on what a geologist can ac­tuaIly see in outcrops, weIl records, and cores and what can be obtained using geo­physical techniques. A new approach is taken to stratigraphy, which attempts to ex­plain the genesis of lithostratigraphic units and to de-emphasize the importance of formal description and naming. There are also sections explaining principles of facies analysis, basin mapping methods, depositional systems, and the study of basin sub­sidence history and thermal history, so important to the genesis of fuels and mine­rals. Last, an attempt is made to tie everything together by considering basins in the context of plate tectonics and eustatic sea -level changes. The vast and important sub­jects of paleoclimatology, diagenesis, and sedimentary geochemistry are not dealt with here, except for some aspects of diagenetic change that can be related to burial his tory. None of these areas is crucial to the main theme of the book, although geo­chemical data are becoming increasingly important in the study of chemical sedi­ments and their depositional environments. The economoc applications ofbasin ana­lysis (e. g., exploring sediment-mineral associations and types of stratigraphic hydro­carbon traps) are not discussed in detail, although some implications for exploration are pointed out at several places in the book.

It is hoped that this book will be useful to those engaged in exploration for the va­rious nonrenewable fuel and mineral resources and to students and other geologists carrying out local or regional basin analysis studies, beginning with undergraduates about to leave for their first field school. The book is divided into two parts. Part 1 comprises Chapters 1 to 6; it deals with the stratigraphy and sedimentology ofbasins and is written mainly at an undergraduate level. Part 2 consists of Chapters 7 to 10 and deals with the global controls of basin development, including plate tectonics. This part of the book is addressed to senor undergraduates, graduate students, and pro­fessional geologists; a working knowledge of the principles of plate tectonics is as­sumed for this final part of the book. It is intended that the book be used throughout an individual's training and professional employment.

Andrew D. MiaIl

Preface to the Second Edition

Five years between the editions of this book might not seem like a very long time, but advances in some areas of basin analysis have been very rapid. In order for this book to remain a useful textbook, it became dear very soon after the initial publication in 1984 that revisions would have to be undertaken. Accordingly, I began to keep files of critical references - these now number more than one thousand - and rewritting was star ted in the fall of 1987.

The new developments that have occurred, or at least have become more important since 1984, indude the publication of new stratigraphie codes and the widespread ap­plication of the stratotype concept to chronostratigraphic subdivisions, new research into the significance of stratigraphyic completeness, unconformity-bounded se­quences and sequence stratigraphy, fission-track dating as applied to stratigraphie problems, developments in our understanding of facies architecture, induding the erection of hierarchis of bounding surfaces for many types of deposits, 3-Dseisrnie methods, Milankovitch cydes, evolution in our thinking regarding the importance of tectonic versus eustatic controls of regional and global cydes, evolution of ideas regarding the interpretations about sea-Ievel change that can be made from seismic stratigraphie records, and many refinements of geophysically based basin-subsidence models.

These developments have required a virtually complete rewriting of Chapters 7 and 8 and substantial additions and minor modifications to most of the remaining chap­ters. Although it is hoped that this has recreated a fairly up-to-date book, continuing developments are inevitable, and the files of material for the third edition have already been started.

Andrew D. Miall

Contents

Part 1. The Stratigraphy and Sedimentology of Sedimentary Basins

1 1.1 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.3 1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.5

2 2.1 2.2 2.2.1

2.2.2

2.2.3 2.2.3.1 2.2.3.2 2.2.3.3 2.2.3.4 2.2.3.5 2.2.3.6

2.2.3.7

2.2.3.8 2.2.3.9 2.2.3.10 2.2.4 2.2.4.1 2.2.4.2 2.2.4.3 2.2.5 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.1.1

Introduction .............. . Seope and Purpose of Book ...... . The Modern Revolution in Stratigraphy Traditional Stratigraphy .... Modern Developments . . . . . The New Stratigraphie Method Time in Stratigraphy ..... . Types of Projeet and Data Problems Regional Surfaee Stratigraphie Mapping Projeet Loeal Stratigraphie-Sedimentologie Mapping Projeet Regional Subsurfaee Mapping Projeet . . . . . . . Loeal Subsurfaee Mapping Projeet ....... . Summary of Research and Reporting Proeedures Referenees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Stratigraphic-Sedimentologic Database Introduetion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deseribing Surfaee Stratigraphie Seetions Methods of Measuring and Reeording the Data: Vertieal Stratigraphie Seetions . . . . . . . . . . Methods of Measuring and Reeording the Data: the Construetion of Lateral Profiles . . . . . . . Types of Field Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . Sub division of the Seetion into Deseriptive Units Lithology and Grain Size Porosity Color .......... . Bedding ........ . Sedimentary Struetures Produeed by Hydrodynamie Molding ofthe Bed ............................ . Sedimentary Struetures Produeed by Hydrodynamie Erosion ofthe Bed ................... . Liquefaetion, Load, and Fluid -Loss Struetures Fossils .............. . Biogenie Sedimentary Struetures Sampling Plan . . . . Illustrative Samples . . . Petrographie Samples Biostratigraphie Samples Plotting the Seetion . . . Deseribing Subsurfaee Stratigraphie Seetions Methods of Measuring and Reeording the Data Examination of WeIl Cuttings ......... .

3 3 4 4 4 8 9

10 10 11 12 17 18 19

22 22 22

22

24 26 26 26 29 29 29

30

34 40 50 55 55 59 59 62 63 64 64 64

XVI Contents

2.3.1.2 2.3.2 2.3.2.1 2.3.2.2 2.3.2.3 2.3.2.4 2.3.2.5 2.3.2.6 2.3.2.7 2.3.2.8 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6 2.4.7

3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.2.1 3.4.2.2 3.4.2.3 3.4.2.4 3.4.2.5 3.4.2.6 3.4.2.7 3.4.3 3.4.3.1 3.4.3.2 3.4.3.3 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.1.1 3.5.1.2 3.5.1.3 3.5.1.4 3.5.2 3.5.2.1 3.5.2.2 3.5.2.3 3.5.2.4 3.5.2.5 3.5.3

Examination of Core ............... . Types of Cutting and Core Observation . . . . . . Subdivision of the Seetion into Deseriptive Units Lithology and Grain Size Porosity Color .......... . Bedding ........ . Sedimentary Struetures Fossils ......... . Biogenie Sedimentary Struetures Sampling Plan . . . Plotting the Seetion Petrophysieal Logs Gamma-Ray Log Spontaneous-Potential Log Resistivity Logs .... . Sonie Log ....... . Formation-Density Log Neutron Log Crossplots Referenees .

Stratigraphie Correlation Introduetion . . . . . . . . Types of Stratigraphie Unit Stratigraphie Proeedures . . North Ameriean and International Stratigraphie Codes Establishing Named Units ............ . The Six Steps Involved in Dating and Correlation Lithostratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reeognition of a Lithostratigraphie Subdivision . Types of Lithostratigraphie Units and their Definition The Formation The Group ... TheMember .. Tongue or Lentil Bed ...... . Choice of Names Changes in Rank Mapping and Correlation Proeedures Surfaee Mapping Event Stratigraphy Seetion Matehing . Biostratigraphy .. The Nature of the Biostratigraphie Record Biostratigraphy and Evolution . . . . . . Biostratigraphy and Biogeography ... Life, Death, and Reworked Assemblages ConcIusions .... . Biozones ...... . Assemblage Biozone Range Biozone Coneurrent -Range Biozone Lineage Biozone . . . . . . . Other Biozone Terms . . . . Quantitative Methods in Biostratigraphy

66 67 67 67 68 68 68 68 68 69 69 69 71 72 72 73 75 75 75 75 77

79 79 80 81 81 82 84 85 85 86 86 87 87 87 87 87 88 88 88 91 94 98 99 99

102 105 106 106 107 107 107 108 108 109

3.5.3.1 3.5.3.2 3.6 3.7 3.7.1 3.7.2 3.7.3 3.7.4 3.7.4.1 3.7.4.2 3.7.5 3.7.5.1 3.7.5.2 3.7.6 3.7.7 3.7.8 3.7.9 3.7.9.1 3.7.9.2

4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.4.5 4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5.4

4.5.5

4.5.6 4.5.7 4.5.8 4.5.9 4.5.9.1 4.5.9.2 4.6 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5 4.6.6

Contents XVII

The Graphie Correlation Teehnique Use of Multivariate Statisties . . . . Uneonformity-Bounded Units ... Chronostratigraphy and Geoehronometry Chronostratigraphie and Geoehronometrie Seales The Stage ............ . Chronostratigraphie Boundaries Radiometrie Dating . . Radiometrie Methods Uses in Stratigraphy Magnetostratigraphy . Development of the Teehnique Uses in Stratigraphy Chemostratigraphie-Dating Teehniques Other Correlation Teehniques Stratigraphie Completeness The Global Time Seale The Phanerozoie The Preeambrian Referenees . . .

Fades Analysis Introduetion . . The Meaning of Fades Reeognition and Definition of Facies Types Philosophy and Methods . . . . . Field Examples of Fades Sehemes Establishing a Fades Seheme Facies Arehiteeture ....... . Facies Assoeiations and Models . The Assoeiation and Ordering of Facies The Theory of Facies Models ..... . The Present as the Key to the Past and Viee Versa To Classify and Codify or Not? ...... . Facies Analysis and Sequenee Stratigraphy Review of Environmental Criteria Grain Size and Texture Petrology ............ . Bedding ............. . Sedimentary Struetures Produeed by Hydrodynamie Molding ofthe Bed ............................ . Sedimentary Struetures Produeed by Hydrodynamie Erosion ofthe Bed ................... . Liquefaetion, Load, and Fluid-Loss Struetures Paleoeeology ................. . Vertieal Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arehiteetural Elements and Bounding Surfaees Arehiteetural Seale and Bounding-Surfaee Hierarehies Arehiteetural Elements . . . . . . . Facies Models for a New Millenium Fluvial Environments . . . Deltaie Environments . . . Laeustrine Environments Eolian Environments . . . Clastie Shorelines . . . . . Arid Shorelines and Evaporites

110 112 114 114 115 116 118 119 119 120 122 122 123 125 126 127 127 128 131 134

141 141 141 142 142 144 146 149 150 151 152 154 157 159 159 160 163 165

167

174 175 175 184 191 194 198 200 201 204 206 207 208 212

XVIII Contents

4.6.7 4.6.8 4.6.9 4.6.10 4.7

5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.1.1 5.4.1.2 5.4.1.3 5.4.1.4 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.5 5.6 5.6.1 5.6.2 5.6.3 5.6.4 5.6.5 5.6.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11

6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.5.1 6.5.1.1 6.5.1.2 6.5.1.3 6.5.1.4 6.5.2 6.5.2.1 6.5.2.2 6.5.3 6.6 6.6.1 6.6.2

Clastic Continental Shelves Carbonate Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clastic Continental Slope and Deep-Oceanic Environments Glacial Environments . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions and Scale Considerations References . . . . . . . .

Basin-Mapping Methods Introduction . . . . . . . Structure and Isopach Contouring Lithofacies Maps .... .. . Multieomponent Maps ... . Lithofacies-Assemblage Maps Single-Component Maps . . . Geophysieal Techniques Reflection-Seismic Maps and Sections Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . The Nature of the Seismic Record Structural Mapping . . . . . . . . Seismie Facies . . . . . . . . . . . Lithofacies Mapping with Petrophysical Logs The Dipmeter . . . . .... Other Geophysical Methods Clastic-Petrographic Data Paleocurrent Analysis Introduction . . . . . . . . . Types of Paleocurrent Indicators Data Collection and Processing . The Bedform Hierarchy Environment and Paleoslope Interpretations The Dipmeter Again Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . Computer Mapping Methods Sampling Density and Map Reliability Stratigraphie Cross Seetions Paleogeographic Synthesis References . . . . . . .

Sequence Stratigraphy Introduction . . . . . . Stratigraphie Architecture Depositional Systems and Systems Tracts Sequence Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . Systems Tracts and Sequences in Siliciclastic Deposits Nonmarine and Coastal Sequences Fluvial Sequences . . Lacustrine Sequences . . . . . Eolian Sequences ...... . Incised Valleys and Estuaries Marginal-Marine and Shallow-Marine Sequences Deltas ...................... . The Coast-Shelf Interface ............ . Sequences in Deep-Marine Siliciclastie Deposits . Systems Tracts and Sequences in Carbonate Deposits Epeiric Platforms Rimmed Shelves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

213 216 222 228 232 233

249 249 249 251 251 252 254 259 260 260 260 264 265 269 27l 275 276 283 283 284 285 287 288 292 294 296 300 304 309 313

320 320 323 325 331 335 335 335 340 343 345 346 347 349 350 355 357 357

Contents

6.6.3 Isolated Platforms . . . . . . . . . 6.6.4 Ramps............... 6.6.5 Mixed Carbonate-Clastic Systems 6.7 Evaporites. 6.8 Conclusions

References .

Part 2. Global Controls of Sedimentary Basin Development References ........................... .

7 7.1 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.2.6 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.4 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10

8 8.1 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.2.1 8.2.2.2 8.2.2.3 8.2.3 8.2.3.1 8.2.3.2 8.2.4 8.2.4.1 8.2.4.2 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.2.1 8.3.2.2 8.3.3 8.3.4

Tectonism and Sedimentation: Principles and Models Introduction . . . . . . . . . . Components of a Basin Model Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . Basin and Crustal Geometry Porosity - Depth Relationships Paleobathymetry ..... .. . Sea-Level Change ....... . Physical Properties of the Lithosphere Extensional Basins Evolution of the Basic Model . . . . . . Backstripping Techniques ...... . Refinements of the Basic Extensional Model Basins Produced by Supracrustal Loading Evolution of the Basic Model . . . . . . . . . Refinements of the Basie Supracrustal Loading Model Dynamic Topography . Intraplate Stress . . . . . . Basin Inversion ..... . Basement Tectonic Control Application of the Modeling Techniques to Other Types of Basin Conclusions References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Regional and Global Stratigraphie Cycles Overview of Recent Developments Causes of Stratigraphic Cyclicity Supercontinent Cycles .......... . Mechanisms with Episodicities of Tens of Millions ofYears Eustatic Cycles ...... . Tectonostratigraphic Cycles ....... .. Conclusions ................. . Mechanisms with Million-Year Episodicities Intraplate Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sediment Supply .............. . Mechanisms with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years Milankovitch Mechanisms High-Frequency Tectonism ................... . The Stratigraphie Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratigraphie Effects of Supercontinent Assembly and Dispersal Cycles with Episodicities of Tens of Millions of Years Cratonic Cycles ................... . Regional Tectonostratigraphic Cycles . . . . . ... . Cycles with Episodicities in the Million-Year Range Cycles with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years

XIX

359 363 367 367 372 372

380

381 381 382 382 382 382 383 383 383 383 383 385 391 395 395 398 406 407 409 410 412 412 413

417 417 419 419 421 421 422 424 425 425 427 428 428 432 433 433 435 435 436 437 443

xx Contents

8.3.4.1 8.3.4.2 8.3.4.3 8.3.4.4 8.4 8.5

8.6

9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.3.1 9.3.1.1 9.3.1.2 9.3.1.3 9.3.1.4 9.3.2 9.3.2.1 9.3.2.2 9.3.2.3 9.3.2.4 9.3.2.5 9.3.2.6 9.3.2.7 9.3.3 9.3.3.1 9.3.3.2

9.3.3.3

9.3.3.4

9.3.3.5

9.3.4 9.3.4.1 9.3.4.2 9.3.4.3 9.3.4.4 9.3.4.5 9.3.4.6 9.3.4.7 9.3.4.8 9.3.4.9 9.3.4.10 9.3.5 9.3.6 9.3.6.1 9.3.6.2 9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3

Neogene Clastie Cycles of Continental Margins Pre-Neogene Carbonate-Dominated Cycles Late-Paleozoie Cydothems . . . . . . . . . . . . Clastie Cydes of Foreland Basins ....... . Cyde Correlation and the Global Eustasy Model Arehiteetural Indieators of Teetonism, Sediment Supply, and Sea-Level Change: The Role of Stratigraphie Simulation Condusions Referenees . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sedimention and Plate Tectonics The Basin-Model Coneept Basin Classifieation . . . Basin Models ..... . Divergent-Margin Basins Tectonic Review . . . . . Rift Basins . . . . . . . . Oeean-Margin Rises and Terraces Aulaeogens and Failed Rifts Convergent-Margin Basins .... Tectonic Review . . . . . . . . . . Trenehes and Subduction Complexes Foreare Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intra-Are Basins ........... . Interare and Baekarc Basins on Oeeanic or Transitional Crust Backare Basins on Continental Crust ..... . Retroare Foreland Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transform Margins and Strike-Slip Fault Basins Tectonic Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sedimentary Basins Associated with Plate-Boundary Transform Faults ................... . Sedimentary Basins Associated with Divergent-Margin Transform Faults .................... . Sedimentary Basins Associated with Convergent-Margin Transeurrent Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sedimentary Basins Associated with Suture-Zone Transeurrent Faults . . . . . . . . . . Basins Assoeiated with Suture Zones Introduction . . . . Basic Suture Model .. . . Are-Are Collision ..... Collapse of Outboard Ares Collisions of Continents with Ares Terminal Sutures ......... . Proforeland, Foredeep, or Peripheral Basins Remnant Oeean Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . Basin Analysis of Suture Zones ...... . Basins and Uplifts Resulting from Intraplate Stresses Basin Analysis of Aeeretionary Terranes Cratonic Basins .... Tectonie Review . . . . Sedimentation Patterns Clastic Petrofaeies . . . Introduetion . . . . . . Sandstone Composition and Plate-Tectonic Setting Examples of Petrofacies Interpretation ... . . . .

445 447 447 448 452

456 459 459

467 467 468 472 472 473 477 479 485 488 488 493 497 504 504 507 509 514 514

518

522

526

527 527 527 527 529 529 530 531 535 539 541 545 547 558 558 563 563 563 564 567

9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2

10

Basin Models in the Precambrian ... Precambrian Plate Tectonics? The Evidence from Sedimentary Basins References .

Conclusions

References

Author Index

Subject Index

Contents XXI

568 568 572 577

594

596

597

605