Principles of Data Management Lecture #14 (Spatial Data ......" Go to child whose box needs least...
Transcript of Principles of Data Management Lecture #14 (Spatial Data ......" Go to child whose box needs least...
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 1
Principles of Data Management
Lecture #14 (Spatial Data Management)
Instructor: Mike Carey [email protected]
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 2
Today’s Notable News
v Project info § Part 4 (Query execution): Mon 12/8 (+ 2 days) § Part 3 (Improvements): Watch Piazza for info (!)
v Upcoming lectures § Today: Spatial databases (R-trees) § Next week:
• Parallel database systems • Big data management and MapReduce
v Big Data Projects class? § Still thinking about it. (On AsterixDB, if anything....)
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Types of Spatial Data
v Point Data § E.g., Raster data such as satellite imagery, where each
pixel stores a measured value § E.g., Feature vectors extracted from text (ML) § E.g., Points in a multidimensional space, e.g., where
your smartphone GPS says you are (SoLoMo data) v Region Data
§ Objects have spatial extent with location and boundary, e.g., lakes, forests, buildings
§ DB typically uses geometric approximations constructed using line segments, polygons, etc., called vector data
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Types of Spatial Queries
v Spatial Range Queries § Find all cities within 50 miles of Madison § Query has associated region (location, boundary) § Answer includes overlapping or contained data regions
v Nearest-Neighbor Queries § Find the 10 cities nearest to Madison § Results must be ordered by proximity
v Spatial Join Queries § Find all cities near a lake § Expensive, join condition involves regions and proximity
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Applications of Spatial Data
v Geographic Information Systems (GIS) § E.g., ESRI’s ArcInfo; OpenGIS Consortium § Geospatial information § All classes of spatial queries and data are common
v Computer-Aided Design/Manufacturing § Store spatial objects such as surface of airplane fuselage or
the physical layout of an integrated circuit § Range queries and spatial join queries are common
v Multimedia Databases § Images, video, text, etc. stored and retrieved by content § First converted to feature vector form; high dimensionality § Nearest-neighbor queries are the most common
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Single-Dimensional Indexes v B+ trees are fundamentally single-dimensional
indexes. v When we create a composite search key B+ tree,
e.g., an index on <age, sal>, we effectively linearize the 2-dimensional space since we sort entries first by age and then by sal.
Consider entries: <11, 80>, <12, 10> <12, 20>, <13, 75>
11 12 13
70 60 50 40 30 20 10
80
B+ tree order
age
sal
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Multidimensional Indexes
v A multidimensional index clusters entries so as to exploit “nearness” in multidimensional space.
v Keeping track of entries and maintaining a balanced index structure presents a challenge!
Consider entries: <11, 80>, <12, 10> <12, 20>, <13, 75>
(Note: Might utilize these as features for recommendations…!)
Spatial clusters
70 60 50 40 30 20 10
80
B+ tree order
11 12 13
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Motivation for Multidimensional Indexes
v Spatial queries (GIS, CAD). § Hotels within 5 miles from the conference venue. § City with population 500,000 or more which is nearest
to Kalamazoo, MI. § Find all cities that lie on the Nile in Egypt. § Find all parts touching the fuselage (in a plane design).
v Similarity queries (content-based retrieval). § Given a face, find the five most similar faces. § Given a customer, the five most similar customers.
v Multidimensional range queries. § 50 < age < 55 AND 80K < sal < 90K
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What’s the difficulty?
v An index based on spatial location needed. § One-dimensional indexes don’t support
multidimensional searching efficiently. (Why?) § Hash indexes only support point queries; want to
support range queries as well. § Must support inserts and deletes gracefully.
v Ideally, want to support non-point data as well (e.g., lines, shapes).
v The R-tree meets these requirements, and variants are widely used today. (Toni was my officemate! Initial focus was VLSI design data).
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The R-Tree
v The R-tree is a tree-structured index that remains balanced on inserts and deletes.
v Each key stored in a leaf entry is intuitively a box (bounding box) or collection of intervals, with one interval per dimension.
v Example in 2-D:
X
Y
Root of R Tree
Leaf level
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R-Tree Properties v Leaf entry = < n-dimensional box, rid >
§ This is Alternative (2), with key value being a box. § Box is the tightest bounding box for a data object. § Each <box, rid> pair appears once, in some leaf page.
v Non-leaf entry = < n-dim box, ptr to child node > § Box covers all boxes in child node (in fact, subtree).
v All leaves at same distance from root. v Nodes can be kept 50% full (except root).
§ Can choose a parameter m that is <= 50%, and ensure that every node is at least m% full.
§ A lot like an n-dimensonal B+ tree (but not, ≠ K-d tree)
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Example of an R-Tree
R8 R9
R10
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R17 R18
R19
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Leaf entry
Index entry
Spatial object approximated by bounding box R8
Root
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Example R-Tree (Contd.)
R1 R2
R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19
R1 R2
Root
R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
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Search for Objects Overlapping Box Q
Start at root. 1. If current node is non-leaf, for each entry <E, ptr>, if box E overlaps Q, search subtree identified by ptr. 2. If current node is leaf, for each entry <E, rid>, if E overlaps Q, rid identifies an object that might overlap Q. (Why?)
Note: May have to search several subtrees at each node! (In contrast, a B-tree equality search goes to just one leaf.)
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R-Tree Search Examples
R8 R9
R10
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R17 R18
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Root Q
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R-Tree Search Examples (Contd.)
R1 R2
R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19
R1 R2
Root
R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
Q Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
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R-Tree Search Examples (Cont.)
R8 R9
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R17 R18
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Root
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R-Tree Search Examples (Contd.)
R1 R2
R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19
R1 R2
Root
R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
Q
Q
Q
Q Q
Q Q
Q
R18
R15
R16
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Improving Search Using Constraints
v It is convenient to store boxes in the R-tree as approximations of arbitrary regions, because boxes can be represented compactly.
v But why not use convex polygons to approximate query regions more accurately? § Will reduce overlap with nodes in tree, and reduce
the number of nodes fetched by avoiding some branches altogether.
§ Cost of overlap test is higher than bounding box intersection, but it is a main-memory cost, and can actually be done quite efficiently.
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Insert Entry <B, ptr>
v Start at root and go down to “best-fit” leaf L. § Go to child whose box needs least enlargement to
cover B; resolve ties by going to smallest area child.
v If best-fit leaf L has space, insert entry and stop. Otherwise, split L into L1 and L2. § Adjust entry for L in its parent so that the box now
covers (only) L1. § Add an entry (in the parent node of L) for L2. (This
could cause the parent node to recursively split.)
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Splitting a Node During Insertion
v The entries in node L plus the newly inserted entry must be distributed between L1 and L2.
v Goal is to reduce likelihood of both L1 and L2 being searched on subsequent queries.
v Idea: Redistribute so as to minimize area of L1 plus area of L2.
Exhaustive algorithm is too slow; quadratic and linear heuristics are described in the paper.
GOOD SPLIT!
BAD!
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R-Tree Insert Example
R8 R9
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R17 R18
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Root
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R-Tree Insert Example (Contd.)
R1 R2
R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16 R17 R18 R19
R1 R2
Root
R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
R20
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R20
R20
R20
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R-Tree Variants
v The R* tree uses forced reinserts to reduce overlap in tree nodes. When a node overflows, instead of splitting: § Remove some (say, 30% of the) entries and reinsert them into
the tree. § Could result in all reinserted entries fitting on existing pages,
avoiding a split.
v R* trees also use a different heuristic, minimizing box perimeters rather than box areas during insertion.
v Another variant, the R+ tree, avoids overlap by inserting an object (box, RID) into multiple leaves if necessary. § Put what you’re looking for everywhere you might look for it! § Searches now take a single path to a leaf, at cost of redundancy.
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GiST
v The Generalized Search Tree (GiST) abstracts the “tree” nature of a class of indexes including B+ trees and R-tree variants. § Striking similarities in insert/delete/search and even
concurrency control algorithms make it possible to provide “templates” for these algorithms that can be customized to obtain the many different tree index structures.
§ B+ trees are so important (and simple enough to allow further specialization) that they are implemented specially in all DBMSs, however.
§ GiST provides an alternative for implementing other tree indexes in an ORDBS. (First target was Postgres.)
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Comments on R-Trees
v Deletion consists of searching for the entry to be deleted, removing it, and if the node becomes under-full, deleting the node and then re-inserting the remaining entries.
v Overall, works quite well for 2 and 3 D datasets. Several variants (notably, R+ and R* trees) have been proposed; widely used.
v Could improve search performance by using a convex polygon to approximate query shape (instead of a bounding box) and then testing for polygon-box intersection.
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Indexing High-Dimensional Data
v Typically, high-dimensional datasets are collections of points, not regions. § E.g., Feature vectors in multimedia applications. § Very sparse.
v Nearest neighbor queries are common. § R-tree becomes worse than sequential scan for most datasets
with more than a dozen dimensions.
v As dimensionality increases contrast (ratio of distances between nearest and farthest points) usually decreases; “nearest neighbor” is not meaningful. § In any given data set, advisable to empirically test contrast.
v ML (and apps) making this more important today!
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Summary v Spatial data management has many
applications, including GIS, CAD/CAM, multimedia indexing. § Point and region data § Overlap/containment and nearest-neighbor queries § Handling the new social/local/mobile world!
v Many approaches to indexing spatial data § R-tree approach is widely used in GIS systems § Other approaches include Grid Files, Quad trees,
and B+ tree schemes based on “space-filling” curves. § For high-dimensional datasets, unless data has good “contrast”, nearest-neighbor may not be well-separated (issue for multimedia applications)