Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning

8/12/2019 Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning

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Principles and TheoriesTeaching and LearningBy : Sherwin Sean M. Amid



At the end of the Presentation the students will understandthe ff:

Behavioral Theories

Field and Gestalt Theories

Cognitive Theories



“You often learn whenyou don’t intend tolearn, and you oftenteach when you don’tintend to teach”



But what is knowledge? It isn’t the absolute truth about life anddeath, but the thing that help us to live and confront thechallenges of day to day life. It isn’t what we learn from books,which serves only to fuel futile arguments about what

happened or will happened; it is the knowledge that lives in thehearts of men and women of good willPAULO COELHO



What is Learning?



LEARNING

1. “a persisting change in human performanceor performance potential . . . (brought) aboutas a result of the learner’s interaction with theenvironment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).

2. “the relatively permanent change in aperson’s knowledge or behavior due toexperience” (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).

3. “an enduring change in behavior, or in thecapacity to behave in a given fashion, whichresults from practice or other forms ofexperience” (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).



Theory

is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking, or theresults of such thinking. Depending on the context, the results might for exampleinclude generalized explanations of how nature works.

A theory provides an explanatory framework for some observation, and from theassumptions of the explanation follows a number of possible hypotheses that

can be tested in order to provide support for, or challenge, the theory



Principle

is a law or rule that has to be, or usually is to be followed, or can be desirablyfollowed, or is an inevitable consequence of something, such as the lawsobserved in nature or the way that a system is constructed. The principles of sucha system are understood by its users as the essential characteristics of thesystem, or reflecting system's designed purpose, and the effective operation oruse of which would be impossible if any one of the principles was to be ignored



Behaviourism



Behaviorism

Behaviorism assumes that a learner is essentially passive, respondingto environmental stimuli.

Believes that a learner starts out with a clean slate, and behavior isshaped by positive and negative reinforcement.

Reinforcement, positive or negative, increases the possibility of anevent happening again.

Punishment, both positive and negative, decreases the possibility ofan event happening again.



Positive reinforcement is the application of a stimulus.

Negative reinforcement is the withdrawal of a stimulus.

Behaviorism is a precursor to cognitive learning.



Behavioural Theories

Primary Focus Observable behaviourStimulus-response connections

Assumptions Learning is a result of environmentalforces

Major TheoristsPavlovThorndikeSkinnerBandura



Born: 26 September 1849

Ryazan, RussiaDied: 27 February 1936 (aged 86)Leningrad, Soviet Union

Nationality: Russian

Known for: Classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov



Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus UnconditionedResponse

Neutral Stimulus

ConditionedConditioned Stimulus



The animal in the experiment learns to associate the bell with the opportunity to eat and begins to salivate to the bell inthe absence of food. It is as though the animal came to think of the bell as "mouth-watering," although behaviourists

never would have used terms like think of, because thinking is not a directly observable behaviour.



Born: August 31, 1874

Williamsburg, Massachusetts, U.S.Died: August 9, 1949 (aged 74)Montrose, New York

Nationality: American

Known for: Father ofmodern educational psychology,theory of connectionism

Edward Thorndike



Cat Experiment

Hungry cat is placed inside the box. Food keptoutside the box work as a motive. Cat started doingrandom movements for getting food. Cat squeezethrough opening, claws and bites at the bars ofwires, thrust its paws through any opening. Out ofany one random movement latch manipulatedaccidently. Hungry cat came out and got its rewardi.e. food.

In another trial:

Hungry cat placed in a puzzle box. Food kept outsidethe box worked as a motive. To get out of the boxcat again did random movements. But cat took lesstime to come out from the box. Gradually reducedand took less time on each succeeding trial.Manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in thebox. Gradually cat learned the art of opening door.



Theory of Connectionism

Learning is by Bond and connection

Learning is the result of associations formed between stimuli andresponses

( S-R framework)

These associations are strengthened/weakened by the nature andfrequency of the S-R pairings.

Trial and error learning- certain responses come to dominate others dueto rewards.



The 3 Primary Laws ofConnectionism



Law of Exercise

States that the strength of aconnection is determined by howoften the connection is used.



Law of Readiness

States that when an organism is ready to actit is reinforcing for it to do so, and annoying

for it not to do so.



Law of Effect

The strengthening or weakening of a connectionby its consequences.



Experiment sums up the following stages in the process oflearning:

1. Drive: Hungry cat intensified by the sight of the food.

2. Goal: To get food by getting out of the box.

3. Block: The cat was confined in the box with a closed door.

4. Random movements: The cat persistently tried to come out of the box without knowinghow.

5. Chance success: Striving and random movements the cat by chance succeeded in openingthe door.

6. Selection: Gradually cat recognized the correct way to manipulate the latch.

7. Fixation: At last cat learned the proper way to open the door by eliminating all the incorrectresponses & fixing only the right response.



Born: March 20, 1904

Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, UnitedStates

Died: August 18, 1990 (aged 86)Cambridge, Massachusetts, UnitedStates

Nationality: American

Known for: Operant conditioning

Burrhus Frederic Skinner



Skinner: Operant Conditioning

Stimulus ReinforcemeResponse



Fundamental Co

• Operant Conditioninto using pleasant/unpconsequences to contbehaviour of the orga



Principles of Learning inOperant Conditioning

• Principle of Consequence• Principle of Reinforcement• Pre mack Principle or Grandma Rule• Principle Extinction



Principle of Consequence

Under this principle, behaviourchanges according to itsimmediate consequences;pleasurable/Pleasantconsequence strenghten

behaviour, Unpleasantconsequence weaken it



Principle of Reinforcement

This involves any action takenfollowing a response thatincrease the probability that theresponse will occur again

Praising wordsand phrases

Facial Expressions Nearness

• Good• That's right• Excellent• That's clever•

Fine answer• Good job• Good thinking• Great• That shows agreat deal of work• You really payattention• I like that.• Show the classyou model.• That's interesting• Joan, you're doingso well with themicroscope.• That was verykind of you.

• Smiling• Winking• Nodding• Looking

interested• Laughing

• Walking athe student• Sitting in groups.•

Joining that break.• Eating witstudents.



Pre mack Principle

This principle is characterizedthat less desire activities can beincreased by linking them tomore desired activities



Principle of Extinction

Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease ordisappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus isno longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the smell offood (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle(the conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditionedresponse of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food)

were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), eventually theconditioned response (hunger) would disappear.

http://psychology.about.com/od/eindex/g/extinction.htm

http://psychology.about.com/od/eindex/g/extinction.htm



Social Learning Theory

SLT

ObservationalLearning

Observationlearning

attention retention reproduction

motivation

Vicarious Learning Self regulatedlearning

Learning byImitating

Real life symbolic Re



Observational Learning



Vicarious learning

Is acquired from observing the consequences of others behaviour



Self Regulated

Occurs when individual observe, assess and judge their own behaviour againsttheir own standards, and subsequently reward or punish them.



Models

Real Life• teachers• parents

Symbolic• books

Representat• Films• media



Gestalt and Field Theories



Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt - "essence or shape of an entity's complete form"

"The whole is greater than the sum of the parts " is often used when explainGestalt theory.



Gestalt Psychology

Gestaltists see objects as perceived within an environment according to all of theelements taken together as a global construct.



Max Wertheimer



Max Wertheimer

Born April 15, 1880Died Oct 12, 1943

Born in Prague, Czech Republic

Psychologist

Father of Gestalt psychology



Inspiration

In 1910 he bought a toy stroboscope

He saw two separate and alternatinglight patterns

He discovered that if the spacing, on-time, and off-time were just right forthese lights, his mind would perceive thedual lights as one single flashing lightmoving back and forth



Phi phenomenon

a perceptual illusion in which aperception of motion is producedby a succession of still images.

Lead to important questions abouthow perception and the brain

works.



Kurt Koffka

Born March 18, 1886Died Nov 22, 1941

Born in Berlin, Germany

Psychologist

Another of the founders of Gestaltpsychology

Learning theorist



Theories on learning

Koffka also believed that a lot of learning occurs by imitation ,though he argued that it is not important to understand howimitation works, but rather to acknowledge that it is a naturaloccurrence.

According to Koffka, the highest type of learning is “ ideationallearning ”, which makes use of language.

Wolfgang Köhler



Born in Jan 21, 1887

Died in June 11, 1967Born in Reval (now Tallinn), Estonia

Psychologist and phenomenologist

Another of the founders of Gestalt

psychology

g g



Problem solving

In 1913, Köhler went to the island ofTenerife in the Canary Islands for sixyears

Köhler observed the manner in whichchimpanzees solve problems, such asthat of retrieving bananas whenpositioned out of reach. He found thatthey stacked wooden crates to use as

makeshift ladders, in order to retrievethe food.

If the bananas were placed on theground outside of the cage, they usedsticks to lengthen the reach of theirarms.



Problem solving

Köhler concluded that the chimps had not arrivedat these methods through trial-and-error (whichAmerican psychologist Edward Thorndike hadclaimed to be the basis of all animal learning,through his law of effect), but rather that they hadexperienced an insight (also sometimes known asan “ aha experience ”), in which, having realized theanswer, they then proceeded to carry it out in away that was, in Köhler’s words, “ unwaveringly purposeful ”.



The bouba/kiki effect




The Bouba/Kiki Effect was firstobserved by German-Americanpsychologist Wolfgang Köhler in1929.



In psychological experiments, first conducted on the island of Tenerif(in which the primary language is Spanish), Köhler showed forms in previous slides asked participants which shape was called "takete" anwhich was called "baluba" ("maluma" in the 1947 version). Datasuggested a strong preference to pair the jagged shape with "takete" athe rounded shape with "baluba".




In 2001, Vilayanur S. Ramachandran and Edward Hubbard repeatedKöhler's experiment using the words "kiki" and "bouba" and askedAmerican college undergraduates and Tamil speakers in India “Which othese shapes is bouba and which is kiki?”

In both the English and the Tamil speakers, 95% to 98% selected thecurvy shape as "bouba" and the jagged one as "kiki", suggesting that

human brain is somehow able to extract abstract properties from theshapes and sounds.




Recent work by Daphne Maurer and colleagues has shown that even children as young as 2.5 (too young to

show this effect.

Ramachandran and Hubbard suggest that the kiki/bouba effect has implications for the evolution of languagbecause it suggests that the naming of objects is not completely arbitrary.




The rounded shape may most commonly be named "bouba" because mouth makes a more rounded shape to produce that sound while amore taut, angular mouth shape is needed to make the sound "kiki".

The sounds of a K are harder and more forceful than those of a B, aswell.




The presence of these "synesthesia-like mappings" suggest that thiseffect might be the neurological basis for sound symbolism, in whichsounds are non-arbitrarily mapped to objects and events in the world.




Individuals with autism do not show as strong a preference. Whereaverage people agree with the typical result 90% of the time, individuwith autism only agree 60% of the time (Ramachandran, V.S., ObermL.M. Evidence for Deficits in Mirror Neuron Function, MultisensoryIntegration, and Sound-form Symbolism in Autism Spectrum Disorde




Main principlesof Gestalt Psychology

G l P i i l



Gestalt Principles

EmergenceReification

Multistability

Invariance

Prägnanz

P i i l f E



Principle of Emergence

Objects in an images are not recognised by their component parts, but are ratherperceived as a whole, all at once.




p g





The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.),and then inferring the dog from those component parts.

Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, all at once.

Principle of Reification




the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than thesensory stimulus on which it is based.





Principle of Multistability




the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forthunstably between two or more alternative interpretations.





Principle of Invariance



p

the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognizedindependent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variationssuch as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different componentfeatures.

Principle of Invariance



p

Principle of Prägnanz



p g

we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetric,and simple.

This results in other more basic lawsLaw of ClosureLaw of SimilarityLaw of Proximity

Law of ContinuityLaw of Common Fate

Law of Closure



The mind may experience elements it does not perceive through sensation, in orderto complete a regular figure (that is, to increase regularity).



Law of Proximity



Spatial or temporal proximity of elements may induce the mind to perceive acollective or totality.

Law of Symmetry



Symmetrical images are perceived collectively, even in spite of distance.

Law of Continuity



The mind continues visual, auditory, and kinetic patterns.

Law of Common Fate



Elements with the same moving direction are perceived as a collective or unit.

Kurt Lewin



Born Sept 9, 1890

Died Feb 12, 1947Born in Mogilno, Poland

Psychologist

"founder of social psychology“

Worked closely with the Gestaltpsychologists

Field Theory of Learning



Learning takes place when organism achieves insights

Lewin (1936) used the term ‘life space’ to denote the totalityof all the influences on a person at a given moment in time,both the outer environment and inner personalenvironment.

Field theory views learning as a social process, to learn, anorganism must interact with others in the environment



COGNITIVE LEARNITHEORY

Key Points



The cognitive theory is based on traditional psychological concepts that deal withthinking, remembering, and deciding.

Cognitive psychologists view activities such as thinking, remembering, anddeciding by how they relate to behavior.

The cognitive theory asserts that thinking and remembering are more of abehavior and that the use of behavior analysis is needed to assess their effectson learning.

Cognitivists o bjected to behaviorists’ beliefs that learning is simply a reactionaryphenomenon.

It is commonly referred to as opening the “black box” in the mind.

1.2 Theories: Cognitive



Primary Focus Mental behaviourKnowledgeIntelligenceCritical Thinking

Assumptions Learning is a result of mental operations/processing

Allan Paivio



Born: March 29, 1925

Age: 88

Place: Ontario, Canada

Known for: Dual Coding Theory

Dual Coding Theory



Paivio proposed that when information is presented both visually and verbally, it enhances recall and recognit

This theory proposes that people process information in two separate ways:1. Processing of images2. Processing of language

There are three sub processes identified in thistheory:

1. RepresentationalVerbal or nonverbal representations are directlyinfluenced.

2. ReferentialVerbal system is activated by nonverbal communication or vice-versa.

3. AssociativeText-based systems and graphic representations trigger mental associations.

Robert Mills Gagné



Born in Aug 21, 1916

Died in April 28, 2002

Born in in North Andover, Massachusetts

educational psychologist

best known for his “ Conditions of

Learning ” involved in applying instructional theoryto the design of computer basedlearning.

The Gagné Assumption



different types of learning exist, and that different instructional conditions aremost likely to bring about these different types of learning.

Five Categories of Learning



verbal information

intellectual skills

cognitive strategies

motor skills

attitudes

Eight Types of Learning



1. Signal Learning - The individual learns to make a general, diffuse response to a signal. Sucwas the classical conditioned response of Pavlov.

2. Stimulus-Response Learning - The learner acquires a precise response to a discriminatedstimulus.

3. Chaining - A chain of two or more stimulus-response connections is acquired.

4. Verbal Association - The learning of chains that are verbal.

5. Discrimination Learning - The individual learns to make different identifying responses tomany different stimuli that may resemble each other in physical appearance.

6. Concept Learning - The learner acquires a capability of making a common response to aclass of stimuli.

7. Rule Learning - A rule is a chain of two or more concepts.

8. Problem Solving - A kind of learning that requires the internal events usually called thinkin

Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction



Nine Events of Instruction



1. Gain attention - Curiosity motivates students to learn.

2. Inform learners of objectives - These objectives should form the basis for assessment.3. Stimulate recall of prior learning - Associating new information with prior knowledge can facilitate

learning process.

4. Present the content - This event of instruction is where the new content is actually presented to thelearner.

5. Provide “learning guidance” - use of examples, non-examples, case studies, graphical representatiomnemonics, and analogies.

6. Elicit performance (practice) - Eliciting performance provides an opportunity for learners to confirmtheir correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the likelihood of retention.

7. Provide feedback - guidance and answers provided at this stage are called formative feedback.

8. Assess performance - take a final assessment.

9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job - Effective education will have a "performance" focus.

Howard Gardner



(1943 - )

Born in Scranton, PAProfessor of Cognition and Educationat Harvard

Received many awardsAuthor of over 20 books

Best known for his theory of multipleintelligences

Gardner defines intelligence as:



The ability to create an effective product or offer a service

A set of skills that make it possible to solve problems

The potential for finding or creating solutions for problems, which involvesgathering new knowledge.

Tab

Types of Intelligences:



1. Linguistic

2. Logical/mathematical

3. Musical rhythmic

4. Bodily/kinesthetic

5. Spatial

6. Naturalist

7. Intrapersonal

8. Interpersonal

9. Existential

Tab

Technology and Multiple Intelligences



“Computers offer students a multi -sensory smorgasbord,” which engageslearners by stimulating the multiple intelligences.

Jane Carlson-Pickering

Table of C



These nine intelligences canbe used to determine thetype of instruction andtechnology that will workbest for a student.

Verbal / Linguistic Intelligence



Word Processing Programs

Spell Checkers

Desktop Publishing Programs

Tab

Logical / Mathematical



Internet

Computer Software – math games, logic games, etc.

Spreadsheets

www.funbrain.com

Tab

Visual / Spatial Intelligence

D d P i t P

http://www.safarimontage.com/Default.aspx



Draw and Paint Programs

Clip Art

PowerPoint

Safari Montage

Tab

Musical / Rhythmic Intelligence






Audio Effects

Composition Software

Tab

Bodily / Kinesthetic Intelligence



Video Games

Virtual Reality

Interactive White Boards

Tab

Naturalist Intelligence



Online Encyclopedias

Internet Resources

Tab

Interpersonal Intelligence



Work in groups to use software or technology

PowerPoint

Email

Use databases or spreadsheets to create school-wide surveys and graphs

Tab



Benjamin Bloom



Born on February 21, 1913 in

Lansford Pennsylvania.

Died on 13 September 1999.

Known for Blooms taxonomy

3 learning Domain



Bloom defined three learning domains:

1. Cognitive -Intellectual level; organization of ideas and thoughts

2. Affective -Emotions, interests, attitude, attention, awareness

3. Psychomotor -Motor skills and physical abilities

Blooms Taxonomy



1. Knowledge

2. Comprehension3. Application4. Analysis5. Synthesis6. Evaluation

Jerome Bruner

Born October 1, 1915



Age 94

Born in New York, New York

EducationPhD, Harvard, 1941 (Psychology)BA, Duke University, 1937

PublicationsThe Culture of Education, 1996Acts of Meaning, 1991Actual Minds, Possible Worlds, 1987The Process of Education, 1960

cognitive psychologist and educational psychologistScaffolding Theory

Spiral Curriculum

Principles of J. Bruner Theory

1 I i b d i h h i d h k h d



1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the studenwilling and able to learn (readiness).

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiralorganization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going bthe information given).

J. Bruner Theory



Bruner's theoretical framework is based on the theme that learning is an active process learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon existing knowledge.

Facets of the process include selection and transformation of information, decision makgenerating hypotheses, and making meaning from information and experiences.

Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization toexperiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given".

B b li d h i i i d l i l hi ki h ld b h b d d



Bruner believed that intuitive and analytical thinking should both be encouraged andrewarded.

He believed the intuitive skills were under-emphasized and he reflected on the ability oexperts in every field to make spontaneous bound.

He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject mattebest stimulus for learning. Bruner did not like external competitive goals such as graderanking.

Conclusion of Theory



A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active procwhich learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledg

As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to dprinciples by themselves and they should engage in an active dialog (i.e., socratic learn

Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually buildwhat they have already learned.

Features of J. Bruner's theory of Instruction

1 T d t d l i



1. Tendency towards learning

2. The ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readgrasped by the learner,

3. The most effective sequences in which to present material.

4. The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments.

Cognitive Development

Like Piaget, Bruner believed in stages of instruction based on development.



g , g p .

Enactive (birth to age 3)

Iconic (age 3 to 8)

Symbolic (from age 8)

Each mode is dominant at different phases of development but all are present and accessialways.

Enactive



.

The first stage he termed "Enactive", when aperson learns about the world through actionson physical objects and the outcomes of theseactions.



Spiral Curriculum



Instead of focusing for

relatively long periods oftime on specific narrowtopics, a spiral curriculumtries to expose students toa wide varies of ideas over

and over ago.

David Ausubel - Focus



Stressed the importance of active mental participation in meaningful leatasks

Learning must be meaningful to be effective and permanent



David Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory/Rationalistic Theory :Human behavior is abstract in nature; it cannot not be controlled or

predictedLearning takes place through a meaningful process of relating newevents or items to already existing cognitiveconcepts/propositions/itemsMeaningful learning is a process of relating and anchoring newmaterial to relevant established entities in cognitive structure As new material enters the cognitive structure it interacts with and isappropriately associated under higher order categories for meaningfulretention



Roger’s Humanistic Psychology Perspective of a constructivist view of learningLearning takes place in a non-threatening environment, which allows a

person to form a picture of reality that is congruent with realityThe goal of education is the facilitation of change and learningThe context for learning must be properly createdLearning is not filling the student with information

True knowledge is facilitated when the student is allowed to negotiatelearning outcomes, to cooperate with teachers and peers in a process ofdiscovery, to engage in critical thinking, to be empowered to achievesolutions to real problems

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:



Piaget’s theory is about cognitive development as the key to explain howindividuals perceive, think, understand, and learn

Cognitive development is perceived as consisting primarily of logical andmathematical abilities

Intelligence is synonymous with thinking in that it involves mental operations

Intelligence develops as children psychologically adapt to their environmenand reconcile discrepancies between current forms and previously acquired

forms of understanding



Meaning is construed based on previous background knowledge structur

Schemata are the previously acquired knowledge structures throughexperience. Schemes: mental systems of knowledge categories —units knowledge that children develop through the adaptation process.

OTHER PIAGETIAN CONCEPTS

Active learning: by being physically and mentally engaged in learning



Active learning: by being physically and mentally engaged in learningactivities, children develop knowledge and learn.

Assimilation: process of fitting new information into existing schemes.

Accommodation: changing or altering existing schemes or creating newones in response to new information.

Equilibrium: balance between existing schemes developed throughassimilation and intake of new information through accommodation.

Piaget’s Constructivism And Cognitive Development

in Morrison, 2004. Early Childhood Education Today



Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development



PIAGET’S STAGESOF COGNITIVE

DEVELEPMENT



in Morrison, 2004.

Early Childhood Education

Today

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Learning Theory



Learning is social; every child reaches his or her potential developmentin part, through social interaction

Social interaction, through language, is a pre-requisite to cognitivedevelopment;

Learning awakens a variety of developmental processes that are able tooperate only when the child is interacting with people. Once these

processes are internalized (as the child approaches the zone of proximadevelopment), they become part of the child’s independentdevelopmental achievement

Zone of Proximal Developmen

in Morrison, 2004. Early Childhood Education To



The zone of proximal development (ZPD) represents the tasks that children



cannot do independently but can do when helped by a more competent adult

encompasses the range of tasks that are too difficult to master alone but thatcan be learned with guidance and assistance.

Vygotsky’s scaffolding is assistance of some kind that enables children tocomplete tasks they cannot complete independently. It is the process of providifferent levels of support, guidance, or direction during the course of an act

Abraham Maslow’s (1890 —1970) Self-actualization Theory of Learning

Maslow’s self -actualization theory is based on the satisfaction of human ne



Maslow s self actualization theory is based on the satisfaction of human neOnce the basic needs are satisfied, the child can reach self-actualization, or s

fulfillment--the highest human need.Recognition and approval are self-esteem needs that relate to success andaccomplishment.Children who are independent and responsible, and who achieve, will have hesteemSelf-esteem increases the possibilities of achievement.When children have a sense of satisfaction, they are enthusiastic, and are eaglearn and become involved in activities that will lead to higher levels of learn

Morrison, 2004. Early Childhood Education Today

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs



Erik Erikson’s (1902 —1994) Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is based on the premise that csocial development occur hand in hand and cannot be separated.

Children’s personalities and social skills grow and develop within the context of s



Children s personalities and social skills grow and develop within the context of sand in response to society’s demands, expectations, values, a social institutions su families, schools, and child care programs.

School-age children must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense ofincompetence – they either develop an ability to do, be involved, be competent, achieve or a feeling of inferiority, failure, and incompetence.

Atkinson- Shiffrin Model of Memory



Multi Store Model of Human Memory• In 1968 Atkinson and Shiffrin

proposed a model of humanmemory which posited two



memory which posited two

distinct memory stores: short-term memory, and long-termmemory.

• Later a third memory store(actually the first in sequence)

was added: sensory memory.



• Information enters the human informationprocessing system via a variety of channels

associated with the different senses.



Sensory Memory • Information notimmediately attended to isheld briefly in a very



temporary "buffer" memory,making it possible to attendto some of it a bit later.

• This buffer memory is calledsensory memory .

There



There sensormemovisioniconic

memo



• And one for touch- hapticmemory



memory

Iconic Memory (vision)

Capacity: Essentially that ofthe visual system

D ti Ab t 0 3 t 1 0

Echoic Memory (hearing)

Capacity: ????

Duration: About 3-4 secon



Duration: About 0.3 to 1.0secondsProcessing: None additionalbeyond raw perceptualprocessing

Processing: None additionraw perceptual processing

• Haptic memory is a form of sensorymemory that refers to therecollection of data acquired bytouch after a stimulus has been



presented. Similar to visual iconicmemory, traces of haptically acquiredinformation are short lived and proneto decay after approximately twoseconds.

Short Term MemoryInformation that is attended to arrives in another temporarystore called short-term or working memory.



g y

Some properties of STM:• Capacity: About 7 plus or minus 2 "chunks" of information• Duration: About 18-20 seconds (average)



Duration: About 18 20 seconds (average).• Processing: To hold information in STM, it is often encoded

verbally, although other strategies may also be used such asvisualisation. These strategies make it possible to "rehearse"the information.

• The low capacity of STM was first noted by George Millefamous paper entitled The Magical Number Seven, PlusTwo.



• Miller concluded that about seven (plus or minus two) "chinformation could reside in STM simultaneously.

Random letters such as "GJK" would each

be considered a chunk , but letters thatform a recognisable larger whole, such as"CAR" would not. (In this case the word"car" is a single chunk.)



• Information is STM can be held for a duration of being 18 a20 seconds provided there isn’t interference- that is ne



information interfering with the currently attended toinformation.

• Information in STM can be held in STM via a method camaintenance rehearsal - that is, repeating the informationsilently or aloud so that it is recalled immediately whenneeded.



• Maintenance rehearsal does NOT add meaning to theinformation and is unlikely to be remembered when it is n



longer being repeated.

Long Term Memory• Long-term memory is the relatively permanent memory s

in which you hold information even when you are no



attending to it.

• Information held not represented asof neural activity but rather as chbrain wiring -- in"cond cti it " of



"conductivity" of synapses, and in tformation new sydestruction of old



• Storing information in LTM is equivalent to a computeinformation out to its hard drive, or to a tape recorderpatterns of magnetisation onto tape to record music.

Some properties of LTM:

• Capacity: Virtually unlimited• Duration: Up to a lifetime



• Processing: Information is organized according to meais associatively linked.

In contrast to maintenance rehearsal in STM, elaboratirehearsal involves the process of expanding upon new i



adding to it or linking it to what one knows, thereby mmore meaningful (for encoding and retrieval).

Self referencing/ Salience• Self-referencing, or using

salience , is when we relate newinfo to personal experiences



p pand our personal situation,encoding is enhanced andtherefore we are more likely toremember it.

Principles and Theories of Teaching and Learning

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