Soil Mechanics

Principles and Practice

G. E. Barnes

MACMILLAN

©G.E.Barnes 1995 Acknowledgements

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmis-sion of this publication may be made without writtenpermission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced,copied or transmitted, save with written permission orin accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms ofany licence permitting limited copying issued by theCopyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham CourtRoad, London W1P9HE.

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First published 1995 byMACMILLAN PRESS LTDHoundmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XSand LondonCompanies and representatives throughout the world

ISBN 978-0-333-59654-8 ISBN 978-1-349-13258-4 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-13258-4

A catalogue record for this book is available from theBritish Library.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 104 03 02 01 00 99 98 97 96 95

Extracts from British Standards are reproduced withthe permission of BSL Complete copies can be ob-tained by post from BSI Sales, Linford Wood, MiltonKeynes, MK146LE. Tables 13.1 and 13.7 are repro-duced with the permission of the Controller of HerMajesty's Stationery Office. Material from ASTMpublications is reproduced with their permission. Fullversions can be obtained from American Society forTesting and Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia,Pa. 19103-1187, USA. Figure 12.10 is reproducedwith permission from the Boston Society of CivilEngineers Section, American Society of Civil Engi-neers. The Journal of the Boston Society of CivilEngineers is now known as 'Civil Engineering Prac-tice'. Figures5.6,9.7,9.18,9.19,10.9and lO.lOhavebeen reproduced with permission from the AmericanSociety of Civil Engineers. Figures 5.2, 8.19, 8.20,10.9,10.10,10.11,10.20,12.4,12.17,13.11 andTable9.7 have been reproduced with permission from JohnWiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Figure 3.15 is repro-duced with the permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc. Fig-ure 5.8 is reproduced with the permission of Engineer-ing Publications Office, University of Illinois. Figure7.13 is reproduced with the permission of The RoyalSociety and Professor P.W. Rowe. Figure 9.1 is repro-duced with the permission of Transportation ResearchBoard, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.Figure 9.5 is reproduced with the permission of Mr.F.G. Butler. Figures 10.15,10.16,10.18 and 10.19 arereproduced with the permission of Dr T. Whitaker.

The author wishes to record his thanks to all of the otherorganisations who have granted permission to usematerial from their sources.

Contents

Preface viii Soil Classification List of symbols IX Introduction 18 Note on units xiii Particle density 19

Particle shape 19 Particle size distribution 20

1 Soil Formation and Nature Density 22 Moisture content 24

Soil Formation Consistency and Atterberg limits 25

Introduction Plasticity chart 27 Activity 28 Man-made soils Shrinkage limit 28 Contaminated and polluted soils Soil model 29 Naturally-occurring soils Worked Examples 32 In situ soils - weathered rocks I Exercises 35 In situ soils - peat 3

Water-borne soils 3 Glacial deposits 3 Wind-blown soils 4 3 Permeability and Seepage

Soil Particles Permeability Nature of particles 5

Clay minerals 5 Introduction 36 Groundwater 36

Soil Structure Flow problems 36 Introduction 8 Stability problems 37 Granular soils 8 Soil voids 38 Relative density 9 Pressure and head 39 Cohesive soils 10 Darcy's Law 39

Effect of temperature 40 Empirical correlations for k 40

2 Soil Description and Classification Layered soils 42 Laboratory tests 43

Soil Description Borehole tests 46 Introduction 12 Pumping tests 51 Classification 12 Seepage Made Ground 12 Seepage theory 51 Topsoil 12 Flow nets 53 Clay 13 Flow net construction 54 Silt 14 Seepage quantities 57 Sand and gravel 15 Total head, elevation head and pressure head 57 Cobbles and boulders 16 Pore pressure and uplift pressure 58 Peat and organic soils 16 Seepage force 58 Types of description 17 Quick conditions and boiling 58

iii

1111

iv Soil Mechanics - Princivles and Practice

Piping adjacent to sheet piling 59 Worked Examples 100 Seepage through earth dams 60 Exercises 103 Seepage through flood banks, levees 60 Worked Examples 62 Exercises 68 6 Compressibility and Consolidation

Compressibility 4 Effective Stress and Pore Pressure Introduction 104

Void ratio/effective stress plot 104 Total stress 70 Reloading curves 105 Pore pressures below the water table 70 Preconsolidation pressure 105 Effective stress 70 Effect of sampling disturbance 106 Stress history 71 In situ curve for normally consolidated clay 106 Normally consolidated clay 72 In situ curve for overconsolidated clay 106 Overconsolidated clay 74 Isotropic compression 107 Overconsolidation ratio 74 Anisotropic compression 108 Desiccated crust 75

Consolidation Present state of stress in the ground 76

Terzaghi theory of one-dimensional Mohr's circle of stress 76 Earth pressure at rest 76 consolidation 109

Oedometer test 111 Changes in stress due to engineering works 79

Coefficient of consolidation 114 Pore pressure parameters 81

Rowe consolidation cell 116 Capillary rise above the water table 83

Two and three-dimensional consolidation 118 Effective stresses above the water table 84

Radial consolidation for vertical drains 119 Worked Examples 86

Worked Examples 122 Exercises 89

Exercises 128

5 Contact Pressure and 7 Shear Strength Stress Distribution

General Contact pressure Introduction 130

Introduction 91 Effects of strain 130 Uniform loading 91 Failure criterion 132 Point loading 92 Stress paths 133

Stress distribution Effects of drainage 133 Introduction 92 Test procedures 136 Stresses beneath point load and line load 92 Shear strength of sand Assumptions 94 Stress-strain behaviour 139 Stresses beneath uniformly loaded areas 94 Shear box test 140 Bulbs of pressure 94 Effect of packing and particle nature 141 Stresses beneath a flexible rectangle 97 Constant volume condition 142 Principle of superposition 97 Stresses beneath flexible area of any shape 97 Shear strength of clay

Stresses beneath a flexible rectangle - finite soil Effect of sampling 143 thickness 99 Undrained cohesion, Cll 143

Stresses beneath a rigid rectangle 99 Unconfined compression test 143

Contents v

Vane test 143 Worked Examples 187 Triaxial test 145 Exercises 191 Triaxial unconsolidated undrained test (UU) 146 Effect of clay content and mineralogy 148 Partially saturated clays 148 9 Shallow Foundations - Settlements Fissured clays 148 Variation with depth 149 Introduction 192 Frictional characteristics 151 Test procedures 151 Clays - immediate settlement

Triaxial consolidated undrained test (CU) 151 General method 192

Triaxial consolidated drained test (CD) 153 Principle of superposition 192 Principle of layering 192

Critical state theory 153 Rigidity correction 195

Residual strength 159 Depth correction 195

Worked Examples 161 A verage settlement 195

Exercises 166 Modulus increasing with depth 195 Effect of local yielding 195 Estimation of undrained modulus 198

8 Shallow Foundations - Stability Clays - consolidation settlement Compression index Cc method 198

General Oedometer or mv method 200 Introduction 168

Clays - total settlement Spread foundations 168

Skempton-Bjerrum method 200 Design requirements 168

Elastic drained method 201 Types of shallow foundation 169

Estimation of drained modulus 203 Strip foundations 169 Pad foundations 171 Secondary compression Raft foundations 171 Introduction 203 Depth of foundations 172 General method 204

Bearing capacity Estimation of C" or e" values 204

Modes of failure 176 Sands Bearing capacity - vertical loads only 176 Introduction 205 Shape and depth factors 178 Methods of estimating settlements 206 Bearing capacity - overturning 178 Schmertmann's method 206 Eccentric loading 178 Burland and Burbridge's method 207 Inclined loading 179

Permissible settlements Different soil strength cases 181

Introduction 209 Effect of water table 181

Definitions of ground and foundation Net ultimate bearing capacity 182 Factor of safety 182

movement 209 Criteria for movements 210

Effect of compressibility of soil 183 Routine settlement limits 2 I I

Sliding 184 Worked Examples 213

Allowable bearing pressure of sand Exercises 218 Settlement limit 184 Allowable bearing pressure 184

vi Soil Mechanics - Principles and Practice

10 Pile Foundations Effect of wall friction 243 Coulomb theory - active thrust 243

Single piles Coulomb theory - passive thrust 245 Introduction 220 Earth pressure coefficients 246 Loading conditions 220 Effect of cohesion intercept c' 248 Types of pile 220 Minimum equivalent fluid pressure 248 Design of single piles 221 Effect of water table 248 Load capacity of single piles 221 Undrained conditions 248

Tension cracks 250 Bored piles in clay Loads applied on soil surface 251

End bearing resistance 222 Adhesion 222 Retaining structures

Introduction 251 Driven piles in clay Basement walls 252

End bearing resistance 223 Bridge abutments 254 Adhesion 223 Gabions and cribwork 254 Effective stress approach for adhesion 225

Driven piles in sand Stability of gravity walls

Introduction 254 Effects of installation 226 Rotational failure 255 End bearing resistance 226 Overturning 255 Critical depth 226 Bearing pressure 255 Skin friction 227 Sliding 256

Bored piles in sand 229 Internal stability 257

Factor of safety 229 Sheet pile walls Introduction 257

Pile groups Cantilever sheet pile walls 258 Pile spacing 230 Factor on embedment method 258 Stressed zone 230 Gross pressure method 258 Load variation 230 Single anchor or propped sheet pile walls 259 Efficiency 231 Factor on embedment method 259 Ultimate capacity 232 Gross pressure method 259 Settlement ratio 233 Anchorages for sheet piling 260 Settlement of pile groups 234 Worked Examples 236 Strutted excavations Exercises 239 Introduction 261

Strut loads 261

Reinforced earth 11 Lateral Earth Pressure and Introduction 263

Design of Retaining Structures Effects of reinforcement 263 Internal stability 263 External stability 265

Lateral earth pressures Worked Examples 266 Introduction 240 Exercises 273 Effect of horizontal movements 240 Effect of wall flexibility and propping 242

Contents vii

12 Slope Stability Soil compaction Introduction 313

General Factors affecting compaction 313 Introduction 274 Field compaction Types of mass movement 274 Introduction 314 Natural slopes 274 Compaction plant 314 Artificial slopes or earthworks 274 Specification of compaction requirements 316 Short-term and long-term conditions 276 Control of compaction in the field 319

Methods of analysis Laboratory compaction Plane translational slide 280 Introduction 319 Circular arc analysis - undrained conditon 281 Laboratory tests 319 Tension crack 283 Air voids lines 321 Undrained analysis - stability charts 283 Correction for stone content 321 Effective stress analysis - method of slices 284 Worked Examples 322 Fellenius method 286 Exercises 327 Bishop simplified method 286 Pore pressure ratio ru 287 Effective stress analysis - stability 14 Site Investigation

coefficients 287 Submerged slopes 290

Site investigation Rapid drawdown 290

Introduction 328 Non-circular slip surfaces - lanbu method 291

Stages of investigation 328 Wedge method - single plane 292

Desk study 328 Wedge method - multi-plane 292

Site reconnaissance 329 Factor of safety 294 Worked Examples 295 Ground investigation Exercises 300 Extent of the ground investigation 329

Depth of exploration 330 Choice of method of investigation 330

13 Earthworks and Soil Compaction Methods of ground investigation 331 Undisturbed sampling - sampling quality 335

Earthworks Types of samples 335 Introduction 303 Methods of in situ testing 339 Construction plant 303 Groundwater observations 342 Purpose and types of materials 304 Investigation of contaminated land 345 Material requirements 304 Site investigation reports Acceptability of fill 306 Introduction 345 Acceptability of granular soils 306 Factual report 346 Acceptability of cohesive soils 307 Interpretative report 348 Efficiency of earthmoving 309 Material problems 309 Answers to exercises 350 Softening 310 References 352 Bulking 311 Index 359

Preface

The main aims of this book are to provide an under­standing of the nature of soil, an appreciation of soil behaviour and a concise and clear presentation of the basic principles of soil mechanics.

The subject of soil mechanics attempts to provide a framework for understanding the behaviour of the ground by considering the principles which apply to soils. The geotechnical engineer must then use judge­ment to determine how to apply these principles in real situations. It is often said that soil mechanics is a 'black art'

because these principles may not apply universally, and there is a considerable amount of empirical knowl­edge which has been built up over the years but which still serves the engineer well. This is also probably a result of trying to apply a purely scientific approach to a material which has not been controlled during its manufacture by human interference. Instead the ground is a natural material, variable, unique, not fully under­stood and sometimes surprising in its behaviour.

The book is intended as a main text for undergraduate civil and ground engineering students to provide the basic principles and to illustrate how, why and with what limitations these principles can be applied in practice. It is also intended to be retained by these students when they become practitioners and for pro­fessionals already in practice as a reference source providing guidance and information for the solution of real geotechnical problems. It is assumed that the reader will have a basic under­

standing of mathematics and science and a good understanding of applied mechanics. In civil engineer­ing undergraduate degree courses there is often insufficient emphasis on the need to provide a sound knowledge of geology and, in particular, the superfi­cial geology, in other words, the soils! This material too often gets in the way for many geologists who are mainly interested in the rocks.

Vlll

A good geotechnical engineer will have a know ledge of mathematics, science and be proficient with soil mechanics but a knowledge of geology, soil profiles and groundwater conditions is fundamental to the application of soil mechanics. For this reason the book aims to consider soil mechanics with more emphasis on its application in the ground and less emphasis on the behaviour of soils in the unnatural environment of the laboratory.

The book contains a range of worked examples to assist the learning of the subject and illustrate the applications of the various analytical approaches. To consolidate this understanding, problem exercises have been included for students to attempt themselves.

I am most grateful to all those researchers, writers and practising engineers who have investigated the subject and collected information over the last seventy years or so, without whom no standard text-book could be written. In particular, I wish to record my thanks to those publishers, organisations and individuals who have granted permission to use material from their publications.

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr Bob Saxton from Plymouth University for reviewing the draft manu­script and making valuable comments. I wish to thank Professor Clive Melbourne, Head of School of Civil Engineering at Bolton Institute for his support and encouragement. Thanks are are also due to Miss Joanne Carney for typing the draft manuscript. Finally, my sincere thanks go to my wife, Linda, for her support and understanding during the preparation of the book.

Graham Barnes

List of symbols

A Activity Dr Relative density A Area E' Young's modulus in terms of effective stress A' Effective area (drained condition) A Pore pressure parameter Ep Pressuremeter modulus

Ae Ash content Eu Young's modulus in terms of total stress

Ab Pile base area (undrained condition)

Ar Pore pressure parameter at failure E Lateral force on side of slice

Ar Area ratio ESP Effective stress path

As Pile shaft area e Eccentricity

Av Air voids content e Void ratio a Slope stability coefficient eo Initial void ratio B % of particles passing maximum size ef Final void ratio B Width of foundation emax Void ratio at loosest state B Pore pressure parameter emin Void ratio at densest state B Pore pressure parameter F Factor of safety, length factor B' Effective width F Force b Slope stability coefficient Fd Enlargement factor C N Correction for overburden pressure Fa Correction for roughness Cw Correction for water table FD Correction for depth of embedment Ce Compression index f Shape factor or intake factor Cc Coefficient of curvature fo Slope stability correction factor Ca Coefficient of secondary compression Is Skin friction, sleeve friction Cs Soil skeleton compressibility Is Shape factor Cs Swelling index it Correction for time Cw Compressibility of pore water it Permissible tensile strength of reinforcement CD Consolidated drained fy Yield factor CU Consolidated undrained j; Thickness factor CI Consistency index G Shear modulus CSL Critical state line Gs Specific gravity of particles Ca Adhesion g Gravitational acceleration (9.81 mls2)

Cb Adhesion at underside of foundation g Soil constant for the Hvorslev surface Cr Remoulded undrained cohesion H Height, thickness, horizontal force Cu Undrained cohesion He Constant head above the water table Cv Coefficient of consolidation, vertical direction Ho Initial head above the water table

CH Coefficient of consolidation, horizontal H, Head at time t direction h Head difference

Cw Adhesion between soil and waIl he Capillary rise c' Cohesion in effective stress terms hm Mean head D Depth of foundation hp Pressure head D Depth factor of slip circle hs FuIly saturated capillary zone

d Diameter, depth of penetration, particle size hw Depth to water table

d Length of drainage path h, Elevation or position head

do Initial depth of embedment I Influence value or factor

ix

x Soil Mechanics - Principles and Practice

ICL Isotropic nonnal consolidation line Ie Compressibility index Ip Plasticity index (or PI) I z Strain influence factor

Hydraulic gradient ie Critical hydraulic gradient ic Exit hydraulic gradient irn Mean hydraulic gradient J Seepage force K Absolute or specific penneability Ko Coefficient of earth pressure at rest KoCL Ko nonnal consolidation line Ka Coefficient of active earth pressure Kae Earth pressure coefficient Kp Coefficient of passive pressure Kpc Earth pressure coefficient Ks Coefficient of horizontal pressure k Coefficient of penneability k Coefficient for modulus increasing with depth L, I Length, lever arm L' Effective length LL Liquid limit Ll Liquidity index M Moment M Gradient of the critical state line on p'- q' plot MCV Moisture condition value m Mass m Slope stability coefficient mv Coefficient of volume compressibility N Nonnal total force N Stability number N Specific volume at p' = 1.0 kN/m2 on ICL N Standard penetration test result, No. of blows N' Corrected SPT value N' Nonnal effective force Ne Bearing capacity factor Nq Bearing capacity factor Ny Bearing capacity factor NC Nonnally consolidated No Specific volume at p' = 1.0 kN/m2 on KoCL Ns Stability number n Porosity, number of piles n Slope stability coefficient n Ratio R1rd

nd Number of equipotential drops nf Number of flow paths Oe Organic content OC Overconsolidated

OCR PL PI P Pa

Pp Pan Ppn

Pw

p p p'

Pc' Pc' Po' Po Q

Quit Qs Qb Q q q q q'

qa qapp qb qc qrnax qs quit

R R R Rr Rs R3,Rt RT r rd

ru

Sf SL s s s' T

Overconsolidation ratio Plastic limit Plasticity index (or Ip) Force Resultant active thrust or force Resultant passive thrust or force Nonnal component of active thrust Nonnal component of passive thrust Horizontal water thrust Pressure, contact pressure Stress path parameter (Total stress) Stress path parameter (Effective stress) Preconsolidation pressure Initial isotropic stress Present overburden pressure (Effective stress) Total overburden pressure Steady state quantity of flow Ultimate load Ultimate shaft load Ultimate base load Line load surcharge Flow rate Unifonn surcharge Stress path parameter (Total stress) Stress path parameter (Effective stress) Allowable bearing pressure Applied pressure (or q) End bearing resistance Cone penetration resistance Maximum bearing pressure Safe bearing capacity Ultimate bearing capacity Resultant force, distance Dial gauge reading Radius of influence of drain Friction ratio Pile group settlement ratio Time correction factors Correction for temperature Radial distance, or radius Radius of well or drain Pore pressure ratio Degree of saturation Shrinkage limit Spacing of drains, spacing of piles, anchors Stress path parameter (Total stress) Stress path parameter (Effective stress) Shear force, surface tension force, torque

List of symbols xi

T Tensile force in reinforcement a Shaft adhesion factor TSP Total stress path aF Settlement interaction factor Ty Time factor for one-dimensional consolidation lXv Peak adhesion factor TR Time factor for radial consolidation f3 Angle, relative rotation t Time f3 Skin friction factor t Stress path parameter (Total stress) X Proportion of cross-section occupied by water t' Stress path parameter (Effective stress) 0 Angle of wall friction, base sliding, piles V Water force ,1 delta, change in, increment of V,Vc Uniformity coefficent ,1 Relative deflection Ve Combined or overall degree of consolidation op Differential settlement VR Degree of radial consolidation OPh Differential heave Vy Degree of one-dimensional consolidation Ea Coefficient of secondary compression Vy Average degree of consolidation <l> Potential function VV Unconsolidated undrained cP Friction angle U Horizontal displacement CPI cP before pile installation Ua Pore air pressure CPu Angle of failure envelope, Uw Pore water pressure undrained condition V Volume CPey cP at constant volume Va Volume of air CPIl Particle-particle friction angle Vo Initial volume CPm Mobilised friction angle V, Volume of solids CPr cP at residual strength VT Total vertical laod r Specific volume at p' = 1.0 kN/m 2 on CSL Vy Volume of voids Y Unit weight Vw Volume of water ')b Bulk unit weight v Velocity YJ Dry unit weight v Specific volume Ymin Dry unit weight in loosest state VK Specific volume on isotropic swelling line at Ymax Dry unit weight in densest state

p'= 1.0kN/m2 ~a' Saturated unit weight VK!) Specific volume on anisotropic swelling line ~ub Submerged unit weight

at p' = 1.0 kN/m2 Yw Unit weight of water v, Seepage velocity 1] Efficiency, viscosity of fluid W Water content or moisture content K Slope of overconsolidation line We Saturation moisture content of particles A. Slope of normal consolidation line We Equivalent moisture content A. Pile adhesion coefficient W Weight e Rotation, inclination of a plane Wp Weight of pile J1 Interparticle friction W, Total weight J1 Vane correction factor Ww Weight of water J1 Correction for consolidation settlement X Shear force on side of slice J11 Influence factor x,y,Z Coordinate axes J10 Correction for depth Z Dimensionless depth f1r Correction for rigidity ZI Depth of influence v Poisson' ratio Z Depth P Mass density Za Height above the water table A Bulk density

Zc Critical depth Pd Dry density

Zc Depth of tension crack Pr Fluid density Zo Depth of negative active earth pressure p, Particle density a Angle, angular strain Pw Density of water

xii Soil Mechanics - Principles and Practice

Pall Allowable settlement Pi Immediate settlement Pc Consolidation settlement A. Heave Ps Secondary settlement PI Consolidation settlement at time t Pr Total settlement Py Immediate settlement including yield a Total stress aN Normal total stress a' Effective stress aN' Normal effective stress am Mean stress a l ,a2,a3 Major, intermediate and minor principal

total stresses a l ',a/,a/Major, intermediate and minor principal

effective stresses aH,aH' Total and effective horizontal stresses aV'a,' Total and effective vertical stresses r Shear stress ry Yield stress w Tilt, correction for strength of fissured clays \If Flow function

Notes on units

SI Units The International System of units (SI) has been used throughout in this book. A complete guide to the system appears in ASTM E-380 published by the American Society for Testing and Materials. The following is a brief summary of the main units.

The base units used in soil mechanics are

Quantit): Unit S):mbol length metre mass kilogram time second

Other commonly used units are: for length:

for mass:

micron (~) millimetre (mm)

gram (g) megagram (Mg)

m kg s

1 Mg = 1000 kg = 1 tonne or 1 metric ton

for time: minutes (min)

hours, days, weeks, years

Mass, force and weight Mass represents the quantity of matter in a body and

this is independent of the gravitational force. Weight represents the gravitational force acting on a mass.

Unit force (l N) imparts unit acceleration (1 mls2) to unit mass (l kg). Newton's Law gives

Weight = mass x gravitational constant

The acceleration due to gravity on the earth's surface (g) is usually taken as 9.81 mls2 so on the earth's surfacel kg mass gives a force of9.81 N.

The unit of force is the newton (N) with multiples of

kilonewton (kN) = 1000 N meganewton (MN) = 106 N

Measuring scales or balances in a laboratory respond to force but give a measurement in grams or kg, in other words, in mass terms.

Stress and pressure These have units of force per unit area (N/m2). The SI unit is the pascal (Pa).

1 N/m2 = IPa 1 kN/m2 = 1 kPa

(kilopascal or kilonewton per square metre) 1 MN/m2 = I MPa

Density and unit weight Density is the amount of mass in a given volume and is best described as mass density (p). The SI unit is kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3). Other units are megagram per cubic metre (Mg/m3).

Density is commonly used in soil mechanics because laboratory balances give a measure of mass.

Unit weight (')1 is the force within a unit volume where

y=pg

The common unit for unit weight is kilonewton per cubic metre (kN/m 3) or sometimes MN/m3•

Unit weight is a useful term in soil mechanics since it gives vertical stress directly when multiplied by the depth.

Xlll

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Reinforced Concrete Design by Computer R. Hulse and W. H. Mosley

Reinforced Concrete Design, Fourth Edition W. H. Mosley and J. H. Bungey

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xiv