Principes of Development

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    Principles of Development

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    Development

    refers to orderly process of changetoward increasingly more complex waysof moving, thinking, speaking feeling and

    relating to people and objects in theenvironment

    Being able to hold the head

    Being able to get on the bed on his own

    Being able to climb up the stairs Being able to hold a pencil

    Spell his own name

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    Development

    Progressive series ----- changeshappen to facilitate the children tomove forward

    Orderly _____ happen in adefinitive pattern

    Coherent Quite linked to what has

    already happened and is likely tohappen thereafter

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    Development

    results in a permanent alteration ofa behaviour a new behaviour that ismore advanced, adaptive or useful

    than prior behaviour Each new skill acquired gets

    integrated into prior skill

    Random or temporary changes inbehaviour are not considereddevelopmental

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    Development

    Goal of development

    Self actualisation

    Striving to be ones best : physicallymentally and emotionally

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    Self actualization would depend upon

    Obstacle encountered and success achieved inovercoming obstacles Educational Cultural opportunities Social support

    Guidance

    Dimple: was into whole range of destructive, aggressiveand socially inappropriate behavior not merely because ofher limited cognitive potential but because of lack ofappropriate guidance upbringing, Channelizationopportunities to be heard, listen and acknowledged

    Even a child with deficits in cognitive capacities canactualise his/her given potentiality by being able tomanage self care, communication concept of safety,Relating and responding to environment and living a

    happy meaningful life

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    Growth

    Refers to increase in a childrenbody size or changes in proportion

    They are predominantly quantifiablechanges

    Changes in size height, weight

    mid-arm circumference Size of internal organs Brain etc.

    (size doubles by 2nd years)

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    Growth and Development

    Predominantly quantifiable changes

    The changes are inseparable fromthe developmental changes

    Growth changes may be in mostinstances be precursors to thedevelopmental changes

    May lead to qualitative changes inskills behaviours and functioning ofindividual

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    Why understand Principles of

    development

    Frameworks and guiding facts

    Universal facts

    Nature of development in children

    Patterns in development

    What determines development

    Can we determine development or it ispredetermined

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    Is development plastic : can wealter change or modify ?

    If yes to what extent?

    Do all individuals develop in thesimilar manner : same pace , arethey comparable?

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    Developmental Pattern is predictable

    There are growth gradients or axisof growth that determines thedirection in which physiologicalchanges takes place

    Cephalo Caudal

    Proximodistal

    Differentiation

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    Cephalo- Caudal

    Physical development occurs from the top of the bodydownwards

    Head

    Trunk

    legs

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    Principles of physical development aregoverned by brain development.

    Different parts of the Cerebral Cortexdevelop at different times from infancyand well into childhood and adolescence.

    Using criteria such as size and complexityof neuron their degree of myelination andthe complexity of their connectionsscientists estimate that the first area ofthe cerebral cortex to undergo importantdevelopmental change is the PrimaryMotor Area.

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    Cephalo- Caudal

    Primary motorarea responsible for non

    reflexive ,voluntary movements The first cells to become functional are

    arms and trunk

    The region governing the legmovements is the last to develop

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    Proximodistal

    Development proceeds from near tofar

    from central axis to extremities Trunk Arms hands fingers

    Spinal cord develops before thearm buds (Embryonic development)

    Upper arm develops before the forearm

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    Differentiation

    Development proceeds from grossto specific

    from simple to complex

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    There are stages in development

    During development an individualpasses through several stages

    Each stage is qualitatively moredifferent and mature than thepreceding one

    Stages are universal and invariant

    or fixed in an order

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    There are individual differences in

    development

    Though there is a pattern auniversal pattern in developmentthere are individual differences indevelopmental changes

    All of us acquire language in apredetermined sequence but the

    age of acquisition may be different

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    There are individual differences in

    developmentImplications

    Not to compare individuals

    Not to expect similar behaviours or

    similar levels of performances fromall children

    Each child is unique

    Child rearing / training / teachingshould be individualized

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    There are social Expectations for every

    Developmental Period

    Childhood is defined in a cultural context

    Each society delineates for itself itsexpectations from its children across

    developmental periods Developmental Tasks

    They are motivating forces /goals towardswhich parents and teachers work towards

    Monitoring parameters

    Successful accomplishment leads toachievement ,happiness and paves way forfurther development

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    Developmental Tasks : Havinghurst

    Determined by the culture an individual isa part of

    Rooted in social expectations

    Birth - 6 Years : Learning to

    Walk

    Take solid foods

    Talk

    Control elimination of bodily wastes Relating emotionally to parents and siblings

    Understand what is socially right or wrong

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    Developmental Tasks : 6-12 years

    Physical skills to mange personalcare and related activities

    Being with age mates acquiring gender roles

    Learning academic skills

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    Early development is more critical than

    later development

    Early childhood years and moreparticularly the first five years areconsidered more important

    Basic foundations for self care ,personal social adjustment andfuture learning are laid down during

    this time

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    Psycho social evidence :Freud

    Erikson

    Educational Evidence : Children notready for formal schooling are moreat risk of failure , Drop outs

    Biological evidence: Neuralconnections are being formed atthis time

    Major programmes for the

    disadvantaged children focus on thisage group predominantly

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    Development is a product of maturation

    and learning

    Maturation : unfolding of thecharacteristics potentially present inan individual

    Learning : development of a newbehaviour or a skill as a result oftraining practice or sustained effort

    Learning leads to acquisition ofcompetencies using the hereditaryresources

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    Maturation and learning

    Maturation makes available theappropriate teachable moment

    Teachable moment+ Stimulation

    Learning

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    A body is endowed with a capacity to walkbut he would walk only at or after 9months of age because its only then thatthe related system is ready to facilitate

    the baby to sustain, balance and maintainher entire body weight on his two feetand carry himself forward

    A child may be endowed to learnmathematics but he would learn maths

    only when his nervous system and relatedparts of the brain have matured to dealwith symbols

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    Maturation and learning

    Concept of Readiness The requisite physical and mental

    foundations that must be present for newabilities to build on them

    Concept of school Readiness Self care Can stay away from the familiar people Has the necessary attention and

    motivation to learn can follow instructions Can communicate and express

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    Wrong timing of stimulation

    Waste of time

    Disinterest/resist learning per se

    They will not apply themselves tothe tasks

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    Indicators of Appropriate Teaching

    Moments

    Age of the child

    Interest in learning

    Sustain their interest: they continue topractice even when they meet failure

    Improvement with practice (if repeatedpractice/effort is not bringing in a resultwe need to question ourselves as towhether the child is actually ready)

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    There are Critical Periods in Development

    The concept of critical period is derived fromembryology

    there is a critical time in development when a cell

    is capable of assuming any function or role. A critical mass of cells differentiates and cells

    reaches different locale in accordance with whichit assume its structure or function

    once the critical period is over the event can not

    be reversed. Once the critical period is over the same

    event/stimulus can not impact it in any ways

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    Critical Period : A period when an organism issensitive to particular influences where as atothers it may be less sensitive or even insensitiveto the same influences

    Neurological Evidence CNS matures slowly, bit by bit

    Critical period for the development of psychologicalprocesses begins when the concerned part of CNSreaches minimum state of maturation and begins tobecome functional and ends when the development

    is complete If critical event does not happen during this period,

    the cortical area may be preempted by otherfunctions

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    Cortex matures slowly and that different region of it maturebit by bit, process of maturation continues until puberty andperhaps longer.

    Critical period for development of a psychological processbegins when that part of the CNS concerned with it has

    reached a minimum state of maturation and begins tobecome functional.

    Before this the critical event is ineffective because the cortexis not ready to receive it and after the process of itsmaturation

    it does not have the sensitivity to gain from the stimulus anyfurther.

    Thus if the critical event does not occur during the optimaltime when appropriate cortical area is ready the cortical areamay be pre-empted by some other function

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    Important Critical Periods

    Ist trimester Maternal rubella moredamaging than any other period

    3 5 years critical for learning towrite

    Mc Graw . Motor development

    Handedness by 5 years

    Learning to write (prince grasp)5 years

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    Critical Period for Speech Development

    Readiness to speak at 12 18 monthsspeech acquired later than this is likely tobe defective

    Critical period when there is a readiness

    to listen, understand and draw outmeaning from sounds

    1 3 years - ability to understand sound 3 years starts declining

    If by 5 years a hard of hearing individualdoes not learn to use a hearing aid after 7 years it seems impossible

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    Critical Period for Social Development

    6 months 3 years ---- critical for theformation of social relation if deprived ofparental affection or the child experienceintense negative relation he is likely to

    develop intense emotional reactions Bowlby: suggests that second half of the

    first year is a critical period forattachment

    Erikson 2 3 year critical to the

    acquisition of sense of autonomy as aresult of which emerges self confidence,independence and self approval

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    Implications of critical Period

    Experiences, stimulation or traininguntimely may be wasted

    Learning is best achieved duringcritical periods

    Efficiency of learning is muchreduced after the critical period is

    over.

    Development is a result of interplay between Nature

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    Development is a result of interplay between Natureand Nurture

    Human development is complex it can not beaccounted for by nature genetic composition or bynurture or the experiences alone.

    It is a complex interplay its difficult to isolate how

    of much of nature ? How much of nurture? The evidences in favour of this interplay comes

    largely from Kinship Studies Parent Child Behaviour

    Sibling Behaviours

    Twin Studies Adoption Studies

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    Three types of interactions .

    Environment determines themanifestation of genetic predisposition.

    Genetic factors often play a role in

    determining what environments individualinhabit and how they shape and selecttheir own experiences.

    Gene Environment is a two way process

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    Evidence

    Manifestation of temperamentaldifficulties is determined by the familyenvironment

    Irritable children determine parentalbehaviour and new parental behaviourover stimulate irritable behaviour.

    Irritable Behaviour picked up less Less effective stimulation Less involvement with the baby

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    Evidence

    Canalisation The canal channels the flow of water into a

    narrow range similarly specie specific behaviourare less susceptible to environment variation,until the variation is too severe or prolonged.

    Development of language is linked to languageexperiences Only prolonged deprivation of language inputs

    seems capable of deflecting language development. Hearing impairment Extreme deprivation as in case of victor

    Strong tendency to self correct after beingexposed to deviant experiences.

    Recovery after an illness.

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    Biological or maturation framework.

    The central view of this framework was that thesources of changes that characterizes humandevelopment are largely endogenous in nature.

    The changes are believed to b occurring largelydue to changes arising from inside an individualas a consequence of individuals biologicalheritage.

    Genetic inheritance is the target determinant. The

    role of environment as per this framework wasonly secondary. The theorists who stronglyproposed this framework included Arnold Gessel.

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    Freud and Erikson

    proposed that development is largely a result thedynamic energy created by biological instinct.

    This energy stimulates behaviour.

    He did alongside emphasized the role of

    environment or caregivers. According to him basic human drives are

    biologically determined but the socialenvironment directs the ways in which thesedrives will be satisfied thereby shaping

    individuals personality. Erikson :. Freud's student took the theory forward

    and extensively emphasized the role of culture indevelopment of an individual.

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    Environment / learning framework

    It proposed that the major causesof development are exogenous innature;

    they come largely from theenvironment particularly fromadults who shape childrens

    behaviour by way ofrewards andpunishment.

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    Watson

    strongly claimed that he can train anindividual to be anything he wanted,irrespective of their tendencies, abilities,race, culture etc.

    claimed that nature of experience,training can largely determine thebehaviour.

    B.F Skinner who also claimed the

    importance of environment over geneticmaterial though not in as extreme a viewpoint as proposed by Watson.

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    Constructivist framework

    these theorists find it inappropriate to attributemore importance to either nature or nurture.

    They assert that both nature and nurture areequally necessary for development but they also

    propose that the child himself plays an active rolein shaping his own development.

    Piaget a proponent of this framework proposedthat children actively construct their own way ofthinking, learning, and being on the basis of theirgenetic endowment and the nature ofexperiences.

    He emphasized the rote of the childs own activeengagement with the world.

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    Cultural Context Framework. Vygotsky

    The developmentalists with in this framework proposethat while biological and experiential factors havereciprocal roles to play and also believe that the childactively engages in constructing their owndevelopment through their own active engagementswith the world.

    They assert that the third force that is culture is alsoquite significant or that the nature nurture operateindirectly through culture.

    According to them childrens development is organizedby their culture as it (Culture) designs the completeliving for an individual.

    Therefore influences such as religious beliefs, patternsof family interactions educational systems significantlyeffect the paths of their development

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    Cultural Context Framework. Vygotsky

    Thus this framework goes a stepfurther to propose that bothchildren and their caretakers are

    active agents in process ofdevelopment.

    development in this context is Co-

    constructed by the child, hiscaretakers and the larger culture.

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    Development is a result of

    Bio.Psychosocial factors

    Modern developmentalistsemphasize that we can notadequately describe development

    by nature and nurture in isolationform each other because theorganism and its environment

    constitute a single life process. Bio Psycho Social = Behaviour

    The Bio Social Behavioral Shift at the End of

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    The Bio Social Behavioral Shift at the End of

    Infancy

    Biological Domain

    Myelination of connections amongbrain areas

    Leveling off of brain growth

    Maturation of brain areas in roughlyequal degrees

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    Psychological Domain

    Decline of distress at separation

    Distinctive sense of self

    Acceptance of adult standards

    Emergence of secondary emotions

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    Social Domain

    Care Practices

    Care Givers

    Cultural beliefs Parenting Styles

    Support Services

    Socio Economic Status/ Resources

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    Behavioral Domain

    Walking becomes well coordinated

    Mannual dexterity becomes adequate topick up small objects

    Control over bladder and bowels Planful problem solving

    Symbolic play

    Conceptual representations

    Elementary vocabulary and beginning ofword combination smile accompanyingmaster

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    Exploring perceptions about children

    Development and growth are synonymous to each other Children do not have their own personalities-they are mere extensions

    of their parents. Children can be molded the way you want them to be. Children are the property of their parents. Children are mini adults.

    Childhood is influenced largely by biological and psychologicaldevelopment. All children studying together can be compared All children go through the same stages of development in a fixed,

    predetermined manner. Childhood is a period of dependence. Childhood is only a preparation for adulthood. Children can forget things easily Children are asexual or have no sexual identity what Do parents expect from the adolescents What do teachers expect from class III students

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    Tell about a person you admired most as a teenager. Tell about your first day in the nursery school. Tell about a very pleasant event of your life during

    adolescence. Who is the person you remember most from your childhood

    (apart from family) and why? Tell about an issue over which you had a serious fight with

    your parents as an adolescent. When you think of your early childhood what do you

    remember most. Which game you liked to play most as a child and what did

    you like about it?

    Tell about a very scary event of your childhood (6-12 years). Tell about a thing you feared most during your childhood.