PRIMER ON VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - … · · 2010-04-20when they react with nitrogen oxides...

PRIMER ON VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 53

P R I M E R O N

VOLATILE ORG ANIC COMPOUNDS(VOCs)

54

Pollution Probe is a non-profit charitable organization that works in partnership withall sectors of society to protect health by promoting clean air and clean water. Pollution Probewas established in 1969 following a gathering of 240 students and professors at the Universityof Toronto campus to discuss a series of disquieting pesticide-related stories that hadappeared in the media. Early issues tackled by Pollution Probe included urging the Canadiangovernment to ban DDT for almost all uses, and campaigning for the clean-up of the Don Riverin Toronto. We encouraged curbside recycling in 140 Ontario communities and supported thedevelopment of the Blue Box programme. Pollution Probe has published several books,including Profit from Pollution Prevention, The Green Consumer Guide (of which more than225,000 copies were sold across Canada) and Additive Alert.

In the 1990s, Pollution Probe focused its programmes on issues related to air pollution, waterpollution, climate change and human health, including a major programme to remove humansources of mercury from the environment. Pollution Probe’s scope has also expanded to newconcerns, including the unique risks that environmental contaminants pose to children, thehealth risks related to exposures within indoor environments, and the development ofinnovative tools for promoting responsible environmental behaviour.

Since 1993, as part of our ongoing commitment to improving air quality, Pollution Probe hasheld an annual Clean Air Campaign during the month of June to raise awareness of the inter-relationships among vehicle emissions, smog, climate change and human respiratoryproblems. The Clean Air Campaign helped the Ontario Ministry of the Environment develop amandatory vehicle emissions testing programme, called Drive Clean.

Pollution Probe offers innovative and practical solutions to environmental issues pertaining toair and water pollution. In defining environmental problems and advocating practical solutions,we draw upon sound science and technology, mobilize scientists and other experts, and buildpartnerships with industry, governments and communities.

PRIMER ON VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDSi

PRIMER ON VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 55PRIMER ON VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ii

October 2005

Pollution Probe is pleased to present this primer on Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). It isboth a complementary primer to The Smog Primer and an introduction to some of the toxicVOCs that we encounter in everyday life.

As with other Pollution Probe primers, The Primer on Volatile Organic Compounds has beendesigned as an educational resource for people who want to understand this source ofpollution and then take action to protect themselves and their children. In addition, the primerhas been designed for use as an introduction to controlling VOCs from small- and medium-sized businesses. There are many opportunities in this sector to reduce VOC emissions andhence the unnecessary exposure of employees and surrounding communities to thesepollutants.

Pollution Probe is dedicated to making positive, tangible progress in cleaning the air webreathe. This is essential to our health and well-being, and it is a goal that we can achieve.Please join us in advocating for a clean environment, and make personal choices that showyour commitment to this worthwhile endeavor.

Ken OgilvieExecutive Director

56

Acknowledgements

Pollution Probe gratefully acknowledges the funding support and technical review of thePrimer on Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) by the following organizations:

ENVIRONMENT CANADAIMPERIAL OILONTARIO MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT

We also thank the following individuals for providing technical information and/or comments on thePrimer: Tim Archer, Monica Campbell, Walter Chan, Bruce Gillies, Tom Hewitt, Mark Lesky,Anne McConnell, Bruce Rebel, Dave Shortt, Shiv Sud and Yasmin Tarmohamed.....

Pollution Probe is solely responsible for the contents of this publication.

This Primer was researched and written for Pollution Probe by Doug Harper and Olivia Nugent, withassistance from Sarah Cummings. Technical and editorial reviews were provided by staff membersKen Ogilvie and Quentin Chiotti. The project was managed by Elizabeth Everhardus and the layout ofthe Primer was done by Krista Friesen.

ISBN 0-919764-61-4

PRIMER ON VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDSiii


Table of Contents

Chapter One: What are Volatile OrganicCompounds? ................................................. 3Major Sources of VOCs ..................................... 4

Natural Sources ........................................... 4Human-made Sources .................................. 5

Why are VOCs a Concern? ............................... 8VOCs and Smog ........................................... 11

Where are VOCs a Concern? ........................... 14Indoors ........................................................ 14In the Workplace ......................................... 14In Car Interiors ............................................ 15In Water ....................................................... 15

Chapter Two: How VOC Emissions areControlled .................................................... 17Controlling VOC Emissions from Vehicles ....... 18Reducing VOCs in Paints ................................. 21Reducing VOCs in Consumer Products ........... 21Reducing VOCs from Industrial and

Commercial Sources ..................................... 22Add-on Controls ........................................... 22Pollution Prevention .................................... 23

Chapter Three: What Small- and Medium-sizedEnterprises are Doing to Reduce VOCs —Pollution Prevention Success Stories ........ 25SMEs and Pollution Prevention ....................... 26

Automobile Painting .................................... 26Printing and Graphics Industry .................... 27Dry Cleaners ................................................ 28

Case Studies of Pollution Prevention ............. 28Reducing VOCs in the Printing Industry ...... 28Reducing VOCs in the Paint and StainBusiness ..................................................... 29Reducing VOCs in Other Processes ............. 30

Chapter Four: What Governments areDoing to Reduce VOCs ................................ 33What the Canadian Government is Doing ....... 34

VOCs as Toxics ............................................. 34VOCs as Smog Precursors ........................... 35

What Provincial Governments are Doing ........ 38Issuing Permits ........................................... 38Air Quality Monitoring .................................. 39Vehicle Emissions Testing Programs ............. 39

Joint Federal/Provincial/Territorial Actions ... 41What Municipal Governments are Doing ........ 41

Montreal and the Former Montreal UrbanCommunity .................................................. 41Greater Vancouver Regional District ............ 42Toronto and the Surrounding Region ........... 42

Chapter Five: What You Can Do to ReduceVOCs and Your Personal Exposure ............. 45

References .................................................. 48Reports ............................................................. 48Websites .......................................................... 49

PRIMER ON VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS iv


Almost everyone is familiar with the scent of a freshly mowed lawn and thedistinctive odour of paint. Many people notice the wavy lines that rise in theair as they fill their cars at the gas station. However, what most people maynot know is that they are smelling or seeing the effects of volatile organiccompounds (VOCs).

VOCs are part of a large group of chemical substances called “organiccompounds,” all of which contain at least one carbon atom in their molecularstructure. There is a huge range of organic compounds — from the verysimple molecule methane, which has one carbon atom and four hydrogenatoms, to the very complex DNA molecules that hold our genetic code. VOCsare the smaller, often simpler organic chemicals whose lower molecularweight allows them to evaporate (become a vapour) quickly at roomtemperature, which is why they are called “volatile.”

Chapter One

What are Volatile Organic Compounds?

4

Some VOCs are a human health concern —either directly through their toxic properties orwhen they react with nitrogen oxides in thepresence of sunlight to form ground-level ozone(a major component of smog). This Primerfocuses on VOCs that are risky and harmful. Itidentifies major VOC sources, explains how theyare controlled, and highlights what governmentsand industry are doing to reduce the level ofVOCs in the atmosphere. The Primer alsoidentifies what small- and medium-sizedbusinesses can do to reduce VOC emissions, aswell as what individuals can do in their homes.

Major Sources of VOCs

Natural Sources

There is a diverse range of VOCs present in theenvironment — from both natural and humansources. Trees and plants (including thoseliving, decaying and burning) are the largestsource of VOCs in Canada, contributing fivetimes more VOCs to the environment than dohuman sources, as noted in Criteria AirContaminants Emission Summaries, 2000. VOCsare emitted mainly from foliage, but can also bereleased from woody tissue, flowers and buds.Isoprene and monoterpene are two of the mostcommon VOCs emitted by vegetation.

Table 1-1: Biogenic Emissions from Several Vegetation Types in Alberta

Boreal Forest

Hardwood Forest

Pine

Spruce

Aspen

910

8,730

79.3

23,800

29,750

713

436

2,380

5,100

42.5

755

882

1,295

2,775

693.7

Isoprene(micrograms/m2/h)

Monoterpene(micrograms/m2/h)

Other VOCs(micrograms/m2/h)

Forest Category

Source: Geron et al., 1994; Guenther et al., 1994.

CHAPTER ONE: WHAT ARE VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS


The rate of formation of these natural, or“biogenic” emissions (sometimes referred to asBVOCs) varies greatly and can be affected bysunlight, temperature, humidity and vegetationspecies. For example, isoprene emissions fromspruce and aspen are more than 300 times thosefrom pine (Table 1-1). Even related species oftrees can vary widely in the amount of VOCsthey emit. While natural sources of VOCs aresignificant, emissions from human sources areoften larger in populated and industrializedareas, where there are fewer trees or open fieldsof crops.

Human-made Sources

The upstream oil and gas industry in Canadaaccounts for 27 per cent of VOC emissions,making it the largest contributor from humansources (Figure 1-1). This sector includes

emissions that result from the exploration,production, processing and transmission of oiland natural gas. It should be noted thatemissions from this source are largelyregionalized. This industry is the dominantsource of human-generated VOC emissions inAlberta and a significant source inSaskatchewan. In other areas of the country, theupstream oil and gas industry is not asignificant contributor of VOC emissions.

Transportation and the related use of fossilfuels, such as gasoline and diesel, is the secondgreatest source of human-generated VOCs inCanada, accounting for 26 per cent of thenational total. Vehicles release VOCs to theenvironment in a variety of ways. They aredisplaced into the air when the vehicle fuel tankis filled with liquid gasoline. As the vehicleheats up from running, more VOCs are releasedas raw gasoline and waste oil evaporate from

Figure 1-1: National VOC Emissions (2000) — Total 2,751 kilotonnes

Source: Environment Canada. 2004. Criteria Air Contaminants Emission Summaries, 2000.www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/cac/ape_tables/canada2000_e.cfm

Open Sources — 12%

Transportation — 26%

Fuel Marketing — 3%Industrial Sources — 9%

Upstream Oil and Gas — 27%

Solvent Use — 17%

Fuel Combustion — 6%

6

Text Box 1-1

Industry activity is anadditional source of VOCemissions. Releases of VOCsto the environment fromindustry usually come fromprocess vents and storagedevices or result from“fugitive” emissions(emissions in the form ofleaks from processequipment, such as flanges,pump and compressor seals,valves and drains).

6 CHAPTER ONE: WHAT ARE VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

poorly sealed fittings and gaskets, especially in oldervehicles. Finally, as engines do not completely burn all thefuel, additional VOCs are released from vehicle tailpipes.

Approximately half of the total VOC emissions from thetransportation sector come from on-road diesel and gasolinecars and trucks. The other half come from off-road vehicles(e.g., all-terrain vehicles and snowmobiles), as well asmarine, rail and air transportation.

The use of solvents and solvent-containing products is also amajor source of VOC emissions in Canada. According toEnvironment Canada, a solvent is generally defined as asubstance (usually a liquid) that has the ability to dissolveone or more other substances. Solvents also aid in providinguniform dispersion and surface tensions appropriate forsurface coverage. Solvents are commonly used in industry,homes and vehicles. In 2000 they accounted for 17 per cent oftotal VOC emissions in Canada.

Paints and coatings are the largest source of VOCs fromsolvent uses. Volatile solvents are used to dissolve ordisperse pigment and resin in paints and coatings, therebygiving the desired consistency for application. Once paint isapplied, the solvent, including potentially harmful VOCs,evaporates into the air, allowing the resin and pigment toproduce a coat of paint.

Consumer products are the second largest source of VOCsfrom solvent uses. Within this sector, windshield washer fluidsand hair sprays are the largest sources of VOC emissions(many aerosol containers use VOCs as propellants.)Although individually these sources are small emitters ofVOCs, the large collective use of these products contributessignificantly to overall emissions. Other common consumerproducts that release VOCs include air fresheners, cosmeticsand antiperspirants. Because organic solvents are often able


Figure 1-2: Trend for Ontario VOC Emission Estimates (1991–2000)

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Emis

sion

sEm

issi

ons

Emis

sion

sEm

issi

ons

Emis

sion

s (k

t)

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

01991 1993 19941992 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Source: Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Environmental Monitoring and Reporting Branch. 2001. Air Quality inOntario 2000 Report.

IndustrialProcesses

Solvent Use

Transportation

Miscellaneous

Surface Coating

Residential

to dissolve or suspend dirt and grease, they arealso used in many household cleaning products.

Other common solvent-based products includeprinting inks, pesticides and chemicals used indry cleaning. Building and household materials,such as new carpeting and adhesives, draperies,wood products that use certain glues, finishesand waxes in the manufacturing process, andvinyl type flooring may all release VOCs intothe air. While car products, such as windshieldwasher fluids and de-icers, also emit VOCs, their

value in improving road safety (by preventingthe water in windshield washer fluid fromfreezing) makes them currently indispensable.

Other VOC sources include residential andcommercial fuel use (especially wood burning,though this is a seasonal source with emissionsoccurring primarily during fall and winter),open sources (e.g., emissions from farmingoperations, forest fires, landfill sites andprescribed burning), and the storage andhandling of fuel for distribution to markets.


The contribution to the atmosphere of various VOC sourceshas changed over the years. In Ontario, transportation andindustrial emissions declined between 1991 and 2000 (seeFigure 1-2), thus reducing total human-generated VOCemissions to the atmosphere. This was the case even assolvent use (and the population) continued to increase overthis same period, with manufacturers developing newchemical and solvent uses and thus putting more productson the market each year.

Why are VOCs a Concern?

VOCs present in the environment vary widely in theirproperties and impacts. As with any substance, the impact ofa given VOC on human health depends on both itsconcentration and the probability of exposure. Some VOCsare particularly toxic and can negatively impact human health,even at very low concentrations. Others, such as “smogprecursors,” react to form ground-level ozone, or combinewith other substances to form fine particulate matter, bothposing a serious health threat to humans as smog.

Certain VOCs can harm human health if inhaled, ingested orabsorbed through the skin. Common short-term healtheffects of VOC exposure include eye and lung irritation,headaches and nausea. Some compounds can cause longer-term effects, such as damage to the liver, kidneys andnervous system. Other VOCs, such as benzene, can causecancer in humans and animals. It must be emphasized,however, that many VOCs are relatively harmless atconcentrations typically found in the atmosphere.

Table 1-2 outlines the health effects of three potentiallydangerous VOCs. While there are thousands of differentVOCs, these examples illustrate the range of impacts thatVOCs can pose to human health.

Text Box 1-2

Governments distinguishbetween VOCs that poseserious risks to humanhealth and those that areless threatening; they thentry to ensure that potentiallydangerous VOCs aremanaged appropriately.Chapter Three describes howgovernments use variousregulatory tools to categorizeand manage VOCs.

8


Table 1-2: Characteristics of Selected VOCs and their Health Impacts

VVVVVOCOCOCOCOC What is it?What is it?What is it?What is it?What is it? What are its health imWhat are its health imWhat are its health imWhat are its health imWhat are its health impacts?pacts?pacts?pacts?pacts?

Benzene(C6H6)

Benzene is a clear, colourlessliquid with a strong, sweet odour. Itoccurs naturally in crudepetroleum and is flammable.

The combustion of gasoline (whichnormally contains benzene) invehicles is the major source ofreleases to the environment.Benzene can also enter theenvironment during benzeneproduction, chemical production,iron and steel production, use ofsolvents, residential fuelcombustion and gasolinemarketing. It is present in cigarettesmoke.

Benzene is a human carcinogen (i.e., causes cancer)and is linked to specific types of leukemia.

Short-term exposure causes depression of the centralnervous system (CNS), marked by drowsiness,dizziness, headache, nausea, loss of coordination,confusion and unconsciousness.

Benzene is also toxic to other organisms besideshumans.

Benzene is considered to be “toxic” under theCanadian Environmental Protection Act.

Toluene(C6H5CH3)

Toluene is a clear, colourless,flammable liquid with a sweet,pungent odour.

Toluene occurs naturally in crudeoil and remains in the refinedproducts. It is released in motorvehicle and aircraft exhausts, inlosses during gasoline marketingactivities, in spills and fromprocesses in which toluene isused.

The main effects of inhaling toluene vapour are onthe central nervous system (CNS). Symptoms rangefrom slight drowsiness and headache (at lowerconcentrations around 50 ppm), through irritation ofthe nose, throat and respiratory tract, fatigue,dizziness, numbness and mild nausea, to mentalconfusion and reduced coordination. At higherconcentrations around 10,000 ppm or more, furtherdepression of the CNS occurs, leading tounconsciousness and death.

Most serious incidences of exposure have occurredwhen vapours have accumulated in confined spacesor in cases of solvent abuse (glue-sniffing).

10

Table 1-2: Characteristics of Selected VOCs and their Health Impacts (continued)

VVVVVOCOCOCOCOC What is it?What is it?What is it?What is it?What is it? What are its health imWhat are its health imWhat are its health imWhat are its health imWhat are its health impacts?pacts?pacts?pacts?pacts?

Toluene(C6H5CH3)

Toluene is used in the productionof other chemicals, in particularbenzene, as a solvent carrier inpaints, thinners, adhesives, inks,and pharmaceutical products, andas an additive in cosmeticproducts.

Toluene was not found to be carcinogenic in animalstudies. The International Agency for Research onCancer (IARC) has determined that there isinadequate evidence for the carcinogenicity oftoluene in humans.

After reviewing available scientific information, theMinisters of Environment Canada and of Health andWelfare Canada concluded that toluene should not beconsidered toxic under the Canadian EnvironmentalProtection Act.

Tetrachloro-ethylene(also known asperchloro-ethylene)(Cl2C:CCl2)

Tetrachloroethylene is a clear,colourless liquid with an ether-likesweet odour. It is used primarily indry cleaning facilities and as a de-greasing (specifically metalcleaning) agent in industry.

The main human exposures arethrough vapour inhalation andoccasionally skin and eye contactat work. People living near suchworkplaces may be exposed tohigher average levels than thegeneral population.

Short-term exposure to tetrachloroethylene can resultin eye, nose and throat irritation, nervous systemdepression and unconsciousness.

Long-term exposure can result in liver and kidneydamage in mice, but the level of exposure at whicheffects on the liver and/or kidneys might occur inhumans is not clear.

Tetrachloroethylene was found to be carcinogenic formice, but not for rats. Evidence from epidemiologicalstudies among dry-cleaning and laundry workers isinsufficient to conclude that exposure totetrachloroethylene causes cancer in human beings.

Tetrachloroethylene was added to the CEPA 1999 listof toxic substances on March 29, 2000.

Sources: Health Canada. CEPA Priority Substances Assessment Program. www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/exsd/psap.htm; benzene references www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/exsd/pdf/benzene.pdf and www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/chem_profiles/benzene/health_ben.html; toluene reference www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/exsd/pdf/toluene.pdf; tetrachloroethylene reference www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/exsd/pdf/tetrachloroethylene.pdf.



VOCs and Smog

VOCs are also a concern to human health due to their role inthe formation of smog. In the presence of sunlight, VOCsreact with nitrogen oxides (NOX) to create ground-levelozone (see Text Box 1-3).

Both human-made and biogenic VOCs condense (combinewith other pollutants in the air) to form fine particulatematter (see Text Box 1-4). Ground-level ozone and fineparticulate matter are major components of smog. To learnmore about these pollutants and the health effects of smog,see The Smog Primer at www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Primers/htm.

Several factors affect the degree to which VOCs contribute toeither ground-level ozone or particulate formation in anairshed (a geographic area that, because of landscape,weather patterns and/or climate, is frequently affected by the

Text Box 1-3

What is Ground-levelOzone (O3)?

Ozone is a colourless gasthat is found both in theEarth’s upper atmosphereand near ground level. In theupper atmosphere, it isformed naturally andprotects life from the sun’sharmful ultraviolet (UV) rays.In the lower atmosphere,ozone is a threat to humanhealth and can damagecrops, trees and othervegetation. Near groundlevel, it forms through thereaction of nitrogen oxidesand VOCs in the presence ofsunlight.

Breathing ozone can triggera variety of health problems,including chest pain,coughing, throat irritationand congestion. It canworsen bronchitis,emphysema and asthma.Ozone also can reduce lungfunction and inflame thelinings of the lungs.Repeated exposure maypermanently scar lungtissue.

11

12

Text Box 1-4

What is ParticulateMatter (PM)?

Particulate matter (PM) ismade up of microscopicliquid droplets and particlesof soot, ash, dirt, dust,metals and pollens. PMvaries in size and chemicalcomposition. The size of PMis of great importance,determining how far into thelungs it can go when inhaled.Particles directly emitted intothe air from a source (e.g.,smoke from a factorysmokestack or dust fromconstruction) are called“primary.” “Secondary”particles are formed in theatmosphere throughchemical reactions involvinggases (most commonly NOX,SO2, ammonia and VOCs).Secondary particles aretypically of the type PM2.5

(meaning they are 2.5microns or less in diameter,or about 1/30 the width of ahuman hair).

same air mass). These include the amount of VOCs emitted,the reactivity of the specific VOCs present in the atmosphere,and the sensitivity of the airshed to additional releases ofVOCs.

The amount of a VOC emitted into an airshed is a significantfactor in ground-level ozone formation. Even if a VOC is notvery reactive (discussed below), it can still affect air quality ifit is emitted in a large enough quantity.

All chemicals have different levels of reactivity (i.e., the rateat which a compound will undergo chemical changes), andVOCs are no exception. Some react easily to form ozone inthe presence of sunlight, while others take longer or do notreact at all. The more reactive a particular VOC or group ofVOCs, the greater the potential to form ground-level ozone.Many natural VOCs released from plants are particularlyreactive.

Ozone-forming reactions require both VOCs and nitrogenoxides (NOX). The series of complex reactions between thesegroups of substances are limited by the amount of reactant inshortest supply. Across most of rural North America, VOCsfrom natural sources are plentiful. In these well-vegetatedareas, the relatively smaller amount of available NOX limitsthe production of ozone. These airsheds, where additionalNOX inputs will lead to higher ozone levels, are thereforesaid to be “NOX sensitive.” Conversely, less denselyvegetated urban areas that have higher relative NOXemissions are more sensitive to increased VOC inputs. Theseairsheds are said to be “VOC sensitive.”



Text Box 1-5

VOCs and SmogManagement

For the purpose of smogmanagement, EnvironmentCanada defines VOCs as“volatile organic compoundsthat participate inatmospheric photochemicalreactions.” Methane, ethane,methylene chloride, methylchloroform, acetone andtetrachloroethylene areexcluded due to their lowozone-forming potential. Thedefinition also excludes abroad range of ozone-depleting substances, suchas chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs), which are managedunder different legislation.

The formation of VOC-bearing particulates is also affected bythe abundance and chemical reactivity of various VOCs inthe atmosphere. Scientists have made good progress inidentifying a number of VOCs that contribute to thesecondary formation of particulates. In addition, thechemical composition of the pre-existing mixture of gasesand particles in the airshed is important, as is the volatility ofthe VOC mix. The blue haze seen over some similarly named“blue mountains” in the eastern United States and NewSouth Wales, Australia, is the result of selective scattering ofblue light by VOC-containing particulates.

13

14

Where are VOCs a Concern?

As mentioned earlier, VOCs are foundthroughout everyday life. In the followingsections, areas where the average person may beexposed to VOCs are discussed.

Indoors

On average, Canadians spend about 90 per centof their time indoors, making the quality ofindoor air very important. Many sources ofVOCs are found in homes, businesses, schoolsand shopping malls. They include scents andhair sprays, air fresheners, cleaning products,carpeting, upholstery, rug and oven cleaners,paints, thinners, dry cleaned clothing,photocopiers and printers, glues and adhesives,and markers. Tobacco smoke continues tocontribute significant amounts of toxic VOCs,such as benzene, to indoor air in somecommunities. However, with ever-increasingrestrictions on smoking in public places,exposure to this dangerous source of airpollutants is declining.

A study done by the US EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) found that levels ofabout a dozen common organic pollutants weretwo to five times higher inside homes thanoutside, regardless of whether the homes werelocated in rural or highly industrialized areas.Additional EPA studies indicated that, whenpeople are using products containing VOCs,they can expose themselves and others to very

high pollutant levels, and that these levels canstay in the air long after the activity iscompleted. For instance, during and after certainactivities, such as paint stripping, indoor levelsof VOCs may be 1,000 times those of outdoorlevels.

It is not just human-made materials that produceVOCs in enclosed areas. Some moulds and fungican emit VOC gases known as microbial VOCs(MVOCs). These MVOCs are responsible for thecharacteristic odours produced by moulds,which are often described as “musty” or“earthy.”

Levels of VOC exposure in homes, offices andother enclosed areas vary widely, depending on• the size of the room or building;• the rate at which the VOCs are emitted;• the rate of ventilation within the building;• time spent within the building; and,• outdoor concentrations of pollutants (e.g., if

homes are located adjacent to a high trafficarea, where VOCs may seep in from outside).

In the Workplace

Governments, under workplace health andsafety legislation, closely regulate exposure toharmful pollutants in the workplace. Employersare required to ensure that airborneconcentrations of numerous pollutants,including many VOCs, do not exceed safe levelsand, where necessary, protective gear is madeavailable to and used by employees.



In Car Interiors

VOCs in automobile exhaust can seep into acar’s cabin from the outside. This is particularlya problem when driving in congested traffic. Aswell, drivers of older cars are at greater risksince their vehicle cabins may not be as airtightas those of newer cars, and the emissions fromolder cars are higher than from newer cars. A2001 study in Environmental Health Perspectiveshas shown that, when driving in heavy traffic,interior concentrations of certain VOCs can beup to 10 times greater than those of outsideconcentrations.

In addition to pollutants seeping in from theoutside, VOCs can also be released from a newcar’s interior, particularly from the vinyl, plastic,upholstery and carpeting (resulting in what hasbeen termed “new car smell”). A 1995 study byScientific Instrument Services reported thatmore than 100 VOCs were found in a new 1995Lincoln Continental. The concentrationsdropped significantly over a two-month period,but were still detectable and continued toincrease from morning to mid-day astemperatures rose in the car. This study suggestedthat, while VOC emissions decrease in a newautomobile over time, their concentration isdependent on the temperature within the cabin.

In early 2005, the Japan Automobile ManufacturersAssociation (JAMA) agreed to reduce the levelsof 13 VOCs found in passenger vehiclecompartments to levels that Japan’s Ministry ofHealth, Labour and Welfare has established forair quality in homes to combat “sick-buildingsyndrome.” The Japanese auto maufacturers

plan to apply the new standards starting withvehicles manufactured in 2007, but only to carsmade and sold in Japan.

In Water

When chlorine, a commonly used disinfectant, isadded to water that has high natural organiclevels (such as decayed vegetation and humanand animal wastes), a reaction can take placewhich creates a class of VOCs calledtrihalomethanes. Also known as “disinfectionby-products,” many trihalomethanes are knownto be harmful to human health. The mainconcern with disinfection by-products is humanexposure, through either ingestion or inhalation(e.g., in the shower). For more information onthis issue, see The Drinking Water Primer atwww.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Primers.htm.


This chapter discusses ways in which VOC emissions from vehicles, consumerproducts and industrial sources can be controlled. Chapter Three presentsVOC emissions reduction success stories.

Vehicle and industrial VOC emissions can be controlled through add-oncontrols and “pollution prevention” measures. VOC emissions associated withconsumer products can be controlled by improving the handling of thesechemicals and by reducing or eliminating VOCs used as ingredients inproducts.

Chapter Two

How VOC Emissions are Controlled

18

Controlling VOC Emissions from Vehicles

As transportation emissions account for over one-quarter oftotal VOC emissions in Canada, it is important to control thissource. Cars and trucks emit VOCs in several ways. Whenengines do not efficiently burn fuel, VOCs are emitted fromtail pipes (see Text Box 2-1). VOCs are also emitted whenvehicles are being fuelled and maintained, and even whenthey are inactive. Several basic factors affect the emission ofVOCs and other pollutants from vehicles. These includeengine design, engine condition and the type of fuel used.

For fuel to burn efficiently, the mix of air and fuel in anengine must be correctly balanced. When burning gasoline incars, the ratio should be 14.7 parts air to one part fuel. Tomaintain this air-to-fuel ratio, vehicle manufacturers installoxygen sensors on vehicles that monitor the exhaust andsignal the engine to adjust the amounts of air and fuel beingburned. This, and other technologies to optimizecombustion, reduces the amount of VOCs and otherpollutants emitted from tailpipes. In turn, drivers savemoney because more of the fuel is converted into usableenergy. For engines and emissions reduction systems tooperate at peak levels of efficiency, engines must be properlyhandled and regularly maintained.

Add-on controls can also decrease the amount of VOCsreleased by vehicles. As an example, catalytic converters aremandatory on all Canadian cars. These pollution controldevices burn (or “oxidize”) waste VOCs in exhaust, leavingmainly carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour.

Text Box 2-1

Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbon (HC) is anotherterm used in relation toVOCs. Vehicle owners inVancouver and Ontario willsee “HC” on their AirCare orDriveClean emissions testresults. Vehicle emissionstesting programs usuallyreport their VOC test resultsas hydrocarbons becausevehicle engines burn arelatively pure liquidhydrocarbon mixture. If thefuel is not completelyburned, hydrocarbons areemitted from the tailpipe.

CHAPTER T WO: HOW VOC EMISSIONS ARE CONTROLLED18


Fuel content affects both tailpipe emissions andevaporative emissions from vehicles. Reducingthe VOC content of fuel lowers both of these.Over the past 15 years, fuel quality hasimproved significantly. In response togovernment pressure (namely the federalBenzene in Gasoline Regulations, which went intoeffect in 1999), refiners have reduced levels ofbenzene in gasoline. Federal regulationsprohibit the sale of gasoline that contains

Figure 2-1: Distribution of Annual Mean Benzene Concentrations in Urban (1990–2002)and Rural Locations (1994–2002)

Source: Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). Ambient Air Benzene — 2002 Update.www.ccme.ca/assets/pdf/ambient_air_benzene_update_2002.pdf.

benzene at a concentration exceeding 1.5 percent by volume. This, plus additional cuts inbenzene emissions from a number of industrialemitters, has resulted in major reductions ofbenzene levels in ambient air (see Figure 2-1).Fuel companies must also reduce evaporativelosses of VOCs that occur when fuellingvehicles. They can do this by reducing the lowermolecular weight VOC content of gasolineduring the summer smog season.

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National regulations have been passed that limit the amountof sulphur in gasoline. While not a VOC, sulphur in exhaustnegatively impacts the functioning of catalytic converters.When sulphur levels in fuel are low, catalytic converterswork better and last longer, thus reducing VOC emissions tothe environment.

CHAPTER T WO: HOW VOC EMISSIONS ARE CONTROLLED

Text Box 2-2

Sulphur Levels in Gasoline

In 1998, the average sulphurlevel in Canadian gasolinewas 350 parts per million(ppm). Legislation that cameinto effect on January 1,2005 now dictates thatsulphur levels in gasolinecannot exceed 30 ppm — areduction of more than 90per cent.

20


Reducing VOCs in Paints

Solvent-based paints (also known as “oil” or“alkyd” paints) dominated the home market formore than a century. These paints contain colourpigments, as well as agents that bind thesepigments together. The pigments and bindingagents are suspended in a liquid vehicle —usually an organic solvent that evaporateseasily, releasing VOCs to the air. Recently,consumer concerns about the strong smell ofsolvent-based paints and health concerns aboutthe vapours of these paints have promptedmanufacturers to change their formulas. Today,paints are more often made using water as thevehicle and are known as latex paints. Latexpaints contain different binding agents than dosolvent-based paints. As a result, latex paintshave a less intense odour and release fewerVOCs into the air than do solvent-based paints.

Reducing VOCs in ConsumerProducts

Many VOCs have properties that serve todissolve and suspend grease and dirt. Thesequalities have made these compounds ideal foruse in household cleansers. Though productsusing organic compounds with these propertiesstill dominate the market, water-based soaps arebecoming more accepted by consumers. Manycleaning products also contain fragrancescomposed of VOCs. Scent-free versions of manycleansers are becoming more popular asconsumer demand for them increases.

Other commonly used consumer products thatcontribute to VOC emissions include airfresheners, perfumes, cooking sprays, fabricsofteners, hair sprays, nail polish removers andantiperspirants. As the population grows inparallel with the creation of even moreconsumer products, the use of solvents andrelated releases of VOCs will also increase,unless consumers demand VOC-reduced orVOC-free products (or unless governmentsregulate the VOC content of these products).

The demand for reduced use of solvents inconsumer products is coming not only fromgovernments, but also from the people mostaffected by them. People with allergies andrespiratory illnesses, such as asthma, often reactstrongly to VOCs. As the number of peoplediagnosed with these illnesses increases inCanada and other countries, manufacturers areresponding by reducing the use of VOCs inproducts.

22

Reducing VOCs from Industrial andCommercial Sources

VOC emissions are controlled by industry in two basicways — add-on controls and pollution prevention.

Add-on Controls

Historically, control efforts have emphasized add-oncontrols that incinerated, filtered or chemicallyreacted VOCs to reduce their concentrations inemissions to acceptable levels.

Since many VOCs are flammable, it is relatively easyto simply burn off unwanted waste VOCs, either byigniting the waste gas steam or, if the VOCs areinsufficiently flammable or concentrated, addingmore fuel, such as natural gas, to the waste streamprior to ignition. This has proven to be a cost-effectiveway to control VOC emissions, particularly whenquantities are large.

Flare stacks are also an essential component of plantsafety. In the event of an emergency, flaring allows anindustry to safely burn off potentially dangerousquantities of pressurized process gases. Althoughsignificant efforts have been made by industries toreduce flaring (both to reduce costs andenvironmental impacts), it remains a concern.According to the World Resources Institute, flaringresults in the annual release of more than four milliontonnes of carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) inCanada. Industries are working to minimize flaring aspart of their climate change programs and general airpollution reduction strategies.

Text Box 2-3

Reducing VOCs through aMemorandum of Understanding(MOU)

Some sectors of industry havechosen to sign a Memorandum ofUnderstanding (MOU) withgovernment as a way of reducingVOC emissions. One notableexample is the 1994 MOU betweenthe Government of Canada and theCanadian Chemical Producers’Association (CCPA). The objective ofthe MOU is to use voluntary, non-regulatory action to reduce therelease of chemical substances byencouraging and publiclyrecognizing progress on the part ofthe CCPA and its membercompanies. The MOU, which isfounded on Responsible Care®, hasled to significant progress inreducing emissions of toxicsubstances. For example, benzeneand butadiene were reduced bymore than 50 per cent, fromapproximately 1,900 tonnesannually to 900 tonnes annuallybetween 1994 and 1998. Copies ofthe MOU can be found onEnvironment Canada’s website atwww.ec.gc.ca/epa-epe/ccpa-acfcp.

22 CHAPTER T WO: HOW VOC EMISSIONS ARE CONTROLLED


Filtration has also proven to be an effective, butless desirable, way to remove VOCs from wastegas streams. Typically, gases are passed throughlayers of activated charcoal or comparablefiltering material that adsorb VOCs. While VOClevels can be reduced to very low concentrationsusing this method, spent filters must beregularly replaced or regenerated, thus creatingan environmental waste issue. Because filtrationcan be very efficient, however, it is often themost effective way to remove odoriferous VOCs.

The reaction of VOCs with other chemicals,often in the presence of a catalyst, such asplatinum, has become an attractive option forthe treatment of exhaust gases. The reactionprocess, known as catalytic thermal oxidizing,works much like that of the automotive catalyticconverter discussed earlier. Ideally, the endproducts of catalytic reactions are little morethan carbon dioxide and water.

Pollution Prevention

In recent years, the practice of “pollutionprevention” has been embraced as the mostenvironmentally and potentially cost-effectiveway to minimize VOC emissions. The CanadianCouncil of Ministers of the Environment(CCME) defines pollution prevention as “the useof processes, practices, materials, products andenergy that avoid or minimize the creation ofpollutants and wastes at source.” In otherwords, rather than investing significantresources to capture or destroy a pollutant afterit is created, the production process is altered toreduce or eliminate the problem before it iscreated. For VOCs, this is commonly done byreducing the quantity of the VOC-producingsubstance, redesigning the manufacturingprocess to reduce the release of VOCs,eliminating VOCs from manufacturing orcommercial processes, or substituting VOCswith less reactive or less toxic substances. Manyindustries have been successful in achievingsignificant emission reductions through suchmethods.

It is commonly recognized today that pollutionprevention solutions should be evaluated andapplied before add-on controls are used.Chapter Three presents examples of leadingbusinesses that are practicing pollutionprevention.


Chapter Two discussed the general principles of VOC control. Although thereare notable exceptions, controlling VOC emissions in large industries, wheremass production often results in lower per unit costs, is most commonlyaccomplished with the use of add-on controls. For small- and medium-sizedenterprises (SMEs), in contrast, “pollution prevention” or “P2” strategies aremore cost-effective when the necessary support is available.

What Small- and Medium-sizedEnterprises are Doing to Reduce VOCs —

Pollution Prevention Success Stories

Chapter Three

26

As noted earlier, the CCME defines pollutionprevention as “the use of processes, practices,materials, products and energy that avoid orminimize the creation of pollutants and wastesat source.” Many businesses have taken aproactive approach to reducing their VOCemissions. Many companies have also achievedfinancial savings that, in some cases, have morethan compensated for the cost of reducing theemissions.

The following pages describe how several SMEsectors have responded to the challenge ofpollution prevention, and present some casestudies in which the principle has been put towork successfully. Lessons learned in these casestudies can be applied to businesses in similarsectors to reduce VOC emissions.

SMEs and Pollution Prevention

Automobile Painting

Painting an automobile, whether new orrefurbished, involves several coats of paint.Coatings may include a pre-treatment washprimer or pre-coat, a primer surfacer, a primersealer and a topcoat, each of which containssolvents. VOC emissions from painting occurduring surface preparation, coating applicationand clean-up.

Some actions that this sector has taken to reduceVOCs include• Leading auto body repair shops have

changed the way they apply paint toautomobile body surfaces by using high-volume, low-pressure spray guns. The lowvelocity of application from these gunsprevents the rapid expansion of spray andresults in less over-spray and lower VOCemissions.

• Automakers have changed the paints theyuse from high solids solvent-based enamelsto water-based paints and powder coatings,and thus reduced VOC emissions.

• Automakers have minimized the frequencyof colour changes. This reduces VOCemissions generated when cleaningequipment with solvents betweenapplications.

CHAPTER THREE: POLLUTION PREVENTION SUCCESS STORIES


Printing and Graphics Industry

The primary source of VOC emissions within a printingplant is the pressroom where there are three main sources ofVOCs: solvent-based inks, solvents used to clean pressesafter print runs, and isopropyl alcohol used in fountainsolutions (solutions used in lithographic printing).

Other VOC sources within a printing and publication facilityinclude pre-press and the bindery. Pre-press is the locationwhere printing plates are created for use during printing,and the bindery is the location where materials are boundtogether to create a finished product.

Text Box 3-1

CleanPrint Canada

The CleanPrint Canadainitiative, created by printers,suppliers, associations andgovernment, assists andeducates the printingindustry on reducing VOCemissions. CleanPrintCanada has developed aChecksheet/Guidebook forPrinters, which includeschecklists and tips forreducing pollution within aprinting facility. The guide,initially written for theOntario market, was adaptedfor facilities across Canadaand is used by regionalCleanPrint groups. TheCleanPrint project alsoprovides auditing services tohelp printers identify areasof potential improvement.For more information visitthe CleanPrint Canadawebsite atwww.cleanprint.org.

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Some actions that this sector has taken to reduceVOCs include• using water- and vegetable oil-based inks;• reducing or eliminating the use of organic

solvents, such as isopropyl alcohol, inlithographic printing fountain solutions;

• capturing and recycling used solvents; and,• reducing VOC emissions through improved

housekeeping (for example, ensuring solventcontainers are closed when not in use andplacing used solvent rags and wipers inclosed containers for future recycling).

Dry Cleaners

Tetrachloroethylene, also known asperchloroethylene, has been declared toxicunder the Canadian Environmental Protection Act.This liquid solvent is used in dry cleaning toclean clothes and remove stains.

Some actions that this sector has taken to reduceVOCs include• Use of closed-loop (non-vented) “dry-to-dry”

refrigerated machines. In this technology, alldry cleaning steps are performed in a singleunit, hence containing the perchloroethylenewithin the unit. The drying air continuouslycirculates within the closed system and arefrigerated condenser removes solventvapour from the circulated air.

• Use of sealed delivery systems for addingperchloroethylene to dry cleaning machines.

• Phasing out the use of perchloroethylene bycleaning clothes with soap and watersolutions.

Case Studies of PollutionPrevention

Some Canadian companies have successfullyimplemented pollution prevention strategies.Below are just a few of many examples.

Reducing VOCs in the PrintingIndustry

Hemlock Printers is a commercial offsetprinting company located in Burnaby, BritishColumbia. Hemlock Printers has taken steps tomeet and exceed the Greater VancouverRegional District (GVRD) stringentenvironmental standards regarding air andwater quality and waste disposal limits.Hemlock was the first printer in the industry tobecome completely alcohol-free. The majority ofthe inks used in its printing processes arevegetable-based, which greatly reduces VOCemissions. In the press room, specially designedpaper towels are used to clean the presses. Thesetowels are collected and used as fuel, withminimal VOCs being released. The remainingash is used in cement products. Minimal inkwaste is generated at Hemlock. All inks are pre-measured for each project to reduce excess, andwhen there is ink left over it is re-mixed andused in another printing job. Electronictechnology has eliminated requirements forfilm, and therefore film waste, in 100 per cent ofprojects. This change includes reduced chemical



use and handling. Hemlock has reduced VOCemissions 50 per cent by changing to an alcohol-free printing process and reducing the numberof chemicals and solvents used by 65 per cent(from Pollution Prevention Canadian SuccessStories, www.ec.gc.ca/pp).

At Bowne of Canada a number of pollutionprevention opportunities were identified inplant operations, several of which addressedVOC emissions. In the pressroom, spent wastefountain solution generated an estimated 53,000litres of hazardous liquid waste per year thatwas disposed of at a cost of $30,750.Additionally, used rags and wipers, saturatedwith solvent and ink residue, were stored indrums that lacked tight-fitting lids; as a result,they were sources of VOC emissions. Upon fullimplementation of pollution preventioninitiatives, Bowne expects to achieve annualaggregated reductions of 29.3 tonnes of VOCs,6.6 tonnes of greenhouse gases, and 51.6 tonnesof process wastes, while saving 2.7 kilotonnes ofwater. This amounts to an overall savings of$133,000 and a payback period of seven months(from Toronto Region Sustainability Program:Pollution Prevention Initiatives at Bowne Canada,www.oceta.on.ca/TORSUS/bowne.pdf).

Reducing VOCs in the Paint and StainBusiness

CAN-LAK Inc., which employs 60 people,manufactures paints, stains and lacquers. Due tothe nature of its business, the evaporation ofsolvents and subsequent release of VOCs intothe atmosphere is a significant issue.Recognizing inefficiencies, CAN-LAK hasundertaken operating improvements to preventsolvent losses. Improvements include increasingventilation to eliminate solvent vapours in theworkplace. CAN-LAK stores its basic solvents intanks outside the plant. The vapours of thesolvents stored in outside tanks are subjected toexpansion and contraction cycles that vary withdaily temperature changes. As a result, it wasrecommended that the tanks be filled morefrequently during the summer, thereby reducingthe headspace where evaporation occurs andreducing the quantity of VOCs released into theair. Within the plant, operating procedures weremodified to isolate tank washing activities,minimize evaporation and optimize thecollection of solvent vapours during the mixingand packaging of finished products. Sinceorganic solvent fumes are generally heavier thanair, intake nozzles were re-positioned to allowfor the natural flow of the vapours towards thefloor, thereby optimizing ventilation. These newmeasures have reduced VOC emissions by 4,125kilograms per year (from Pollution PreventionCanadian Success Stories, www.ec.gc.ca/pp).

30

Reducing VOCs in Other Processes

Steelcase Canada Ltd. is a designer andmanufacturer of products used in workenvironments, including desks, seating, worksurfaces, storage systems and lighting.Headquartered in Markham, Ontario, thecompany employs more than 500 people at itsmanufacturing facility. On September 29, 2004the Ontario Ministry of the Environmentintroduced Steelcase Canada as the firstcompany to be accepted under the province’snew Environmental Leaders Program. Byendorsing the leadership agreement, SteelcaseCanada has pledged to eliminate emissions ofVOCs from all liquid painting processes (in2003, Steelcase emitted nine tonnes of VOCsduring these processes). This will be achieved byreplacing all solvent-based liquid operationswith powder coating operations.

Interface Flooring Systems in Belleville,Ontario is another SME that is putting pollutionprevention strategies to work. Interfacemanufactures nylon carpet tiles. It has loweredemissions of VOCs by reducing the use ofpolymer on the backing of carpet tiles.


Canadian Auto Collision Inc. in Brantford,Ontario has also succeeded in lowering VOCemissions through the use of high-solids andwater-based paints. On-site recycling of cleaningsolvents has resulted in 88 per cent recovery andreuse of solvents, reducing waste to a smallconcentrated sludge. A procedure for capturingand reusing solvents was developed thatredirected 22 litres of chemicals away fromlandfill sites. Major emission reductions havealso come from upgrading equipment, such asspray guns, which has improved transferefficiency by 40 per cent.

Lord and Partners of Huntsville, Ontariomanufacture low-VOC solvents and cleanersthat are used in a variety of industries, includingautomotive, aviation, mining, oil exploration,pulp and paper, and transportation. Successfultests of its products have been done for paintremoval, parts cleaning and degreasingapplications by National Defence Canada at theTrenton Air Force base in Ontario.


Small- (fewer than 50 employees) and medium-sized (50–500 employees) enterprises are alarge and diverse sector of the Canadianeconomy (Canada currently has 2.6 millionSMEs, and this number is growing). Individuallytheir environmental impact may be small, butcumulatively they generate a substantial amountof pollution that impacts the quality of air, waterand land. Businesses can draw on a range ofbest practices to reduce VOCs, and can alsoassist their customers in doing the same. Threeorganizations, in particular, offer assistance,information, and/or case studies that can behelpful to businesses interested in practicingpollution prevention:

The Ontario Centre for EnvironmentalTechnology Advancement (OCETA) is a privatesector, not-for-profit Ontario corporation with amandate of providing business services toentrepreneurs, start-up companies and SMEs tohelp commercialize new environmentaltechnologies and to support sustainableeconomic development, both domestically andinternationally. One component of OCETA’s workis the organization and delivery of workshops,under the Natural Resources Canada energy

Text Box 3-2

Useful Resources for SMEs and Pollution Prevention Practices

efficiency program, to plant managers, energymanagers and company executives in a variety ofsectors. OCETA’s Toronto Region SustainabilityProgram provides pollution prevention technicalassistance to SME manufacturers in the GreaterToronto Area. www.oceta.on.ca/toronto.htm

The Canadian Centre for Pollution Preventionwebsite provides access to information, tools andnetworks for the purpose of improving theenvironmental performance of SMEs. Throughthe site, users have access to information onenvironmental compliance, pollution preventiontechniques, management tools, on-line training,success stories and industry-specific resources,as well as a list of support programs available toSMEs. www.c2p2online.com

The Canadian Pollution Prevention InformationClearinghouse (CPPIC) is a database providingCanadians with information they need to practicepollution prevention. More than 1,200references, ranging from fact sheets to casestudies, are available on the website. Searchescan be done through simple text searches,advanced searches or more specific industrialsector searches. www.ec.gc.ca/cppic

31PRIMER ON VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS


The previous chapter looked at some ways that unwanted VOC emissions canbe controlled. This chapter considers specific ways in which three levels ofgovernment in Canada are requiring or encouraging reductions of theseemissions.

Governments face major challenges in reducing VOC emissions. Because themajority of VOCs are released by natural sources (i.e., living and decayingplants, including trees), it is difficult or impossible to make significantreductions from those sources. However, populated urban areas — wheremost VOC emissions originate from human sources — are amenable tocontrols. VOC emission reductions can be achieved by taking action onemissions from transportation, industry and consumer products.

Chapter Four

What Governments are Doing toReduce VOCs

34

What the Canadian Government is Doing

The Canadian government has various means at its disposalto limit VOC emissions. Among them, it can control airbornereleases of substances it considers toxic. The federalgovernment sets national product standards and oversees thenegotiation and implementation of binding internationalagreements related to transboundary air pollution. It is alsoable to promote best practices within federal departments.With these mandates, the federal government is able tosignificantly contribute to the control of VOCs, both as toxicsand as smog precursors.

VOCs as Toxics

Under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA), thefederal government is required to assess the potentialtoxicity of thousands of chemicals, including numerousVOCs. Through this assessment process, if a chemical isdeemed “toxic” (see Text Box 4-1), Environment Canada maybe obligated to propose and finalize, within strict timelines,control measures to reduce risks associated with thesubstance. These measures can include regulations,guidelines or other policy “instruments,” and can apply totoxic VOCs at any stage of their life cycle. The measureselected can affect the research, development, manufacture,use, storage, transport or disposal of toxic VOCs. Themeasures often include the development and implementationof plans for pollution prevention, response to environmentalemergencies and codes of practice. See Text Box 4-2 forexamples of risk management measures that can be used tocontrol toxic VOCs.

Text Box 4-1

What is “CEPA-toxic”?

Section 64 of CEPA 1999defines a substance as“toxic” if it is entering or mayenter the environment in aquantity or concentration orunder conditions thata. have or may have an

immediate or long-termharmful effect on theenvironment or itsbiological diversity;

b. constitute or mayconstitute a danger tothe environment onwhich life depends; or

c. constitute or mayconstitute a danger inCanada to human life orhealth.

CHAPTER FOUR: WHAT GOVERNMENTS ARE DOING34


VOCs as Smog Precursors

In 2000, Canada signed the Ozone Annex to theCanada–US Air Quality Agreement. The annex defines atransboundary region in each country. The states andprovinces within the regions represent the areaswithin which emission reductions will have the mostimpact on the flow of transboundary ozone and itsprecursors. In the United States, the region covers 18states and the District of Columbia (together thesecomprise 40 per cent of the US population). InCanada, the region includes central and southernOntario and southern Quebec (together these includemore than 50 per cent of the Canadian population).

Text Box 4-2

Examples of Risk ManagementTools for Toxic VOCs

• Instruments authorized underCEPA 1999: regulations(including deposit refund andtrading system regulations),pollution prevention plans,environmental emergency plans,administrative agreements,codes of practice, environmentalquality objectives or guidelinesand release guidelines

• Voluntary approaches:Environmental PerformanceAgreements, Memoranda ofUnderstanding

• Non-CEPA 1999 economicinstruments: financialincentives and subsidies,environmental charges and taxes

• Joint federal/provincial/territorial initiatives: Canada-wide standards, guidelines,codes of practice

• Provincial/territorial Acts:regulations, permits, or otherprocesses

• Other federal Acts: e.g.,Fisheries Act, Pest ControlProducts Act, HazardousProducts Act.

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Figure 4-1: Ozone Annex Pollutant EmissionManagement Area

Source: United States-Canada Air Quality Agreement,Ozone Annex.

Ontario Portion of the Domain Quebec Portion of the DomainUS Portion of the Domain

36

As part of this agreement, Canada is committed toreducing VOC emissions from transportation. Toaccomplish the goal of reducing transboundaryozone, new regulated standards have been put inplace to reduce VOC emissions from vehicles andfuels. These standards cover cars, vans, light-dutytrucks, off-road vehicles, small engines and dieselengines, as well as fuel. Implementation of measuresunder the Federal Agenda on Cleaner Vehicles, Enginesand Fuels is expected to achieve significant VOCreductions from the transportation sector by 2010. Aswell, VOCs from consumer products are beingaddressed through the CEPA 1999 Guideline forReducing Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds fromConsumer Products. This guideline lists VOC contentlimits for 22 consumer product types, includinghairsprays, household cleaning products, automobilecleaning products and insecticides.

On March 27, 2004, the Ministers of Environment andHealth published a Notice of Intent entitled, FederalAgenda on the Reduction of Emissions of Volatile OrganicCompounds from Consumer and Commercial Products.This document outlines a series of measures to bedeveloped and implemented between 2004 and 2010to reduce emissions of VOCs from consumer andcommercial products. (Information on actions beingtaken by Environment Canada to address VOCemissions resulting from the use of consumer andcommercial products in Canada can be found atwww.ec.gc.ca/nopp/voc.)

Text Box 4-3

Reduction of VOC Emissionsthrough the Development of TwoRegulations

In 1993, the VOC tetrachloroethylene(more commonly calledperchloroethylene or PERC) wasassessed and declared “toxic” underCEPA. As a result, on February 27,2003, the federal governmentpassed into law theTetrachloroethylene (Use in DryCleaning and ReportingRequirements) Regulations. Theregulations apply to PERC as it isused by dry cleaners, set standardsfor its handling and disposal, andspecify safety measures to befollowed in case of spills. Theseregulations were expected to resultin a 70 per cent reduction of PERCreleases at dry-cleaning facilitiesfrom 1994 levels by August 2005.Eventually, the regulations willphase out the use of PERC in all drycleaning equipment exceptmachines that are fully enclosed andre-use PERC.

The Solvent Degreasing Regulationwent into effect on July 24, 2003, tocontrol the VOC trichloroethylene.This regulation is expected to resultin a 65 per cent reduction inconsumption of trichloroethylene insolvent degreasing by 2007.



The federal government also initiatedthe “Environmental Choice Program,”which encourages the supply of anddemand for products and servicesdeemed to be environmentallyresponsible. According to a reportpublished by Environment Canada in2003, “companies must comply withstringent environmental criteria thatare established in consultation withindustry, environmental groups andindependent experts, and that arebased on research into the life-cycleimpacts of a product or service” toobtain environmental certification oftheir products and services. TheEnvironmental Choice Programcurrently sets VOC content limits forthe following products: consumer,industrial and/or institutional cleaningproducts, biologically-based cleaningand degreasing compounds, industrialhand cleaners, paints, surface coatings,printing inks, adhesives and personalcare products. For more information,see www.environmentalchoice.com.

Although many VOCs that form smogare not particularly toxic on their own,VOCs were added as a group to the listof CEPA toxics in July 2003. This meansthat Environment Canada can nowapply regulations and guidelines to theentire range of smog-forming VOCs.

Text Box 4-4

Tracking VOC Emissions

In 1992, the Canadian federal government createdthe National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI).Any facility in Canada that “manufactures,processes or otherwise uses” one or more of theNPRI-listed substances in excess of a certain“threshold” must submit an annual report toEnvironment Canada on the releases and transfersof those substances (in 2002, the threshold forVOCs was 10 tonnes). As of 2002, the number ofsubstances for which releases and transfers mustbe reported was 273, many of which are VOCs.More than 3,000 facilities across Canada report tothe NPRI on a yearly basis. For more information,visit the website at www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri.

Another method of tracking VOCs is through theCriteria Air Contaminants (CAC) database. The CACinventory conveys data on the actual emissions ofvarious air pollutants (measured in tonnes peryear) that originate from a number of sourceslocated across the country. These sources areorganized in categories that include industrialproduction, fuel combustion, transportationvehicles and incineration, among others. Every fiveyears, Environment Canada issues a nationalinventory of air contaminant emissions frompolluting sources in Canada of the five commonsmog pollutants, which include VOCs. A separatecategory of biogenic VOC emissions categorized byprovince is also given. Summary data for CAC canbe found on Environment Canada’s GreenLanewebsite at www.ec.gc.ca.

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What Provincial Governments are Doing

Issuing Permits

Provincial governments control pollutant releases fromcommercial and industrial sources mainly by requiring thatsite-specific permits be obtained for those releases. Thesepermits set limits on how much of each pollutant the sourcemay release. In setting these limits, provincial governments,similar to US state governments, focus on protecting the“most sensitive receptor,” which is most often humans, butcan be plants or animals inhabiting the natural environment.Governments do this by using mathematical models tocalculate the potential worst-case concentration of eachpollutant, usually at ground level, around the source. If thecalculated concentrations are below the applicable air qualitystandards in the jurisdiction, the company is issued a permitto operate the processes under review.

Provincial governments either develop independently, oradopt from other jurisdictions, the air quality standards usedin their permitting processes. Beginning in the late 1990s,Ontario embarked on a plan to review and, where necessary,update many of its standards, including those for suchcommonly found VOCs as acetone, hexane,tetrachloroethylene, toluene and xylene.

In August 2005, the government of Ontario introduced newand updated standards for 40 pollutants, including some forVOCs, into the regulation to protect Ontario communitiesfrom the impacts of air pollution. For a list of the newstandards, see www.ene.gov.on.ca/envision/AIR/airquality/standards.htm.

Text Box 4-5

Ontario has announced a“Clean Air Action Plan” thatoutlines steps to reduceprovincial VOC and NOX

emissions by 45 per centfrom 1990 levels by 2015.The report Ontario’s CleanAir Action Pan: ProtectingEnvironmental and HumanHealth in Ontario describessome of the currentprograms and initiativesunderway, which include theDrive Clean Program,Ontario’s Smog Patrol, andregulations limiting andreducing emissions fromgasoline. Governmentleadership initiatives includeinvestment in transit, usingalternative fuels in thegovernment fleet, andOntario’s Smog AlertResponse program.Initiatives in the planningstage include the VOCEmissions Reduction Plan.For more information, seewww.ene.gov.on.ca/programs/4708e.pdf.



Air Quality Monitoring

To support air management policy andenforcement of air pollution regulations ingeneral, provinces maintain air qualitymonitoring networks. In areas of Canada wheresmog is a problem (i.e., the Windsor–QuebecCity “corridor”; the Greater Vancouver area,also known as the Lower Fraser Valley; and thelower St. John area of New Brunswick),provincial governments operate smogmonitoring networks, which continuouslymeasure ground-level ozone, NOX, particulatematter and VOCs.

Provincial governments also encourageindividuals to change their smog-relatedlifestyle habits through various programs, suchas Ontario’s “Air Quality Ontario”(www.airqualityontario.com) and NewBrunswick’s “Index of the Quality of the Air”(www1.gnb.ca/0355/0003/0000.asp), whichmonitor and report air quality readings. Byinforming the public of air quality conditionsand what they mean, these programs enablepeople to take actions to protect themselvesfrom poor air quality and to reduce their ownemissions.

Vehicle Emissions Testing Programs

Both British Columbia and Ontario have vehicleemissions testing programs. AirCare in BritishColumbia and Drive Clean in Ontario requirevehicle emissions to be tested on a regular basis.Among other pollutants, such as NOX, thesetests measure hydrocarbons emitted by avehicle’s exhaust system. If a car fails theemissions test, the goal is to have the carrepaired to reduce its emissions before it goesback on the road. According to an independentanalysis by Stewart Brown Associates, DriveClean has reduced smog-causing emissions bymore than 81,200 tonnes of NOX andhydrocarbons from 1999 through 2003. In 2003alone, smog-causing emissions were reduced bythe equivalent of removing more than 600,000typical light duty vehicles from Ontario’s roads.For more information, see www.driveclean.com.

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Text Box 4-6

Four Codes of Practice related to on-road vehiclesand handling of fuels have been developed throughthe CCME:1. Environmental Code of Practice — Vapour

Recovery in Gasoline Distribution Networks.2. Environmental Code of Practice for Light Duty

Motor Vehicle Emission Inspection andMaintenance Programs — 2nd edition.

3. Environmental Code of Practice for On-RoadHeavy-Duty Vehicle Emission Inspection andMaintenance Programs.

4. Environmental Code of Practice for VapourRecovery during Vehicle Refuelling at ServiceStations and Other Gasoline DispensingFacilities (Stage 2).

Eleven codes, guidelines, standards and Memorandaof Understanding (MOUs) to control solvent usehave been completed and endorsed by the CCME.These are listed below in order of publication year:1. Environmental Code of Practice for Reduction

of Solvent Emissions from Dry CleaningFacilities (1992).

2. Environmental Code of Practice for the Reductionof Solvent Emissions from Commercial andIndustrial Degreasing Facilities (1995).

3. MOU between CCME, Environment Canada andthe Canadian Paint and Coatings Association(CPCA) Respecting the Annual Reporting of theVolume of VOCs Contained in Consumer PaintSold in Canada (1995).

4. New Source Performance Standards andGuidelines for the Reduction of VOC Emissionsfrom Canadian Automotive OEM CoatingFacilities (1995).

5. Environmental Guideline for the Reduction ofVOC Emissions from the Plastics ProcessingIndustry (1997).

6. National Standards for the VOC Content ofCanadian Commercial/ Industrial SurfaceCoating Products — Automotive Refinishing(1998).

7. National Standards for the Reduction of VOCsfrom Canadian Commercial/ Industrial SurfaceCoating Operations — Automotive Refinishing(1998).

8. Environmental Code of Practice for theReduction of VOC Emissions from theCommercial Printing Industry (1999).

9. Recommendations for CCME Standards andGuidelines for the Reduction of VOC Emissionsfrom Canadian Industrial Maintenance Coatings(2002).

10. Recommended CCME Standards and Guidelinesfor the Reduction of VOC Emissions fromCanadian Automotive Parts Coatings Operations(2002).

11. Guidelines for the Reduction of VOC Emissionsin the Wood Furniture Manufacturing Sector(2003).

12. Environmental Code of Practice forAboveground and Underground Storage TankSystems Containing Petroleum and AlliedPetroleum Products (2003).

In addition, CCME has developed two national plansto reduce emissions from VOC-containing products:1. A Plan to Reduce VOC Emissions by 20 per cent

from Consumer Surface Coatings (2005).2. A Plan to Reduce VOC Emissions by 40 per cent

from Adhesives and Sealants (2005).

For more information on the Canadian Council ofMinisters of the Environment, and to access thesedocuments, visit their website at www.ccme.ca.



Joint Federal/Provincial/Territorial Actions

The Canadian Council of Ministers of theEnvironment (CCME) is the “majorintergovernmental forum in Canada fordiscussion and joint action on environmentalissues of national and international concern.”Environment ministers from the federal,provincial and territorial governments meetregularly to discuss environmental prioritiesand work to be carried out under the guidanceof the CCME. Through this national forum, theCCME has overseen the development ofnationally consistent environmental standards,strategies and objectives. This includes the 15VOC-focused guidelines, codes of practice andMOUs listed in Text Box 4-6.

While the CCME formally and publicly endorsessuch measures, it has no direct authority toimplement or enforce them. Each jurisdictiondecides independently whether to adopt CCMEcodes (or to revise them to meet regional needs).Provinces and territories normally implementCCME-endorsed measures through theirpermitting processes or through specificagreements with, or regulation of, theappropriate industry sector.

What Municipal Governmentsare Doing

Although municipal governments acrossCanada generally lack extensive powers to enactlaws to manage VOC emissions, they have oftenproven to be effective messengers of soundenvironmental advice. The following are someexamples of bylaws and initiatives that can befound across Canada.

Montreal and the Former MontrealUrban Community

The Quebec government delegated significantenvironmental management powers, includingthose over air pollution, to the Montreal UrbanCommunity (MUC), now re-structured as theCity of Montreal. The MUC’s By-law pertaining toair purification (By-law 90-1), which has beenamended several times since its first passage in1986, sets out extensive rules covering a range ofair pollution sources. By 2001, its powers hadbeen extended to cover VOC-emitting activitiesor facilities as diverse as• dry cleaning;• wire stripping;• floating roof tanks;• incineration of sewage sludge, biomedical,

hazardous and wood waste;• crematoria;• application of paints;• degreasing of metal parts;• mixing of asphalt;

42

• cleaning and storage of skins;• vapour recovery during fuel distribution;

and,• leak detection and repair programs at

refineries, petrochemical plants, organicchemistry plants and petroleum terminalsover a specified size.

Greater Vancouver Regional District(GVRD)

Through an air quality regulatory programsimilar to Montreal’s, the Greater VancouverRegional District (GVRD) sets allowableemission levels for industries and businesses.The sources currently permitted by the GVRDinclude numerous solvent-use sub-sectors, suchas cabinet manufacturing plants, furnituremanufacturing plants, polyurethane foammanufacturing plants, metal containermanufacturing plants, aerospace componentmanufacturing facilities, auto dewaxing/bodyshops, web press printing, boat manufacturingplants, custom refinishing and restorationplants, industrial rubber rebuilding plants,wood preservation facilities and industriallaundry facilities.

The two VOC emissions regulations that theGVRD has developed and adopted are for thesolvent use sub-sectors: automotive refinishing,and reinforced plastics and compositesindustries.

For other commercial and industrial operations,voluntary emissions reduction guidelines andeducational programs are provided to helpreduce air pollution.

Toronto and the Surrounding Region

Municipalities in Ontario are subject to Ontario’sMunicipal Act 2001. Under this Act, municipalitieshave specific powers that either fall within 10service delivery areas or, in more limited terms,fall outside these “spheres” of jurisdiction.Included in the latter are provisions in threeareas: health, safety, well-being and protectionof persons and property; nuisances; and thenatural environment. In no case can municipalby-laws conflict with federal or provincialstatutes. Using these powers, in 2004 the City ofToronto passed a by-law limiting the use ofherbicides and pesticides on private property.

Although to date Ontario municipalities havenot sought to regulate an extensive range ofactivities, as have Montreal and the GVRD, somenotable initiatives have emerged to reducetransportation emissions, including VOCs:

Anti-idling by-laws: These by-laws, which limitthe length of time that vehicles can idleunnecessarily, are being passed or consideredacross the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). In 1998,the City of Toronto passed an idling by-law that— with some exceptions — limits idling to nomore than three minutes in a given sixty-minuteperiod.

CHAPTER FOUR: WHAT GOVERNMENTS ARE DOING


GTA Clean Air Council (GTA-CAC): Since thespring of 2000, an annual “Smog Summit” hasbeen convened in Toronto, organized throughthe inter-governmental GTA Clean Air Council.In 2001, the Council’s mandate was expanded toshare best practices among the participatinggovernments. In particular, the GTA-CAC wasencouraged to extend participation to allregional, city and town governments in theGreater Toronto Area and to explorecoordination of smog reduction initiatives.

Most GTA-CAC initiatives focus, in some wayor another, on energy efficiency andconservation, each of which may assist inreducing VOC emissions.

Toronto Atmospheric Fund (TAF): Using $23million from the sale of surplus property in1988, Toronto City Council established TAF in1991 to finance local initiatives to combat globalwarming and improve air quality in Toronto.TAF’s stated mandate is to help reducegreenhouse gas emissions, such as CO2 andmethane; improve local air quality; promoteenergy conservation and efficiency; improvepublic understanding of global warming and itsimplications for the urban environment; expand“carbon sinks,” such as Toronto’s urban forestthat absorbs CO2 from the air; support relatedscientific research and technology development;and develop partnerships with non-governmental organizations, other levels ofgovernment, businesses and academicinstitutions.

Although most of the initiatives funded by TAFare now focused on renewable energy, energyconservation and efficiency, as well as reducingthe fossil fuel content of energy sources, some ofits initiatives, particularly those related totransportation, will result in VOC emissionreductions.


VOCs are released from industries, transportation and consumer products.The choices you make can increase or decrease emissions from thesesources. By making changes in home, vehicle and consumption habits, youcan choose to limit and reduce VOCs in the atmosphere while protectingyourself and others.

What You Can Do to Reduce VOCs andYour Personal Exposure

Chapter Five

46

Drive less, especially during peak traffic periodsor on hot, sunny days. Take public transit orcarpool to get around.

Get engine tune-ups and car maintenance checksas advised by your mechanic or the carmanufacturers’ maintenance schedule.

Consider fuel efficiency when purchasing avehicle, and keep your vehicle well maintained.Check out the AutoSmart website(http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/vehicles) to find outwhich vehicles are most fuel efficient.

Cut down on the use of small engine motors.These engines, which usually run on gasoline, areused primarily in lawn and garden equipment,such as lawnmowers, leaf blowers, chain saws,and lawn and garden tractors. Take advantage ofprograms, such as the Clean Air Foundation’sMow Down Pollution program that, in partnershipwith several government and industry sectors,encourages recycling and replacement of oldpolluting gasoline-powered lawnmowers andtrimmers.

Replace conventional two-stroke recreationaloutboard marine engines with new four-stroke ordirect fuel injection (DFI) two-stroke technologies.

Read and follow the instructions on labels onhome products. Familiarize yourself with what thesymbols mean. Check to see if the label says touse the product in a well-ventilated area.

Transportation emissions account for 26 per centof the total national human-generated VOCemissions in Canada (Criteria Air ContaminantsEmission Summaries, 2000).

If all drivers maintained their cars regularly, VOCemissions from this source could be reduced by30 per cent.

Small engines make a significant contribution toCanada’s air pollution problems. In 2000, VOCemissions from these sources in Canada totalled58.9 kilotonnes.

The new technologies are more fuel-efficient,consume less lubricating oil and reduceemissions of toxins, such as benzene andtoluene, compared to the two-stroke options.

Products that may be hazardous should havewarnings on them.

What yWhat yWhat yWhat yWhat you can doou can doou can doou can doou can do WhWhWhWhWhy?y?y?y?y?

CHAPTER FIVE: WHAT YOU CAN DO TO REDUCE VOCS


Buy and use non-VOC containing products andsupport businesses that do the same. Old-fashioned cleaning products based on commonhousehold substances, such as vinegar andbaking soda, have many appropriate applications.Many cleaners are now available that use soapsinstead of organic compounds.

Properly store and seal containers that are VOCbased (e.g., paints). Properly dispose of partiallyfull containers of old or unneeded products. Donot dispose of them with your regular garbage.Put them out on collection days for the disposalof hazardous household waste. If your communitydoes not have this service, take the containers toa disposal site recommended by yourmunicipality.

Buy limited qualities of VOC-containing productsand buy only what you will be able to use rightaway.

Time your use of products. Try to avoid usingpaints, cleaners and other solvents during thesummer high smog season, especially if there is asmog advisory in effect. Fill your vehicle’s gastank during cooler evening hours to cut down onthe formation of ground-level ozone.

These alternatives release few or no VOCs intoyour home. Some dry cleaners are moving awayfrom the use of perchloroethylene. By supportingthese businesses you provide more incentive forothers to reduce their VOC emissions as well. Asin industry, however, the choices are not alwayseasy or straightforward. A less toxic product on avolume-for-volume basis might be a greaterburden on the environment than a more toxicproduct if proportionately more of the less toxicsubstitute is required to get the job done.

VOCs may leak from closed containers. Getting ridof them can help lower VOC concentrations inyour home.

This eliminates the need to store products thatwould otherwise release VOCs into your home.

What yWhat yWhat yWhat yWhat you can doou can doou can doou can doou can do WhWhWhWhWhy?y?y?y?y?

48

References

Reports

California Air Resources Board. 2005. Report to the California Legislature — Indoor Air Pollution inCalifornia. Available on-line at www.arb.ca.gov/research/indoor/ab1173/ab1173.htm.

Canadian Chemical Producers’ Association. 2002. Reducing Emissions 2002 — Emissions Inventory andFive-Year Projections. A Responsible Care Initiative.

Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). 2001. Benzene Canada-Wide StandardPhase I National Summary.

Environment Canada. 2004. Air Pollutant Emissions. Criteria Air Contaminants Emission Summaries,2000. Available on-line at www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ape/cac_ESummaries_e.cfm.

Environment Canada. 2003. Future Canadian Measures for Reducing Emissions of Volatile OrganicCompounds (VOCs) from Consumer and Commercial Products. A Discussion Paper in Advance of aNotice of Intent by the Federal Minister of the Environment. Transboundary Air Issues Branch,Air Pollution Prevention Directorate.

Environment Canada. 2001. Precursor Contributions to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter in Canada.Science Assessment and Integration Branch, Atmospheric and Climate Science Directorate,Meteorological Service of Canada.

Environment Canada. 2001. National Pollutant Release Inventory 2001 National Overview.

Geron, C. , A. Guenther and T. Pierce. 1994. An improved model for estimating emissions of volatileorganic compounds from forests in the eastern US, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 12773.

GTA Clean Air Council. 2003. Governments’ Actions on Clean Air in the Greater Toronto Area 2003.

Guenther, A., P. Zimmerman and M. Wildermuth. 1994. Natural volatile organic compoundsemission rate estimates for US woodland landscapes, Atmos. Environ., 28, 1197.

48 REFERENCES


Pollution Probe. 2002. The Smog Primer. Available on-line at www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Primers.htm.

Pollution Probe. 2002. The Drinking Water Primer. Available on-line at www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Primers.htm.

Scientific Instrument Services. 1995. Identification of Volatile Organic Compounds in a New Vehicle.Available on-line at www.sisweb.com/referenc/applnote/app-36-a.htm.

US Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. National Volatile Organic Compound Emission Standards forConsumer Products. 40 CFR Parts 9 and 59, Final rule.

Weinhold, B. 2001. Don’t breathe and drive? Pollutants lurk inside vehicles. Environmental HealthPerspectives, 109, 9, p. A422.

Websites

Canadian Consumer Specialty Products Association. Canadian Consumer Products: How to KeepYour Family Safe and Healthy — www.healthycleaning101.org

Environment Canada. Canada–US Air Issues. www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/can_us/canus_trans_e.cfm

Environment Canada. Volatile Organic Compounds in Consumer and Commercial Products —www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/voc/en/secP.cfm#f1

Health Canada. Existing Substances Division — www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/exsd

International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS). INCHEM — www.inchem.org

NARSTO (Formerly an acronym for North American Research Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone).VOC Reactivity — www.cgenv.com/Narsto

US Environmental Protection Agency. Sources of Indoor Air Pollution — Organic Gases (VolatileOrganic Compounds — VOCs) — www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html

World Resources Institute. Earth Trends: The Environmental Information Portal —http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/climate-atmosphere/country-profile-33.html

49PRIMER ON VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

5050 PRIMER ON VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Photo Credits

Front Cover Images: top row left — GettyImages, top row right — JupiterImages, middle row —JupiterImages, bottom row left — Corbis, bottom row right — JupiterImagesCorbis: image on page 26GettyImages: images on pages 15 and 43JupiterImages: images on pages 2, 11, 13, 16, 20, 21, 23, 24, 27, 32 and 44Ontario Ministry of the Environment: image on page 39


Pollution Probe’s Primer SeriesPollution Probe has prepared a series of educational Primers on environmental topics. The goal of the Primers is toinform Canadians about current environmental issues by setting out the scientific basis for concern, potentialsolutions and the policy tools available. Each Primer focuses on what is being done, and what more can be done, bygovernments, businesses and individuals on these issues. Designed to be used by the general public, the Primersare produced in full-colour with an easy-to-use layout. The Primers all include a reference section that acts as anadditional resource to help users continue to improve their understanding of the subject.

Each Primer is researched and written under the direction of Pollution Probe’s Executive Director. Before publicationthey are reviewed by scientists, non-profit organizations, industry experts, policy makers and others who havetechnical expertise on the issue to ensure that they are factually correct and reflect current thinking on the topic.

For more information, or to see the Primers on-line, please visit our website atwww.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Primers.htm.

Child Health and the Environment — A Primer (August2005) provides an introduction to what makes childrenhealthy, explains why children are more vulnerable thanadults and examines health effects and exposures ofconcern for children.

Primer on Bioproducts (November 2004) provides anoverview of the ways bioproducts are made andhighlights some of the issues that bioproducttechnologies might raise for Canadians.

The Source Water Protection Primer (May 2004)explains the water cycle, identifies threats to watersources, focuses on watersheds as the idealmanagement unit and identifies steps to consider whendeveloping local source water protection plans.

Primer on Climate Change and Human Health (April2004) describes the ways in which a warmer and morevariable climate may impact Canadians’ health, reviewsactions taken by Canadian governments and industries,and examines what individuals can do to reducegreenhouse gas emissions.

Emissions Trading Primer (November 2003) explainsthe concepts behind emissions trading, describes theways in which it works and provides examples and casestudies.

Primer on the Technologies of Renewable Energy(September 2003) explains the concept of renewableenergy and the rationale for shifting energy generationtowards cleaner and less greenhouse gas-intensivesources.

Mercury in the Environment: A Primer (June 2003)provides an overview of the mercury cycle, releases tothe environment, transportation and deposition aroundthe world and the uptake and accumulation of mercuryin the food chain.

The Drinking Water Primer (June 2002) examines thetwo sources of drinking water — groundwater andsurface water — and the extent to which Canadiansdepend on them.

The Smog Primer (June 2002) explains what smog andthe pollutants that create it are and highlights the majorsources of these pollutants (i.e., transportation and theburning of fossil fuels for energy).

All of Pollution Probe’s Primers areavailable for $20.00 per copy,plus postage (Cdn. $2.50,US $4.50, Int. $10.50).

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