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![Page 1: Prevention of Clostridium difficile Infection (CDI) Massachusetts CDI Prevention Collaborative Carolyn Gould, MD MSCR L. Cliff McDonald, MD Division of.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062717/56649e395503460f94b2b413/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Prevention of Clostridium difficile Infection (CDI)
Massachusetts CDI Prevention Collaborative
Carolyn Gould, MD MSCRL. Cliff McDonald, MD
Division of Healthcare Quality PromotionCenters for Disease Control and Prevention
Disclaimer: The findings and conclusions in this presentation are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention.
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Objectives Describe the impact and changing
epidemiology of C. difficile infection (CDI) Discuss the pathogenesis of CDI Review HHS Prevention Targets Discuss Core and Supplemental Strategies for
Prevention of CDI– Contact Precautions– Hand hygiene– Environmental cleaning– Diagnostic testing– Antimicrobial stewardship
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Background: Impact
Hospital-onset: 165,000 cases, $1.3 billion in excess costs, and 9,000 deaths annually
Community-onset, healthcare-facility associated: 50,000 cases, $0.3 billion in excess costs, and 3,000 deaths annually
Nursing home-onset: 263,000 cases, $2.2 billion in excess costs, and 16,500 deaths annually
Campbell et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009:30:523-33 Dubberke et al. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14:1031-8Dubberke et al. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46:497-504 Elixhauser et al. HCUP Statistical Brief #50. 2008
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Heron et al. Natl Vital Stat Rep 2009;57(14). Available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr57/nvsr57_14.pdf
Age-Adjusted Death Rate* for Enterocolitis Due to C. difficile, 1999–
2006
*Per 100,000 US standard population
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
1999 2003
Rate
2000 20042001 20052002 2006Year
MaleFemaleWhiteBlackEntire US population
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Mortality due to C. difficile Infection per 100,000 population, Massachusetts
http://wonder.cdc.gov/mortSQL.html
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Background: EpidemiologyCurrent epidemic strain of C. difficile BI/NAP1/027, toxinotype III
• Historically uncommon – epidemic since 2000 More resistant to fluoroquinolones
• Higher MICs compared to historic strains and current non-BI/NAP1 strains
More virulent• Increased toxin A and B production• Polymorphisms in binding domain of toxin B• Increased sporulation
McDonald et al. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:2433-41Warny et al. Lancet. 2005;366:1079-84
Stabler et al. J Med Micro. 2008;57:771–5Akerlund et al. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:1530–3
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Sunenshine et al. Cleve Clin J Med. 2006;73:187-97
Pathogenesis of CDI
4. Toxin A & B Productionleads to colon damage +/- pseudomembrane
1. Ingestionof spores transmitted from other patients
via the hands of healthcare personnel and environment
2. Germination intogrowing (vegetative)
form
3. Altered lower intestine flora (due to antimicrobial use) allows
proliferation of C. difficile in colon
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Background: EpidemiologyRisk Factors
Antimicrobial exposure Acquisition of C. difficile Advanced age Underlying illness Immunosuppression Tube feeds ? Gastric acid suppression
Main modifiable risk factors
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HHS Prevention Targets
http://www.hhs.gov/ophs/initiatives/hai/appendices.html
Metric Original HAI Elimination Metric
HAI Comparison Metric
Measurement System
National Baseline Established
National 5-Year Prevention Target
Coordinator of Measurement System
Is the Metric NQF Endorsed?
C diff 1 Case rate per patient days; administrative/ discharge data for ICD-9 CM coded C. difficile Infections
Hospitalizations with C. difficile per 1,000 patient discharges
Hospital discharge data
2008 At least 30% reduction in hospitalizations with C. difficile per 1,000 patient discharges
AHRQ or CDC No
C diff 2 C. difficile SIR CDC NHSN MDRO/CDAD Module LabID‡
2009-2010 Reduce the facility-wide healthcare facility-onset C. difficile LabID event SIR by at least 30% from baseline
CDC No
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Prevention Strategies Core Strategies
– High levels of scientific evidence
– Demonstrated feasibility
Supplemental Strategies
– Some scientific evidence
– Variable levels of feasibility
*The Collaborative should at a minimum include core prevention strategies. Supplemental prevention strategies also may be used. Most core and supplemental strategies are based on HICPAC guidelines. Strategies that are not included in HICPAC guidelines will be noted by an asterisk (*) after the strategy. HICPAC guidelines may be found at www.cdc.gov/hicpac
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Core Prevention Strategies
Contact Precautions for duration of diarrhea Hand hygiene in compliance with CDC/WHO Cleaning and disinfection of equipment and
environment Laboratory-based alert system for immediate
notification of positive test results Educate about CDI: HCP, housekeeping,
administration, patients, families
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/id_CdiffFAQ_HCP.htmlDubberke et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008;29:S81-92
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Supplemental Prevention Strategies
Extend use of Contact Precautions beyond duration of diarrhea (e.g., 48 hours)*
Presumptive isolation for symptomatic patients pending confirmation of CDI
Evaluate and optimize testing for CDI Implement soap and water for hand hygiene before
exiting room of a patient with CDI Implement universal glove use on units with high
CDI rates* Use sodium hypochlorite (bleach) – containing
agents for environmental cleaning Implement an antimicrobial stewardship program
* Not included in CDC/HICPAC 2007 Guideline for Isolation Precautions
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Contact Precautions
Gloves/gowns on room entry
Private room (preferred) or cohort with dedicated commodes
Dedicated equipment Maintain for duration of
diarrhea Measure compliance
Extend use of Contact Precautions beyond duration of diarrhea
Presumptive isolation Universal glove use on
units with high CDI rates Intensify assessment of
compliance
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/id_CdiffFAQ_HCP.htmlDubberke et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008;29:S81-92
Cohen et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010;31
Core Supplemental
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Rationale for considering extending isolation beyond duration of diarrhea
Bobulsky et al. Clin Infect Dis 2008;46:447-50
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Patients should meet criteria for testing and presumptive isolation >3 unformed (i.e., taking the shape of a
container) stools within 24 hours– Send specimen for testing and presumptively
isolate patient pending results– Positive predictive value of testing optimized if
focused on patients with >3 unformed stools within 24 hours
– Exception: patient with possible recurrent CDI (isolate and test following first unformed stool)
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Rationale for considering universal glove use on units with high CDI rates
Asymptomatic carriers may have a role in
transmission (magnitude uncertain) Practical screening tests not available Still require Contact Precautions for
patients with known CDI Focus enhanced environmental cleaning
strategies and avoid shared medical equipment on such units as well
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Riggs et al. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:992–8
Role of asymptomatic carriers?
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http://www.cdc.gov/nhsn/forms/57.127_MDROMonthlyReporting_BLANK.pdf
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Hand Hygiene
Hand hygiene based on CDC or WHO guidelines
Soap and water preferentially in outbreak or hyperendemic settings
Measure compliance
Soap and water for hand hygiene before exiting room of a patient with CDI
Intensify assessment of compliance
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/id_CdiffFAQ_HCP.htmlDubberke et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008;29:S81-92
Cohen et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010;31
Core Supplemental
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Hand Hygiene – Soap vs. Alcohol gel Alcohol not effective in eradicating C. difficile spores But in clinical practice, is soap and water better?
– Effect on HH adherence and transmission of other HAIs unclear
• Increased adherence with alcohol hand rub• Limited availability of sinks in many facilities
– Recent data suggesting spore adherence to skin and difficulty removing spores with soap and water
– Incremental benefit of soap and water vs. alcohol with glove use?
Ellingson K, McDonald C. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010;31:571-3
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Boyce et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2006;27:479-83
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Hand Washing: Product ComparisonProduct Log10
Reduction
Tap Water 0.76
4% CHG antimicrobial hand wash 0.77
Non-antimicrobial hand wash 0.78
Non-antimicrobial body wash 0.86
0.3% triclosan antimicrobial hand wash 0.99
Heavy duty hand cleaner used in manufacturing environments
1.21*
* Only value that was statistically better than others
Edmonds, et al. Presented at: SHEA 2009; Abstract 43Johnson et al. Am J Med 1990;88:137-40
Conclusion: Spores may be difficult to eradicate even with hand washingEmphasizes need for absolute adherence with glove use
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Environmental Cleaning
Cleaning and disinfection of equipment and environment
Consider sodium hypochlorite in outbreak or hyperendemic settings
Routinely assess adherence to protocols and adequacy of cleaning
Reassess adequacy of room cleaning and address issues
Use sodium hypochlorite (bleach) – containing agents
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/id_CdiffFAQ_HCP.htmlDubberke et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008;29:S81-92
Cohen et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010;31
Core Supplemental
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Environmental Cleaning Bleach can kill spores, whereas other standard
disinfectants cannot Limited data suggest cleaning with bleach (1:10 dilution
prepared fresh daily) reduces C. difficile transmission Two before-after intervention studies demonstrated
benefit of bleach cleaning in units with high endemic CDI rates
Therefore, bleach may be most effective in reducing burden where CDI is highly endemic
Mayfield et al. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:995-1000Wilcox et al. J Hosp Infect 2003;54:109-14
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Environmental CleaningAssess adequacy of cleaning before changing
to new cleaning product such as bleach Ensure that environmental cleaning is adequate
and high-touch surfaces are not being overlooked A fluorescent environmental marker is one
method to asses cleaning and can lead to sustained improvement in cleaning following education
The use of environmental markers is a promising method to improve cleaning in hospitals
Carling et al. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42:385-8
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Diagnostic Testing
Laboratory-based alert system for immediate notification of positive test results
Evaluate and optimize testing for CDI
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/id_CdiffFAQ_HCP.htmlDubberke et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008;29:S81-92
Cohen et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010;31
Core Supplemental
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Evaluate and optimize test-ordering practices and diagnostic methods
Toxin A/B enzyme immunoassays have low sensitivities (70-80%)
Despite high specificity, poor test ordering practices (i.e. testing formed stool or repeat testing) may lead to false positives
Consider more sensitive diagnostic paradigms but apply these more judiciously
– Employ a highly sensitive screen with confirmatory test or a PCR-based molecular assay
– Restrict testing to unformed stool only– Focus testing on patients with > 3 unformed stools
within 24 hours– Require expert consultation for repeat testing within 5
days
Peterson et al. Ann Intern Med 2009;15:176-9.
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Antimicrobial Stewardship
Along with transmission, main modifiable risk factor for CDI
40-50% of antibiotic use may be unnecessary
Clinical Infectious Diseases 2007; 44:159–77
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Audit and feedback targeting broad-spectrum antibiotics
A prospective, controlled interrupted time-series analysis in 3 acute medical wards for the elderly
Introduced a narrow-spectrum antibiotic policy
Reinforced using feedback Reductions in targeted
antibiotics and CDI
Fowler et al. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007;59:990-5
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Desperate Measures for Desperate Times: Restricting all Fluoroquinolones to End an Outbreak
Kallen, et al. 18th Annual Meeting of The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA), April 6, 2008; Orlando, FL.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Nu
mb
er o
f C
ases
Month and Year
Beginning of outbreak period
Quinolone restriction
New housekeeping company
Quinolone restriction partially lifted
2004 2005 2006 2007
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0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Jan
Mar
May Ju
lSep Nov Ja
nM
arM
ay Jul
Sep Nov Jan
Mar
2005 2006 2007
Month and year
Pre-intervention6.6% increase/month (p<0.001)
Immediate effect of FQ restriction28% drop (p=0.15)
Post-intervention (P<0.006)
Time Series ModelH
O-C
DA
D c
ases
/1,0
00 p
d
Proportion of isolates that were epidemic strain decreased• 66% (43) before interventions to 44% (25) after (p=0.02)
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Quinolone Restriction Period
Nim
ber
of
Def
ined
Dai
ly D
ose
s
2005 2006 2007Month and Year
Impact that Restricting Fluoroquinolones can Have on Reducing Unnecessary Antimicrobial Use
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
Aminoglycosides Cephalosporins (1st gen.)
Cephalosporins (2nd gen.) Cephalosporins (3rd and 4th gen.)
Quinolones Vancomycin
Piperacillin/Tazobactam Ampicillin/Sulbactam
Azithromycin Carbapenems
Aztreonam Clindamycin
Kallen, et al. 18th Annual Meeting of The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA), April 6, 2008; Orlando, FL.
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Antibiotic Stewardship Drivers and Change Package Partnership between CDC and IHI Develop a conceptual model of key
drivers for reducing inappropriate antibiotic utilization
Goal: set of recommendations for all hospitals regardless of size, acuity, setting
– Implementation tailored to needs and resources of facility
– Prototyping in pilot hospitals
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Measurement: OutcomeCategorize Cases by location and time
of onset†
Admission Discharge
< 4 weeks 4-12 weeks
HO CO-HCFA Indeterminate CA-CDI
Time
2 d > 12 weeks
*
HO: Hospital (Healthcare)-OnsetCO-HCFA: Community-Onset , Healthcare Facility-AssociatedCA: Community-Associated
* Depending upon whether patient was discharged within previous 4 weeks, CO-HCFA vs. CA † Onset defined in NHSN LabID Event by specimen collection date
Modified from CDAD Surveillance Working Group. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007;28:140-5
Day 1 Day 4
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Measurement: OutcomeNHSN CDAD Module
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http://www.cdc.gov/HAI/recoveryact/stateResources/stateResources.html
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Evaluation Considerations Assess baseline policies and procedures
Areas to consider– Surveillance– Prevention strategies– Measurement of effect of strategies
Coordinator should track new policies/practices implemented during collaboration
Standardized questions available at: http://www.cdc.gov/HAI/recoveryact/stateResources/stateResources.html
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http://www.cdc.gov/HAI/recoveryact/PDF/CDI_EvalQuestions_Final_Clearedversion32910.pdf
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Additional resources
Dubberke et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008;29:S81-92
CDI Checklist Example
Abbett SK et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2009;30:1062-9
Cohen et al. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010;31
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Example of Success: UK Experience
http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1274091661838
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Objectives Describe the impact and changing
epidemiology of C. difficile infection (CDI) Discuss the pathogenesis of CDI Review HHS Prevention Targets Discuss Core and Supplemental Strategies for
Prevention of CDI– Contact Precautions– Hand hygiene– Environmental cleaning– Diagnostic testing– Antimicrobial stewardship