Pressure, stress and Performance
-
Upload
tiba-laura -
Category
Documents
-
view
8 -
download
0
description
Transcript of Pressure, stress and Performance
![Page 1: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Psychological well‐being at work: Research evidence and current
issuesProfessor Ivan RobertsonRobertson Cooper Ltd
&Leeds University Business School
![Page 2: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Overview
• Psychological Well‐Being (PWB) – what is it?
• How is it measured?
• What factors (probably) determine PWB – and what do we know about their relationship with PWB?
• Correlates (consequences & causes) of PWBfor Individuals for Organisations
• Current issues
![Page 3: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Current issues
• Employee engagement
• Management & leadership behaviour
• Presenteeism
• Interventions to improve psychological well‐being
![Page 4: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
The elements of psychological well‐being?
• Experiencing pleasant events …feeling good … maximising pleasure ..?
(Hedonic)
• Doing what is worth doing … achieving a goal … feeling good about oneself ..?
(Eudaimonic)
![Page 5: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Psychological well‐being: Emotional aspects
• Positive emotional experiences
– Fredrickson’s (1998) Broaden & Build theory
• Purposeful aspects of well being
“… finding positive meaning may be the most powerful leverage point for cultivating positive emotions during times of crisis.” (Fredrickson et al., 2003, p 374).
![Page 6: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Psychological well‐being: Emotional aspects
• Happiness
Life satisfaction (e.g. Diener et al., 1985)
Happiness (e.g. Oxford Happiness Inventory/Questionnaire, Hills & Argyle, 2002)… cognitive evaluations of well‐being
![Page 7: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Psychological well‐being: Purposeful aspects
• (Carol Ryff, e.g. Ryff & Keyes, 1995)
AutonomyEnvironmental mastery Personal growth Positive relations with others Purpose in life and Self‐acceptance
![Page 8: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Measuring psychological well‐being
• Psychological (Ill) health e.g. General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg and Williams, 1988)
Constant irritability, Difficulty in making decisions, Loss of sense of humour, Constant tiredness, Feeling unable to cope(ASSET, Faragher et al., 2004)
• Positive/negative emotions e.g. PANAS (Watson et al., 1988); Cropanzano & Wright (1999)
Feeling…excited, depressed or unhappy, on top of the world, scared…
![Page 9: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Measuring psychological well‐being …at work
• The affective state that people experience at work
• The extent to which people experience a positive sense of purpose in their work
• Time frame – to distinguish between
Mood, Disposition and Trait
![Page 10: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Measuring psychological well‐being …at work
• Positive Psychological Well‐being (Emotional component):For the terms below, indicate the extent to which you have felt like this during the last three months at work
• very slightly or not at all…a little…moderately…quite a bit…very much
• Inspired • Alert• Excited• Enthusiastic• Determined• Happy• Contented
![Page 11: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Measuring psychological well‐being …at work
• Key elements of goal‐setting theory*:
• Goals and objectives are clear
• Goals are challenging but achievable
• People are committed to achieving goals
• Goals are felt to be worthwhile
*Locke & Latham, 2002
![Page 12: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Measuring psychological well‐being …at work
• Positive psychological well‐being (Sense of Purpose)
• My current job goals are specific
• My job goals and objectives are clear
• I am committed to achieving the goals of my job
• My job goals are challenging
• My job goals are worthwhile
![Page 13: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
What factors influence psychological well‐being at work?
Person SituationWorkNon-work
![Page 14: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
(Five Factor Model)• Openness
intellectually curious, open to new activities, prefer variety and novelty, fantasy & imagination
• Conscientiousnessdependable, prudent, methodical, achievement striving
• Extraversiongregarious, active, assertive, positive emotions
• Agreeablenesssympathetic to others, cooperative, trusting
• Neuroticismemotionally unstable, anxious, irritable, depressed
![Page 15: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Factors outside work
• Respite and recoveryDemanding work ConflictPositive and negative spill over
• Factors that (can) interfere Frequent travelPoor family relationshipsDual career…
• Factors that (can) enhancePositive social or family activitiesLeisure pursuits and hobbies…
![Page 16: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
What workplace factors influence psychological well‐being?
• Demands
• Control
• Support
Johnson & Hall, 1988; De Lange et al., 2003; O’Driscoll & Brough, 2010
![Page 17: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Workplace factors and well‐being
– Demands
– Control
– Relationships
– Change
– Role
– Support
• Resources & Communication
• Control and autonomy
• Work relationships• Work life balance;
Workload• Job security &
change• Pay, benefits & job
conditions
- Demands- Control- Support - Change- Role- Reward & contribution
![Page 18: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
(Individual) Correlates of psychological well‐being
• higher cardiovascular risk
• higher weight and waist‐hip ratios
• higher HbAlc (marker for diabetes)
• lower HDL “good”cholesterol
• poorer neuro‐endocrine regulation
• higher salivary cortisol throughout the day
• poorer immune function
• higher inflammatory markers (IL‐6)
• poorer sleep ‐ longer duration REM ‐ less body movementRyff, Singer and Love, Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London, 2004
![Page 19: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Correlates of psychological well‐being
Positive psychological well‐being associated with:
• Reduced mortality in healthy and sick populations
• Lower rate of mortality from heart disease
• Lower rate of mortality in patients with other diseasesMeta‐analysis of 35 studies
Chida & Steptoe, Psychosomatic Medicine 2008
![Page 20: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Psychological well‐being: risks‐benefits to individuals
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
% Colds
Positive W/beingscoresModerateW/Being scoresLow W/Beingscores
Cohen et al., Psychosomatic Medicine, 2003
![Page 21: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Organisational risks‐benefits
• Boorman review (2009)*Health & well‐being related to: MRSA, Patient satisfaction, Agency spend
• Harter, Schmidt and Keyes (2003) Nearly 8,000 separate business units in 36 companies engagement/well‐beingcorrelated with business unit performance (sickness‐absence, customer satisfaction, productivity, employee turnover, etc…)
*www.nhshealthandwellbeing.org/FinalReport.html
![Page 22: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Organisational risks‐benefitsSome studies:
• Donald et al., (2005) –almost a quarter (23%) of variance in employee productivity (sample of 16,000UK employees) is explained by ‐ Psychological well‐being‐ Perceived commitment of organisation to employee‐ Resources and communications
• Cropanzano and Wright (1999) Five year longitudinal study of psychological well‐being and performance. Strong correlation between well‐being and work performance
![Page 23: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Organisational outcomesProductivityLow sickness absenceLow employee turnoverAttractive to recruitsCustomer/user/patient satisfaction
Individual outcomesProductivity & satisfactionGood citizenshipHealth & well-being
Key workplace factors that influence
psychological well-being?
•Psychological well-being (& Employee engagement)
![Page 24: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Resources and Communication
Control
Work Relationships
Work Life Balance; Workload
Job Security& Change
Pay, Benefits & Job conditions
Psychological well-being
&coping
behaviour
Outcomes
ProductivityLow sickness
absenceLow employee
turnoverAttractive to
recruitsCustomer/user/
patient satisfaction
![Page 25: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
How does it work?
People higher on psychological well‐being• Show greater flexibility and originality• Respond better to unfavourable feedback • Make more positive judgements about others• Show higher levels of “Engagement”• Are more productive• Are likely to live longer … be sick less often … and have happier work and home life
e.g. Lyubomirsky, King & Diener, 2005
![Page 26: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
The Well-Being Reservoir
Respect & attention
Learning & Development Fair rewards
Resources & communications
Work relationships
Balanced Workload
Job Security & Change
Job conditionsControl & Autonomy
![Page 27: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Current issues
• Employee engagement
• Management & leadership behaviour
• Presenteeism
• Interventions to improve psychological well‐being
![Page 28: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Employee engagement – Work involvement (“Flow”) models
Researchers – Schaufelli et al.
• Absorption (full concentration, happily engrossed in work)
• Vigour (high energy and mental resilience)
• Dedication (sense of significance, pride, challenge)
![Page 29: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Employee engagement – positive job & work attitude models
Practitioners ‐ Towers Perrin (David Macleod)
• Harnessing Discretionary Effort
• “Going the extra mile”
Researchers – Robinson et al.
• Organisational citizenship
• Organisational commitment
• Job/role commitment
![Page 30: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
A narrow view of engagement
Discretionary effort
Organisational citizenship
Commitment
Attachment
Sense of purpose
![Page 31: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
A wider view
Discretionary effort Psychological
well-being
Organisational citizenship
Positive emotions
Sense of purpose
Commitment
Energy
Attachment
Resilience
Energy
![Page 32: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Results: Engagement & PWB
Productivity“Narrow” Engagement (Job Satisfaction, Commitment, Citizenship, Attachment)
(.20)
(.41)Productivity“Sustainable”
Engagement(i.e. including psychological well-being) N~9,000 people – across 12 different
organisations
![Page 33: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Management & leadership
• Quality of relationship with manager predicts employee turnover (Griffeth et al., 2000 – meta‐analysis)
• Management/leadership behaviour related to:BurnoutHealth complaintsPsychiatric disturbance“…this provides additional evidence that supervisor behaviour can affect employee well‐being and suggests that those seeking to create healthier workplaces should not neglect supervision.” (Gilbreath and Benson, 2004)
![Page 34: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Study design
• SampleTotal N = 800Leaders=79
• MeasuresLeaders:(i) Personality NEO‐PI‐R (Five factor model)Workgroups:(i) Workplace factors (ii) Psychological well‐being
• Research questions
(i) Relationships between leader personality and workgroup PWB
(ii) Mechanism for leader personality influencing workgroup PWB
![Page 35: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Leader personality and workgroup psychological well‐being (PWB)
• Leader Extraversion (Domain) and workgroup PWB r=0.40E1 Warmth r=0.28E4 Activity r=0.35E6 +ve emotions r= 0.30
• Neuroticism (Domain) and workgroup PWBN3 Depression r=‐.31** relationship is negative
• Combined in a multiple regression model
R=0.47
![Page 36: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Possible models
Leader personality
Workgroup well-beingLeader
personality
Resources & Communication Control and autonomyWork relationshipsWork life balance;WorkloadJob security & changePay, benefits & job conditions
Workgroup well-being
![Page 37: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Step 1ASSET factorsR= .73ControlWork Life Balance
PWB
Step 2PersonalityNo increment in R
ASSET factors fully mediate the impact of leader personality on PWB
PWB (mediated) multiple regression analysis
![Page 38: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Types of pressure
• Hindrance pressuresRole ambiguityWork RelationshipsJob insecurity
• Challenge pressuresWorkload Time pressure Job scope Responsibility
![Page 39: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Pressure
Type of
Pressure
Strain Job satisfaction
Commitment Turnover Withdrawal
Hindrance 0.48
Challenge 0.21
![Page 40: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Pressure
Type of
Pressure
Strain Job satisfaction
Commitment Turnover Withdrawal
Hindrance 0.48 ‐0.66 ‐0.63 0.25 0.23
Challenge 0.21 0.24 0.29 ‐0.06 ‐0.02
Podsakoff et al., Jour Appl Psych, 2007
![Page 41: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Presenteeism
• Sickness presenteeism
“Attending work while ill” (Johns, 2009)
“Going to work despite feeling unhealthy” (Dew et al., 2005)
• Wider aspects of presenteeism
Working elevated hours … putting in face time”(Worrall et al., 2000)
“Reduced productivity due to …events that distract one from full productivity” (Whitehouse, 2005)
![Page 42: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Some questions about presenteeism
• How can it be measured?
• How common is it?
• What factors are associated with presenteeism?What are the “causes”
• How can presenteeism be managed?
![Page 43: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Measuring presenteeism
• Indirect measurese.g. Stanford Work Limitations Questionnaire
• Direct measurese.g. “In the past 3 months, have you ever not felt well enough to perform your duties to your normal standard, but attended work regardless?”
• Inferential measurese.g.Health – “Not good” “Good”Sickness absence from work “Yes” “No”
![Page 44: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Prevalence
• Several studies in Scandinavia and elsewhere – e.g. Australia Prevalence:One episode ~ 60%More than one ~ 35%
• Only one UK study (Work Foundation – Ashby & Mardon, 2010) 510 Axa PPP employees – 45% of employees one or more day of sickness presence in the last four weeks.
![Page 45: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
UK: Prevalence of PresenteeismStudy 1
• Analysis carried out on data set of 6,309 participants from 7 organisations over the last 18 months.
• Presenteeism measured using the following question:
“In the past 3 months, have you ever not felt well enough to perform your duties to your normal standard, but attended work regardless?”
• And the results showed:
Yes – 59.7%
No – 40.3%
![Page 46: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Presenteeism – an Inferential measureHealth “Good” Health “Not
good”
No absences Healthy & present Unhealthy and present
“Sickness Presentees”
Some absences Healthy and not always present
Unhealthy and not always present
![Page 47: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
UK prevalence of presenteeismStudy 2
Health “Good”
Health “Not good”
No absences 35% 28%
Some absences
13% 24%
N=39,000 employees from general working population (UK)
![Page 48: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Presenteeism and productivityStudy 2
Health “Good” and present
Health “good” and absent
Presentees Health –“Not good” and absent
Productivity
(previous three months)
90% 88% 84% 82%
What is the real productivity loss for presentees?A loss of 6%?A gain of 2%?A gain of 84% (on days when someone would otherwise be absent)
![Page 49: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Factors associated with presenteeismStudy 1&2
FactorSignificant
relationship?Findings
Marital StatusHighest presenteeism levels when widowed or separatedLowest when single or married
Length of Service Presenteeism steadily increases with LOS
Exercise Higher presenteeism for those who don’t take exercise.
Workload Higher presenteeism for those working more than 50 hours
![Page 50: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
Sources of PresenteeismStudy 1
• Respondents also asked where the pressure to attend work whilst ill comes from:
(% showing ‘firm agreement’ – i.e. either ‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree’)
![Page 51: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
Presenteeism Group
Non‐Presenteeism Group
More trou
bled
Workplace factorsStudy 1
![Page 52: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Outcomes associated with poor psychological well‐being (Study 1 & 2)
FactorSignificant
relationship?Findings
Productivity Reduced productivity
Physical healthPoor physical health
Presenteeism Higher presenteeism
Absenteeism Higher absenteeism
![Page 53: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Presenteeism worse than absenteeism?Study 1
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
0 days off through illness
1 day off through illness
2‐5 days off through illness
6 or more days off through illness
Presenteeism Group
Poorer Physical H
ealth
![Page 54: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Presenteeism worse than absenteeism?Study 1
Poorer Psychological Health
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
0 days off through illness
1 day off through illness
2‐5 days off through illness
6 or more days off through illness
Presenteeism Group
![Page 55: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Managing presenteeism
• Attendance management practices may increase presenteeism*
• Presenteeism increased during downsizing process** – “the evidence here suggested that employees were substituting more than half of legitimate sickness absences with sickness presence”.
• Work factors are significantly correlated with presenteeism**• Presenteeism correlates with health more strongly than
absenteeism**
*Munir, 2008**Calverly, 2007
![Page 56: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Interventions
• Primary, secondary and tertiary levels
• Evaluating what works(NICE, Graveling et al., 2008)
• Good work, good management, emergent rather than prescriptive solutions seem most successful
![Page 57: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
ReferencesFredrickson et al., 2003
Fredrickson, B.L. (1998) What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2, 300‐319.
Fredrickson et al., 2003, p 374Fredrickson, B.L., Tugade, M.M.,Waugh, C.E. and Larkin, G.R. (2003) What Good Are Positive Emotions in Crises? A Prospective Study of Resilience and Emotions Following the Terrorist Attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 365‐376
Life satisfaction (e.g. Diener et al., 1985)Diener, E., Emmons, R.A., Larsen, R.J., Griffin, G. (1985) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 48, pp. 94‐105
Hills & Argyle, 2002Hills, P. and Argyle M. (2002) The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well‐being. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 1073–1082
Carol Ryff, e.g. Ryff & Keyes, 1995Ryff, C.D. and Keyes, C.L.M. (1995) The structure of psychological well‐being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719‐727
![Page 58: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
ReferencesGoldberg, D.P. and Williams, P. (1988) The users’ guide to the General Health Questionnaire. Slough: NFER
Nelson
ASSET, Faragher et al., 2004Faragher, E.B., Cooper, C.L. and Cartwright, S. (2004) A shortened stress evaluation tool (ASSET). Stress and Health, 20, 189‐201.
Watson et al., 1988Watson, D., Clark, L. A., and Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of a brief measure of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063‐1070.
Cropanzano & Wright (1999)Cropanzano, R. and Wright, T.A. (1999). A 5‐year study of change in the relationship between well‐being and performance. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 51, 252‐265.
Locke EA, Latham GP. (2002) Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35‐year odyssey. American Psychologist. 2002;57:705‐717.
Ryff, C.D., Singer, B.H. and Love, G.D. (2004) Positive health: connecting well‐being with biology. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 359, 1383‐1394
![Page 59: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
ReferencesChida, Y. and Steptoe, A. (2008) Positive psychological well‐being and mortality: A quantitative review of
prospective observational studies. Psychosomatic Medicine, 70, 741‐756.
Cohen et al., Psychosomatic Medicine, 2003Cohen, S., Alper, C. M., Doyle, W. J., Treanor, J.J., Turner, R. B. (2006) Positive Emotional Style Predicts Resistance to Illness After Experimental Exposure to Rhinovirus or Influenza A Virus. Psychosomatic Medicine. 68, 809‐815.
Harter, Schmidt and Keyes (2003) Harter, J., K, Schmidt, F.L. and Keyes, C.L.M. (2003) Well‐being in the workplace and its relationship to business outcomes: A review of the Gallup studies. In C.L.M. Keyes and J Haidt (Eds) Flourishing, Positive Psychology and the Life Well‐lived. Washington DC, USA: American Psychological Society.
Donald et al., (2005)Donald, I., Taylor, P., Johnson, S., Cooper, C., Cartwright, S. and Robertson, S. (2005). Work environments, stress and productivity: An examination using ASSET. International Journal of Stress Management, 12, 409‐423.
Lyubomorsky, S., King, J. and Diener, E. (2005) The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855.
![Page 60: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
ReferencesGriffeth et al., 2000 – meta‐analysis
Griffeth, R. W., Hom, P. W., & Gaertner, S. (2000). A meta‐analysis of antecedents and correlates of employee turnover: Update, moderator tests, and research implications for the next millennium. Journal of Management, 26, 463–488.
Gilbreath and Benson, 2004Gilbreath, B. and Benson, P. G. (2004) The contribution of supervisor behaviour toemployee psychological well‐being. Work & Stress, 18, 255‐/266
Worrall et al., 2000
Worrall, L., Cooper, C.L., Campbell, F.K. (2000). Surviving redundancy: The perceptions of UK managers. Journal of Managerial Psychology 15 (5), pp. 460‐476
NICE, Graveling et al., 2008 – available on NICE website
(Johns ; Dew, Keefe et al. 2005; Whitehouse 2005; Caverley, Cunningham et al. 2007; Munir, Yarker et al. 2008; Ashby and Mardon 2010)
![Page 61: Pressure, stress and Performance](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022020207/552f3a9755034661188b4567/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
ReferencesAshby, K. and M. Mardon (2010). Why do employees come to work when ill? An investigation into sickness
presence in the workplace. London, UK, The Work Foundation.
Caverley, N., J. Cunningham, et al. (2007). "Sickness presenteeism, sickness absenteeism, and health following restructuring in a public service organization." Journal of Management Studies 44(2): 304‐319.
Dew, K., V. Keefe, et al. (2005). "'Choosing' to work when sick: Workplace presenteeism." Social Science & Medicine 60(10): 2273‐2282.
Johns, G. "Presenteeism in the workplace: A review and research agenda." Journal of Organizational Behavior31(4): 519‐542.
Munir, F., J. Yarker, et al. (2008). "Sickness absence management: Encouraging attendance or 'risk‐taking' presenteeism in employees with chronic illness?" Disability and Rehabilitation: An International, Multidisciplinary Journal 30(19): 1461‐1472.
Whitehouse, D. (2005). "Workplace presenteeism: How behavioral professionals can make a difference." Behavioral Healthcare Tomorrow 14: 32.