Preserving Art and the Environment

through Sustainable Museum Buildings

by

Sara L. Frantz

May 25, 2007

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

in

Museum Studies

in the

School of Education and Liberal Arts

at

John F. Kennedy University

Approved: Department Chair Date

i

Acknowledgements

This Master’s degree required 196 trips between Reno, Nevada, to

Berkeley, California. The mileage averaged 440 miles per trip resulting in

86,240 miles traveled over the Sierra Nevada Mountains. This was

probably the least sustainable way I could have ever obtained my Master’s

degree, but it cemented the relationship between Roger Frantz, my friend,

savior, and now my husband, as he drove every single of those 86,240

miles. He jokes about writing a book about every pothole between Reno

and Berkeley. But really, this is about dedication.

Without the dedication and belief of certain individuals, none of

this could have been accomplished. Marjorie Schwarzer, Department

Chair of the Museums Studies Program, taught me that support and

encouragement are irreplaceable. Susan Spero, Associate Chair,

Department Chair of the Museums Studies Program, taught me that

enthusiasm and enjoyment are admirable.

Then there are those individuals that took time out of their busy

lives to educate me, read the thesis draft, or even both. I would love to

thank my readers: Ruth Berson, Deputy Director for Programs and

Collections for San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and Garth Elliot,

Engineer for Nevada Museum of Art. I would also like to thank my

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interviewees: Robert Workman, Executive Director of Crystal Bridges

Museum of American Art in Bentonville, Arkansas; Dan Ruby, Associate

Director of Fleischmann Planetarium and Science Center, Reno, Nevada;

Joseba Zulaika, Professor for the Center for Basque Studies at University

of Nevada, Reno; Alina Remba, Professor for John F. Kennedy

University, Berkeley California, and contract painting conservator for San

Francisco Museum of Modern Art; Steven High, former Director/CEO of

Nevada Museum of Art, Reno, Nevada, currently Director of Telfair

Museum of Art, Savannah, Georgia; Lauren Siegel, Executive Director of

Nevada Econet, Reno, Nevada; Dietmar Lorenz, Associate Architect for

DSA Architects, Berkeley, California; and Jeremy Fisher, Project

Manager and Green Building Coordinator of Canyon Construction,

Moraga, California; Garth Elliot, Engineer for Nevada Museum of Art,

Reno, Nevada; and Richard McRay, Vice President of Engineering,

Advanced Ion Beam Technology, Inc., Danvers, Massachusetts.

Finally, I would like to thank my mother, Carol Juhl, for instilling

in me a love for museums from an early age.

Table of Contents

Executive Summary 1 Project Plan 7

Purpose of Study 7 Research Questions and Objectives 7 Methodology 8 Limitations of Methodology 16 Literature Review 21

Global Warming & Museums 21 Art Museum Architecture: A Brief History 29

Art Conservation 39 Renewable Energy 49

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) 56 Building Strategies 59 Lighting 66 Concluding Thoughts 71

Findings 73 Patagonia Distribution Center 74 Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences 89 California Academy of Sciences 88 Conclusion and Recommendations 94

Glossary 108 Bibliography 117 Appendices 129

Appendix A 129 Appendix B 135 Appendix C 141

Product 151

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Executive Summary

Bureaucracy defends the status quo long past the time when the quo has lost its status.

~ Laurence J. Peter

While humanity lives on, the environmental bottom of our world is

falling out. The estranged relationship civilization has established with

the natural world is yielding negative results, often in the form of

catastrophe such as Hurricane Katrina that made landfall on August 29,

2005 and devastated central Gulf Coast states of the United States, or the

tsunami of December 26, 2004 that inundated the coasts of Indonesia,

India, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives.

Less visible than these obvious disasters are other apparently small

changes that create ominous consequences. In the last century, the sea

level has risen five to six inches. Rising temperatures are causing portions

of Greenland and the Antarctic ice sheets to melt – thus exacerbating the

rise of the sea, which in turn increases salinity of ground water and surface

water.1

The cause of these climatic changes is attributed to greenhouse

gases emitted into the atmosphere through burning of fossil fuels,

agricultural and industrial activities, emissions from livestock, and decay

1 http://epa.gov/climatechange/effects/coastal/index.html, accessed May 15, 2007.

3

of organic waste, all processes that create carbon dioxide, methane, and

nitrous oxide. These greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation and trap

it in the earth’s atmosphere. They have increased about 25 % since 1850,

which coincides with the occurrence of large-scale industrial development.

In the United States, industry is responsible for 25 % of annual carbon

dioxide emissions, transportation is responsible for 27 %, but the largest

producer is buildings, which are responsible for 48 % of annual carbon

dioxide emissions.2

Museums are beginning to respond to this global crisis. In 2006,

the National Building Museum created an exhibition titled “The Green

House: New Directions in Sustainable Architecture.” This exhibition

highlighted a full scale replica of the Glidehouse, a residence that requires

no electricity from the grid, is made of non-toxic components, and features

an on-demand water heater.3 In an article for the September/October 2006

edition of Museum News Sarah Brophy and Elizabeth Wylie report that “in

the last decade 20 or more organizations under the museum umbrella have

added green buildings or were born green.”4 The 2007 American

Association of Museums Annual Meeting included a session called

“Creating the Green” Museum: Making Museum Matter for the

2 http://www.architecture2030.org/building_sector/index.html, accessed May 15, 2007. 3 Sonja Carlborg. “Green Living.” Museum News, September/October 2006, 31. 4 Sara Brophy and Elizabeth Wylie. “It’s Easy Being Green: Museums and the Green Movement.” Museum News, September/October 2006, 40.

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Community Sustainability.” Despite this recent dialog about sustainability

issues, museums often cite economic and environmental control barriers to

creating environmentally sustainable buildings. The economic barrier is

the subject of a Ph.D. dissertation by John W. Mogge Jr. of Georgia

Institute of Technology, Breaking Through the First Cost Barriers of

Sustainable Planning, Design, and Construction. Mogge notes that “The

general thinking within the U.S. construction market was that the bearer of

a construction requirement desiring it to be accomplished as a green

project should be prepared to pay a premium for the delivery of the work

in that manner.”5 However, as the construction and architecture industries

become more familiar with sustainable building practices, it is slowly

being absorbed into the building paradigm. As that process occurs, the

cost of sustainable building will decrease to the point where sustainable

systems will be considered much more viable.

Although many types of museums and archival organizations such

as libraries, archives, science museums, and natural history museums have

specialized environmental controls for collections, art museums in

particular cite the highly specialized light and atmospheric controls as an

impediment to sustainable building. A recent article by Charmaine Picard

quotes the cost factor and the environmental controls necessary for 5 John W. Mogge Jr. “Breaking Through the First Cost Barriers of Sustainable Planning, Design, and Construction.” (Ph. D. diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2004), 3.

5

collections care as the two reasons art museums choose not to build

green.6

The purpose of this Master’s project is to focus on sustainable

building practices and the special needs of art museums. In order to

ascertain this information, I conducted an extensive literature review, and

in-depth interviews. I also performed three site visits to three highly

specialized sustainable buildings. Each building was chosen because of its

physical site, purpose and usage, and the application of sustainable

technology.

The following paper is divided into three main sections: a literature

review, findings, and conclusions and recommendations. The first section,

the extended literature review, focuses on several sub-themes: 1) global

warming and the role of museums regarding sustainable architecture, 2)

art conservation especially light and atmospheric needs, and 3) renewable

energy, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design sustainable

building guidelines, and sustainable building strategies.

The second section of this project describes my three site visits

using five LEED guidelines to frame the results: sustainable sites, water

efficiency, energy & atmosphere, materials & resources, and indoor

environmental quality. The sites are: Patagonia Incorporated, a warehouse 6 Charmaine Picard. “Why it Pays to Go Green,” The Art Newspaper 176 (January 2007): 31.

6

facility located in the high desert of Reno Nevada; The Tahoe Center for

Environmental Sciences, a Sierra Nevada College campus building that

houses classrooms, offices, science laboratories and an exhibition space,

located in Tahoe alpine forest; and the California Academy of Sciences,

located in San Francisco.

The final section offers conclusions and recommendations based

upon the site findings. This research revealed that most sustainable

building practices are applicable to art museum needs, but some practices

do not currently fit within conservation needs as set forth by museums for

maintaining collections. For example, natural ventilation, which

encourages flushing non-filtered external air through the building via

natural means, is not a viable practice for art museums. The use of natural

ventilation also allows the building’s internal temperature to fluctuate

more widely than the accepted practice of 70° ± 2°. Overall, however,

most sustainable building practices are applicable to art museum buildings

and need not serve as an impediment to building sustainably.

In order to disseminate these findings, I will present my findings at

Sierra Nevada College in September 2007, and I will summarize my

findings and recommendations in an article to be submitted to Collections:

A Journal for Museum and Archives Professionals.

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Project Plan

At first people refuse to believe that a strange new thing can be done. Then they begin to

hope it can be done. Then they see it can be done. Then it is done and all the world

wonders why it was not done centuries ago.

~ Frances Hodgson Burnett

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this project was to analyze the intersection between

two highly specialized fields, sustainable building practices and the highly

specialized environmental needs for art museum buildings for the purpose

of art conservation. These environmental needs include constant and

consistent temperature and humidity control as well as protection from

ultraviolet light. My goal is to bring these fields more closely together so

that art museums can build sustainable facilities that simultaneously cause

less harm to the environment than current building practices while meeting

art conservation needs.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided this study:

1. What is the role of an art museum’s building and how has it evolved? What is sustainable architecture and how has this practice evolved?

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2. What are the issues that deter art museums from building

sustainable buildings and how can these issues be addressed? What sustainable building practices have been successfully implemented in other types of buildings that art museums can draw from?

3. Are existing sustainable building practices and the highly

specialized environmental needs for art conservation incompatible? If not, how can both practices better align?

4. What sustainable products or innovative technology works best

for art museums?

5. What do museum trustees, directors, architects, and engineers need to know about the intersection between art conservation in museums and sustainable building practices in order to build sustainable art museum facilities that meet art conservation needs?

Methodology

Three methodologies were used to complete this project: an in-

depth literature review, site visits to three sustainable building projects,

and interviews with twelve professionals. Approaching the project

through the utilization of these three methods provided in depth

understanding of the fields of sustainable architecture and art

conservation. The site visits complimented and built upon the extended

literature review.

Much has been published about museum architecture, sustainable

architecture, art conservation, alternative and renewable energy, and

9

ecology, thus substantiating the need for an extended literature review.

Most of this written information is current since these topics are presently

generating immense interest. Yet, in my initial preview of these sources,

it has become evident that little has been published about sustainable

architecture specific to museums. An exception was an insightful article

in the September/October 2006 issue of Museum News, “It’s Easy Being

Green: Museums and the Green Movement” by Sarah Brophy and

Elizabeth Wylie. In this article, the authors highlight museums that have

been “born green” or are building additions that employ green technology.

This article also notes that museum buildings are not like office buildings;

museums use twice as much energy than typical office buildings.

Museum HVAC systems (HVAC is the heating, ventilating, and air

conditioning system) provide the constant temperature and humidity

controls that aid in preserving art. These mechanical systems are quite

complex, require constant monitoring, and are the cause of museums’

excessive energy use. In addition, 77% of new and planned museum

projects do not apply for LEED certification, (Leadership in Energy and

Environmental Design) a green building rating system designed by the

U.S. Green Building Council and implemented in August 1998, a point

highlighted by a recent article in The Art Newspaper titled “Why it Pays to

go Green.” This article states that “maintaining the strict conditions

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necessary for collection management is the primary reason museum

officials give for not building green.”7 It became quickly evident that

there is disconnect between the highly specialized fields of sustainable

building practices and art conservation in museums. Individuals

responsible for designing, overseeing, funding, promoting, or initiating the

process of building a new art museum need to have written resources and

examples in the field to draw from.

Another source of literature came from the renewable energy field

and writings about the possible fuel sources that may drive future museum

HVAC systems. In the field of art conservation, a great deal has been

written concerning the environmental controls necessary to maintain and

preserve artwork for future generations. Art conservation is a constantly

changing field as scientific research uncovers more information which is

why any conservation treatment performed upon artwork is designed in

theory to be 100% reversible. Optimally, the first approach to art

conservation is to mitigate the need for any intervention by providing an

environment to house and display artwork that is free from known

mechanisms of deterioration. These destructive mechanisms include

sudden or abrupt variations in temperature and humidity, exposure to light,

7 Charmaine Picard, “Why it Pays to Go Green,” The Art Newspaper 176 (January 2007): 31.

11

and ultimately, exposure to air. Air as a destructive force is the most

difficult to mitigate.

A leader in the conservation field is The Getty Conservation

Institute. The Institute researches art conservation through scientific

research, field projects, and provides education and training through

electronic means and traditional publication. It is this organization that I

feel would be most able to perform the testing required for new or

recycled materials that have appeared in sustainable buildings. However,

this thesis concentrates upon the need to provide a controlled environment

to slow the deterioration of artwork.

Because the literature uses much technical language, most of

which is unique to the fields of sustainability and art conservation, I

prepared a glossary of terms that can be found on page 109 of this

document. The sustainable building field is continually changing due to

experimentation in green building technology and scientific discoveries

about the environment. The understanding of a building as a “whole

system” combined with application of green technology in sustainable

buildings offers opportunity for case studies that assess the successes and

failures of new technologies and ideas through application. I chose to visit

three sustainable building projects to see “theory in action.” Of these

three projects, two were non-museum projects located in the Reno/Tahoe

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area: Patagonia Incorporated’s Distribution Center in Reno, Nevada; and

The Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences located in Incline Village,

Nevada. The third project is a science museum, the California Academy

of Sciences. What follows, is a brief introduction to each facility and its

importance to this project.

The Reno/Tahoe area of Nevada, the area in which I currently

reside, has two sustainable building projects that have obtained LEED-NC

(LEED New Construction) certification. The first project I visited is

owned by Patagonia Inc., and is a distribution center located in west Reno,

a 171,000 square foot facility that achieved a LEED gold certification

rating on March 1st, 2007. I toured the facility on March 21, 2007. Some

of the building’s strategies that assisted in its gold rating achievement are

a storm water runoff management plan that uses pervious pavers in the

parking lot, detention ponds, and underground separation tanks, while

simultaneously planting native plants that require little water. Due to the

location of the building in high altitude desert, the architects used a white

roof membrane to mitigate heat retention, a night flush ventilation system

that takes advantage of cool night temperatures, and exterior light fixtures

that produce zero light beyond the property. As water efficiency is

essential in the desert, waterless urinals and water efficiency toilets were

installed. As a big proponent of recycling, the company used 10%

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recycled materials, 50% materials produced within 500 miles of the

facility, and certified sustainable wood. Finally, all possible materials

produced and used in daily operations are recycled, and the building has a

monitoring system for the building systems, a hybrid car for business use,

and uses non-toxic products for cleaning. Many of the strategies used by

this company turned out to be directly applicable to museum buildings.

The Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences, which opened with

great fanfare on October 14, 2006, is a $33 million dollar three story

building project created through collaboration between University of

California, Davis and Sierra Nevada College in Incline Village, Nevada.

The bottom floor houses the Thomas J. Long Foundation Education

Center that has a venue specifically designed for education and outreach to

school-age children and the general public. It currently seeks LEED gold

certification but has amassed enough points to possibly obtain platinum

level. Awaiting a certification award by the USGBC (United States Green

Building Council) this building boasts recycled “blue jean” denim

insulation, rooftop electricity producing photovoltaic panels, heat recovery

systems, rain and snow melt fed low flow toilets and waterless urinals, air-

cooled water radiant air conditioning, radiant heat, and uses Trex

(Recycled plastic and wood) for its outdoor enclosures. I toured this

facility on March 20, 2007.

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The California Academy of Sciences’ new facility designed by

Architect Renzo Piano in collaboration with Gordon Chong & Partners, is

a 370,000 square foot facility that houses the Morrison Planetarium, the

Steinhart Aquarium, and the Natural History Museum. It is currently

under construction and has an anticipated opening date of fall 2008. It is

seeking LEED platinum certification and if it achieves this rating, it

anticipates becoming the tenth building in California to achieve this rating

and the 23rd in the United States. Amazingly, 100% of the old building

materials were recycled in the first step towards achieving the platinum

rating.

The most visible sustainable feature of this new facility is perhaps

its most invisible, the living roof. This living roof will prevent two

million gallons of rainwater per years from becoming storm water run-off,

which carries contaminates into ecosystems, and will be planted with nine

native California species that will not require artificial irrigation.

The footprint of the new Academy returns almost one acre of green

space back to its Golden Gate Park, as it lessens its ecological footprint,

quite literally. Other strategies for footprint reduction come from efforts

to reclaim water, use renewable energy, and make use of natural lighting

through daylight and outside views, while simultaneously using

automating dimming that adjusts interior lighting based on exterior

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daylight levels, and the use of photovoltaic cells to produce 213,000

kilowatts of electricity per year. This facility also takes advantage of the

availability of recycled blue jeans for insulation, which does not contain

formaldehyde, a toxin known to exist in regular insulation.

The temperature and humidity control system is aided by openings

in the roof domes that draw in cool air from below and exhale warm air

out the roof. The California Academy of Sciences will maintain strict

environmental humidity controls in specified areas within the museum. I

toured the construction site on May 11, 2007.

These research methodologies were selected after eight

preliminary interviews with professionals in the museum field, the

sustainable building field, and art conservation field. My interviewees

included Robert Workman, Executive Director of Crystal Bridges in

Bentonville, Arkansas; Dan Ruby, Associate Director of Fleischmann

Planetarium and Science Center, Reno, Nevada; Joseba Zulaika, Professor,

Center for Basque Studies at University of Nevada, Reno; Alina Remba,

Instructor for John F. Kennedy University, Berkeley California, and

contract painting conservator for San Francisco Museum of Modern Art,

San Francisco, California; Steven High, former Director/CEO of Nevada

Museum of Art, Reno, Nevada, currently Director of Telfair Museum of

Art, Savannah, Georgia; Lauren Siegel, Executive Director of Nevada

16

Econet, Reno, Nevada; Dietmar Lorenz, Associate Architect for DSA

Architects, Berkeley, California; and Jeremy Fisher, Project Manager and

Green Building Coordinator of Canyon Construction, Moraga, California.

Limitations of Methodology

The intention of this project is to introduce and discuss the

intersection between two highly specialized fields: art conservation and

sustainable architecture. As mentioned above, I conducted site visits to

three buildings that are completed and fully operable or in the case of

California Academy of Sciences, in the construction phase. The choice of

sites was limited by time constraints, financial resources, and travel

logistics to the Reno, Nevada, South Lake Tahoe, California, and the San

Francisco Bay Area. In addition, I did not review construction documents

or talk to contractors, but rather look a broad look at application of

sustainable building technologies and materials specific to each site.

While acknowledging that I conducted site visits, it is important to

recognize that the base of sustainable architecture is the physical site. The

continental United States includes a myriad of physical terrain and

climates that make solutions for sustainable building dependent upon these

specifics. Therefore, all possible proposed solutions cannot be applied in

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a universal manner. Indeed, one of the costs of building green is the

attention required to the specifics of the physical site for each building.

Architects and designers must include in a holistic approach that addresses

unique variables such as temperature, humidity, soil composite,

availability of natural resources and energy sources, and exposure to

possible natural disaster such as earthquakes, fire, or flooding, etc. As

Ken Yeang explains in his book Designing with Nature, “…each location

is ecologically heterogeneous.”8

This project is limited to new construction. Retrofitting existing

construction with sustainable technology is a completely different

discussion that would serve as an excellent topic in its own right, but will

not be addressed in this thesis. Furthermore, any discussion of LEED

(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) a program launched by

the U.S. Green Building Council to promote a whole building approach to

design and sustainability in order to reduce negative environmental

impact, refers only to LEED-NC, which is LEED for new construction.

This topic has focused upon art museums. The need to address the

limitations of all collections that require special environmental controls,

such as libraries, archives and other museums with collections such as

8 Ken Yeang, Designing with Nature: The Ecological Basis for Architectural Design. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995), np.

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natural history museums is not addressed. I also did not analyze specific

costs as well as how decisions to amortize costs impact green building

projects. For example, Crystal Bridges Museum of Art in Bentonville,

Arkansas, had planned to build an iconic building that utilized geothermal

energy for their HVAC needs until a miscalculation was discovered that

increased the cost of the system so dramatically, the entire concept of

using geothermal design was tabled for further review. The cost of

building sustainably as an impediment and the length of time needed to

amortize these costs offer another deciding factor in the decision to build

sustainably. This factor deserves further study, but falls outside the scope

of this project.

The question of whether innovative sustainable building practices,

many of which are highly experimental, can potentially harm the long

term conservation of artwork does not fall within the scope of this project

although it is highly pertinent. New techniques and products are

continually tested in the art conservation field. The testing of new products

is best performed by those with appropriate training and the resources to

conduct this research, such as The Getty Conservation Institute, as

mentioned earlier.

This thesis project does not address the educational aspects of

green technology and sustainable building construction. It is beneficial for

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art museums to communicate their commitment to renewable energy

sources and sustainable building practices to their visitors since the

evolution of sustainable building emanates from the process of cultural

change that modifies the relationship between humanity and the

environment as an ongoing dynamic. This ongoing dynamic cultivates

new perspectives and creates opportunity for change and museums would

be imprudent not to promote this educational perspective. However,

addressing this exciting public educational opportunity is beyond the

scope of this project.

This topic will focuses solely upon sustainable building for art

museums. There are many other sustainable opportunities within the

museum field opportunities such as recycling within the office

environment, recycling exhibition materials, conserving fuel, power and

water, minimizing waste, encouraging visitors to use alternative

transportation, etc. These efforts have been widely reported in other

venues. As far back as 1971, Museum News published an article written

by Malcolm B. Wells on these themes as the cornerstone of sustainable

museum practices.

The current political debate regarding global warming is

accelerating. For example, the Reno Gazette Journal, the local paper for

the Reno/Sparks area of Northern Nevada, has featured articles about

global warming and sustainable building with increasing frequency during

the last year. The top headline on January 19th, 2007 read “Reno Joins

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Alliance to Reduce Emissions,” which is an article about The Reno City

Council joining a nationwide coalition of cities to reduce global warming,

essentially supporting the Kyoto Protocol that President George W. Bush

has refused to sign. A topic as vast as the political nature of global

warming is so complex that the thesis topic I am addressing is merely a

small factor contributing to a much broader issue. However, any project

large or small is ultimately the sum of its parts. Therefore, this project

seeks to explore the role art museums can play in addressing the

overriding concerns of global warming and ecological balance through

sustainable building while not sacrificing their raison d’etre: the art.

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Literature Review

“The story of architecture and building is a story of man’s struggle with nature.”

~ Renzo Piano, Architect, 1999

Global Warming & Museums

The signs of global warming are all around us. Reminders are

emblazoned across the pages of daily newspapers across the nation, and

the topic has become incorporated into mainstream entertainment media.

Examples include the weather channel’s program hosted by Dr. Heidi

Cullen called The Climate Code, designed to educate their audience about

global warming; the award winning movie “Happy Feet” which ended

with an environmental message designed to draw attention to the issue of

over-fishing in Antarctica; and the Academy Award winning film “An

Inconvenient Truth” starring former vice-president Al Gore which is

dedicated to the topic of climate change and global warming. Newsweek’s

July 17th, 2006 cover story was “The New Greening of America: From

Politics to Lifestyle, Why Saving the Environment is Suddenly Hot.” This

article essentially popularized the words “green” and “sustainable,” and

reflected increasing concerns about the environment and its degradation,

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implicating greenhouse gas emissions and unsustainable living practices as

the cause.

What is the driving force behind the recent world attention toward

the issue of global warming? Gore reminds us that “what changed in the

U.S. with Hurricane Katrina was a feeling that we have entered upon a

period of consequences…” Andrew Revkin, environmental reporter for

the New York Times reminded listeners in a February 7, 2007 video

presentation that global warming has become an issue of legacy more than

policy.9 Global warming is an issue that is not in the future; it is now.

The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) an

organization formed in 1988 to assess the risks of climate change released

their fourth world climate assessment report on February 2, 2007. This

report is a comprehensive assessment of peer-reviewed scientific and

technical research of over 600 scientists around the world. According to

the IPCC, “global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane

and nitrous oxide have increased markedly as a result of human activities

since 1750, and now far exceed pre-industrial values.”10 This same report

states that eleven of the last twelve years (1995 – 2006) rank among the

9 Climate Report Predicts Rising Seas, New York Times, February 6, 2007. Available from http://video.on.nytimes.com/, accessed on February 6, 2007. 10 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, (Switzerland: IPCC, February 2007), Available from http://www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf, accessed February 10, 2007, 2.

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twelve warmest years of global surface temperature since 1850. Another

sobering statistic is IPCC’s belief that the Panel is 90% positive that global

warming has been caused by human activity.

Global warming has caused the average temperature of the ocean

to increase to depths as far as 3,000 meters, since the ocean has absorbed

80% of the heat added to the climate system since 1961.11 This warmth

causes seawater to expand, which contributes to an overall rise in sea level

compounded by glacier and snow cover melting around the world. While

increases are measured in millimeters, the overall result – including the

disruption of the ocean ecosystem – can produce disastrous results.

Changes in sea temperature can be linked to more intense and longer

periods of drought in some areas of the world, while other areas are

experiencing significantly increased precipitation, including an increase of

cyclone activity in North America. Even more alarming is that warming

reduces land and ocean uptake of carbon dioxide, increasing the emissions

that remain in the atmosphere, which in turns leads to an acidification of

the world’s oceans. The IPCC also projects major shifts in world

precipitation patterns, causing precipitation increases in high altitude land

while simultaneously causing decreased precipitation in subtropical land.

11 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, (Switzerland: IPCC, February 2007), Available from http://www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf, accessed February 10, 2007, 7.

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While all of these statistics may seem to lean towards an alarmist

tendency, the IPCC predicts that global warming is a cycle that has been

put into motion and that its severity and magnitude depends upon the

amount of continued carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. In

attempting to predict future ramifications of global warming, the IPCC has

developed six scenarios to predict the effects of global warming based

upon factors such as economic growth, population statistics, technological

change in the energy system, but do not include climate initiatives, such as

the Kyoto Protocol, an amendment to the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change.

Other concerns related to global warming include an exploding

world population. In 1959, the world’s population was 3 billion; by 1999,

it had doubled to 6 billion and by 2042, the estimated world population

will be 9 billion. As developing countries enter the industrialized age,

particularly those with large populations such as China and India,

excessive carbon dioxide emissions and dependence upon fossil fuels will

increase exponentially. As humanity spans the globe, building structures,

and loss of natural habitat coupled with species extinction continues to

occur at a rapid pace. The stress humanity has placed upon our fragile

ecosphere is alarming. How is the earth to support this drain upon its

natural resources?

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Global warming is the result of a long legacy. Humankind has

always seen nature as a force to be dominated or controlled. Coupled with

this concept was the belief that humankind’s activities could never upset

the earth’s ecosystems. The Industrial Revolution was based upon the

development of technology to mass produce products that were affordable,

desirable, and could be produced cheaply and quickly. Domination of

nature was its cornerstone. This revolution was based upon a perceived

endless supply of “natural capital” and “neither the health of natural

systems, nor an awareness of their delicacy, complexity, and

interconnectedness, [were] part of the industrial design agenda.”12

These recent concerns about the environment and its degradation

have planted seeds for the next industrial revolution – not a revolution of

mass production based on the perception of infinite natural resources – but

a redesign revolution based on redesigning and rebuilding the methods,

processes, and paradigms pioneered during in the first industrial

revolution. The concept of the redesign revolution is thoroughly explored

in the book Cradle to Cradle, by architect William McDonough, a leader

in sustainable building design, and scientist Michael Braungart. This

volume provides an eye-opening point of view that requires a complete

rethinking of humanity’s role and relationship with our planet. One major 12 William McDonough and Michael Braungart. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. (North Point Press, New York, 2002), 26.

26

concept that this redesign revolution addresses is the role buildings play in

our lives and our environment.

What role can museums play in the redesign revolution? Will the

role of the museum expand from presenter of history, art, or science to

explorer of current issues in these fields? Does the word “museum” really

signify the past or does it embody the present – and perhaps even the

future? Originally exhibitors of the past, museums have recently been

charged with leading the future by involving themselves with recent

developments in science, or by acquiring artworks before emerging artists

have “hit the big time” and their works are famous. Museums are literally

“moving up in the world.”

With this new function in mind, museums are afforded the

opportunity to educate and become role models for the future. As the

September/October 2006 issue of Museum News article “It’s Easy Being

Green: Museums and the Green Movement” states, “Why shouldn’t

museums – as places of learning, exploration and demonstration, as

models of community-minded behavior – be ahead of the curve?”13 The

authors of this article, Sarah Brophy and Elizabeth Wylie, point out that

there are already many museum facilities built to accomplish just that –

twenty museums have either added green buildings or built new green 13 Brophy, Sarah and Elizabeth Wylie. “It’s Easy Being Green: Museums and the Green Movement.” Museum News, (September/October 2006), 39.

27

buildings in the last decade.14 But are museums really participating

wholeheartedly in the redesign-revolution? They are starting to. In May

2006, the National Building Museum in Washington D.C. opened its

exhibition “The Green House: New Directions in Sustainable Architecture

and Design.” This exhibition explores the relationship between home

design and environmental responsibility by presenting a full-scale replica

of architect Michelle Kaufmann’s Glidehouse, a prefabricated, green

house. Visitors can walk through the Glidehouse to experience and learn

about the five principles of sustainable architecture and the benefits to the

environment. Supplementing the exhibition is a fully developed website

that provides links to green news and information, as well as additional

programming including a lecture series, film series, school programs, a

two day symposia about sustainable home renovation and affordable green

housing, and green activities for children and their families.15

Douglas Worts of the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto, Canada,

discusses the role of museums in his article “Museums and Sustainable

Communities.” Worts writes that museums need to foster “consciousness

within society of the needs and impacts of human life on this planet, as

they work towards meeting the cultural needs of individuals, communities,

14 Brophy, Sarah and Elizabeth Wylie. “It’s Easy Being Green: Museums and the Green Movement.” Museum News, (September/October 2006), 40. 15 http://www.nbm.org/Exhibits/greenHouse2/greenHouse.htm, accessed March 18, 2007.

28

countries, humanity and the environment.”16 He believes that museums

need to reinvent themselves in more relevant form – “negotiating and

facilitating our collective futures” through a shift in vision and

philosophical position. A manifestation of this shift in philosophy is

sustainable building: simultaneously a concept, product, and an operation.

Museums are uniquely positioned to assist in this paradigm

redefinition. Not only can museums teach the public about sustainable

building, but they can also practice sustainable building practices.

Opportunity abounds. As John Hazelhurst of the Colorado Springs

Business Journal writes “While the last decade of the 20th century likely

will be remembered for the Internet boom, the first decade of the 21st just

might be remembered for … the art museum boom.”17 But have art

museums considered building green?

16 Douglas Worts. “On Museums, Culture, and Sustainable Communities” Available from http://www.chin.gc.ca/Resources/Icom/English/Collection/e_texte_d.html, accessed January 20, 2007, 2. 17 John Hazelhurst, “Museum Growth, Rehab Fueling Building Boom,” (Colorado Springs Business Journal. June 30, 2006). Available from http://www.csbj.com/story.cfm?id=9338&searchString=art%20and%20museum%20and%20boom, accessed February 5, 2007.

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Art Museum Architecture: A Brief History

The history of art museum architecture and museum philosophy is

interrelated. Both of which undergone drastic changes over the past two

centuries. Early museums were reserved for the aristocracy in Europe and

the concept of the public museum wasn’t universally established until

1793 when the Louvre’s Grande Galerie in Paris became the world’s first

national collection. The first building built expressly as a public museum

was Karl Friedrich Schinkel’s Altesmuseum in Berlin. The building’s

purpose was to “give people the space where they could contemplate

works of aesthetic purity without forgetting their obligation to the

everyday world.”18 So began a history of art museum building that

resonated with authority and dominating presence drawing from the past

to establish its ties to long established values.

In the United States, an architectural style known as Beaux-Arts

was routinely chosen for civic art museum buildings. Also known as

Classical Revival, this style was based upon ideas advanced at the École

des Beaux-Arts in Paris that combined motifs drawn from various ancient

architectural traditions of the Greeks and Romans, the Renaissance, and

Baroque tradition. The resulting ensemble was grandiose, elaborate and

18 Marjorie Schwarzer, Riches, Rivals & Radicals: 100 Years of Museums in America. (Washington D.C.: American Association of Museums, 2006), 31.

30

perfectly suited for buildings that needed to offer a sense of aristocratic

pretension. Museums such as the Cooper-Hewitt Museum in New York,

and the Palace of the Legion of Honor in San Francisco are beautiful

examples of the Beaux –Arts style. Perhaps, the most famous American

examples of this architectural style are not museums but libraries such as

New York City’s Public Library.

Beaux-Arts style was predominantly used in the United States

from the end of the Civil War, when the country needed the sense of

permanence that the Classical Revival style offered, to just before World

War II, when the sensibilities of modern society were beginning to

establish themselves. Beaux-Arts architecture began to fall out of style,

and was replaced with two concepts, one new and one old. The first was a

revivalist style that harkened to traditional American architectural style; in

the East, colonial style architecture experienced resurgence while in the

West, Spanish colonial revival architecture experienced a similar

resurgence.

Simultaneously, there was another architectural concept that was

also beginning to take hold in the United States, one fueled by a post-war

economy and a desire for things “modern”, as well as the flight of

European architects to America in the 1930’s. This trend was supported

by the surplus of wartime goods and materials such as concrete, steel, and

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glass, which were cheaper than the materials required to build a Beaux-

arts fortress made of stone, marble, and bronze. Modernism had arrived.

In 1932, an exhibition at MOMA (Museum of Modern Art) called this

style the International Style, since it was a style unconcerned with site and

locale.

The International Style assumed that there was a generic

architectural solution that was appropriate to all people, in all places, at all

times. Following the Swiss Modernist Le Corbusier, the modernist ideal

was "one single building for all nations and climates."19 What is most

notable about this style was that “The buildings of the International Style

were object buildings that had no desire to fit within an existing urban

fabric.”20 This generic approach eventually derailed this architectural

style and Modernism was followed by Post-modernism in the 1970’s.

Post-modernism can be viewed as a reaction to the simple austerity and

insensitivity of Modernism by reviving pluralism and eclecticism. Finally,

in the 1990’s another great museum building boom decade began and

iconic architecture arose to meet museum needs.21

19 Nikos Salingaros, “Darwinian Processes and Memes in Architecture: A Memetic Theory of Modernism”, 2002, Available from http://cfpm.org/jom-emit/2002/vol6/salingaros_na&mikiten_tm.html, accessed April 1, 2007. 20 Arthur Paul Butts, “The Portable Particular: An Integral Theory of Place.” (Ph.D. diss., University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 2004), 9. 21 Marjorie Schwarzer. Riches, Rivals & Radicals: 100 Years of Museums in America. (Washington D.C.: American Association of Museums, 2006).

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Despite the 1990’s building boom that produced such iconic

buildings as SFMOMA (San Francisco Museum of Modern Art), the

Getty, and the Guggenheim Bilbao, art museums are late in arriving on the

eco-architecture scene. Even with a growing emphasis upon sustainable

building, the recent trend among art museums has been to construct

“iconic” buildings, resulting in museum buildings that are “most resistant

to a common denominator and consequently allows architects unusual

freedom to reflect their period.”22 As art museums compete with other

entertainment and cultural pursuits in their quest to attract visitors, an

iconic building and highly visible or famous architect seems to be part of

the formula for success. Catherine Donzel, author of New Museums,

discusses “the current of the theatrical requirements of today’s

museography,”23 when she highlights the antithesis of this concept found

in the new museum of modern art Moderna Museet, in Stockholm,

Sweden. James Wines, in his book Green Architecture, sums up in

several paragraphs the state of art museum architecture today. With

exceptional astuteness, Wines discusses the ascendancy of the art museum

as a cultural icon – one sought after by architects with “unprecedented

fervor” yet he remarks that at the same time “rarely do the sponsors of art

22 Victoria Newhouse, Towards a New Museum. (New York: The Monacelli Press, Inc., 1998), 12. 23 Catherine Donzel, New Museums. (Telleri, Paris, 1998), 106.

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museums demonstrate even a shred of environmental fervor.” Wines

states that art museums’ “negative significance has been to serve as the

opposite of environmental thinking.”24

Wines is supported in his thinking by such edifices as

Spain’s Guggenheim Bilbao. In the late 1980’s, Thomas Krens, Director

of New York’s Guggenheim Museum, began to envision Guggenheim

“franchises” dotting the world and set about globetrotting to make real this

vision. On October 19, 1997, the now world famous iconic building

opened its doors to the public. Located on the edge of the Nervión River,

clad with softly shimmering titanium skin, this vision of otherworldliness

actually disregards the environment. The beauty of the titanium should

not lull the viewer into believing the building is eco-responsible.

Titanium, the main cladding of the building, is one of the most lethal

materials available due to production manufacturing methods and

technology, and the industrial pollution created during its production.

Wines astutely comments that Gehry’s work is the “pinnacle of design-

centered architecture today [that] may also be among the least

conscionable from an ecological standpoint.”25

Architectural critic Mimi Zeiger, in her book New Museums,

specifically explores the “Bilbao-effect” on the invention or reinvention of 24 James Wines, Green Architecture. (Jodidio, Philip, ed. Italy: Taschen, 2000), 216. 25 Ibid., 92.

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the museum, noting that “In a post-Bilbao Effect age, both signature

architecture and the commercial viability it endeavors to achieve are taken

for granted.”26 Zieger’s book focuses on the mesmerizing features of new

museum architecture, and neglects the environmental concerns that these

new buildings might possibly raise, thus furthering the role of art

museums as removed from environmental thinking.

Despite Zeiger’s kind words for Gehry’s influence on the museum

architecture world, Wines’ harsh observation of environmental callousness

has acuity. Gehry’s architecture does not seem to reflect any sense of

ecological stirrings. If there was ever hope of finding eco-friendly

response to the environment in Gehry’s work, it was perhaps best reflected

in Gehry’s own house. By using inexpensive materials in unconventional

ways, Gehry began a renovation project of his house in 1978. The

resulting assemblage of chain link fence, corrugated metal, unfinished

plywood, and glass, leaned on his tradition of transforming humble

inexpensive materials into striking geometric designs, harking back to his

years of designing an inexpensive cardboard furniture line from 1969 –

1973, known as Easy Edges Furniture Line. In this renovation, Gehry

leaned upon the second “R” in the maxim “Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle.”

26 Mimi Zeiger, New Museums, Contemporary Museums around the World. (Rizzoli International Publications Inc., New York, 2005), 15.

35

Unfortunately, this was a likely reflection of restricted personal finances,

rather than an ecological awakening.

The purpose of the Guggenheim as flagship development on the

other hand, was to alter the city’s image, to erase or de-emphasize the

deindustrialization and decline that had ultimately tarnished Bilbao’s

image, associating it with the image of a dying city. The ruins of Altos

Hornos, the blast furnaces located on the banks of the river were the

physical manifestation of the incentive for restoration. This “Bilbao

effect” thrust iconic architecture to the forefront of attention. It threatens

to continue as a trend counter to sustainable architecture. Even now, in

2007, Krens envisions a new Guggenheim museum, set for a new cultural

center in Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates as part of a $27 billion

dollar cultural district known as Cultural District of Saadiyat Island. This

new cultural center would include four museums, a performing arts center,

an art institute, and as many as nineteen art pavilions, as “cross-cultural

pollination.”27 A New York Times article also points out that a large

portion of the plan is devoted to the Guggenheim, “a blunt reminder of

how architecture has been used as a marketing gambit.”

27 Nicolai Ouroussoff, “A Vision in the Desert,” New York Times. (February 1, 2007) Available from http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/01/arts/design/04ouro.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5088&en=96da203ecb9a1fb4&ex=1327986000&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss, accessed February 1, 2007.

36

The same New York Times article highlighting this proposed

cultural center offers a shred of hope. Reflecting a recent trend of art

museum architecture, art museums are beginning to draw from their

physical site and environment “as a basis for finding form.” 28 Architect

Jean Nouvel’s proposed classical museum uses a shallow lacelike dome

over the open air courts, which helps alleviate the intense heat and

sunlight produced in that region. Gehry’s proposed Guggenheim will

draw upon an ancient cooling method derived from traditional Islamic

wind towers that draw hot air up through the interiors, thereby cooling the

spaces.

No one can argue that the subtle forms of the Guggenheim in

Bilbao allude to the history of the site chosen for the building. The former

shipyards and blast furnaces are echoed in the building Gehry designed:

first through the use of titanium for the building’s exterior, which reflects

a multitude of nuanced colors depending upon the weather, time of day,

and lighting. Consider, for example, the image of the building

emblazoned across the cover of the New York Times Magazine on

September 7th, 1997. The image reflected the fiery glow of sunset as if the

building was the reconstituted blast furnaces of Altos Hornos. Secondly,

28 Fred A. Stitt, Ecological Design Handbook: Sustainable Strategies for Architecture, Landscape Architecture, Interior Design, and Planning. (New York: McGraw Hill, 1999), 17.

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the forms of the building are meant to evoke an image of billowing sails,

suggesting an “allusion to ships and fish of the inlet’s maritime heyday.”29

Donzel likens it to a modern cathedral that ends that “age-old quarrel

between the contents and the container by offering, for once, an

appropriate setting.”30

There are other examples of late 20th century art museums that

reflect their physical sites and landscapes. The Miho Museum in Japan,

quietly nestled in the forest reserve area of the Shigaraki Mountains was

designed by I.M. Pei and Kibokan International in 1996. This museum is

80 % underground in order to preserve the natural beauty of the site. The

inner space is designed to bring nature into the space and the resulting

views are inspirational. Light filters into the space through the use of

aluminum filters designed to look like wood.31

The Nevada Museum of Art, in Reno, Nevada, which opened in

May 2003, also took its inspiration from its natural setting. Designed by

Will Bruder, an architect based out of Phoenix, Arizona, is based upon a

magnificent rock formation in the nearby Black Rock Desert. The

Museum’s south-western side which curves both horizontally and

vertically is formed of anthrax-zinc, also known as Quartz-Zinc®, a

29 Justin Crumbaugh, “Last Resorts: Tourist Economies in Contemporary Spain’s Cinema, Narrative, and Culture.” (Ph.D. diss., Kalamazoo College, 1995), 231. 30 Catherine Donzel, New Museums. (Telleri, Paris, 1998),154. 31 http://www.miho.or.jp/ENGLISH/DEFAULT.HTM, accessed February 25, 2007.

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previously unused material for building cladding in the United States.

Anthrax-zinc is easily recycled, has a long life, is non-poisonous, and

requires significantly less energy to refine than other metals traditionally

used in building production. The zinc applied to the south-western wall of

the Nevada Museum of Art stands off the structural building side by

approximately ten inches. This design allows for sun heated air to rise up

and escape harmlessly into the atmosphere instead of allowing it to

penetrate into the building envelope, which would cause additional heating

and cooling load.

Likewise, the Beyeler Foundation building in Basel, Switzerland,

designed by Renzo Piano in 1997, used style “to serve art, and not the

other way around.”32 This building highlights an English style garden and

aquatic garden terraces. The architect responded to the client’s request to

incorporate natural lighting and low energy consumption by creating a

transparency that allows the building’s occupants to view framed exterior

gardens and vistas through transparent glass and colonnades, recalling

distant visions of ancient Roman vistas. A long wall appearing similar to

local sandstone, somewhat reminiscent of a walled garden shields the

museum from traffic noise.

32 Catherine Donzel, New Museums. (Telleri, Paris, 1998), 130.

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Not all of these museums indicate a paradigm shift – one that is

required to change how society understands and views sustainable

building, but they do reflect a new understanding of the role that physical

site plays in architecture. No longer placed on a physical site as a

monument to isolation, art museums are beginning to recognize and

incorporate their ties to the land, certainly a step in the right direction.

However, merging the iconic focus of museum architecture with that of

sustainable architecture seems to be the best strategy art museums could

endorse.

Art Conservation

In The Art Newspaper a January 2007 article titled “Why it Pays to

go Green,” the primary reason art museum officials gave for not building

green was need to maintain the strict environmental conditions necessary

for managing and preserving an art collection.33 As a consequence of

these specific conservation needs, art museums have been less inclined to

explore green building museum options. Just what are these strict

environmental conditions these museum officials speak of?

33 Charmaine Picard, “Why it Pays to Go Green,” The Art Newspaper 176 (January

2007): 31.

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As the Getty Institute discusses in The Nature of Conservation: A

Race Against Time, museums classically have performed four basic

functions: collecting, preserving, conducting research, and presenting or

interpreting their findings to the public.34 Preservation of the collection of

objects is the most primary of these functions.

The science of conservation is relatively new in the museum

world, beginning in the 1920’s. By the 1940’s, the philosophy of

preservation through the prevention of damage prior to the need of repair

was engendered. This concept is the fundamental basis or cornerstone of

conservation, which is the science and art of artifact repair. As Philip R.

Ward declares in The Nature of Conservation, “Restoration is a race

against time for the maximum extension of the life of the material, and

thus that of the work of art.”35

The major causes of object deterioration are environmental;

consisting of atmospheric gases, light, temperature and humidity, all of

which can cause biological and chemical damage. These major causes are

exacerbated by mishandling and inappropriate storage and support

techniques. Damage to artifacts caused by environmental gases, chiefly

air, is extremely difficult to control and usually requires great cost to

34 Philip R. Ward, The Nature of Conservation: A Race Against Time. (Marina del Ray, California: Getty Conservation Institute, 1989), 2. 35 Ibid., 3.

41

construct a housing that replaces air with a different environmental gas

that causes less harm to an object.

Light also poses difficulties because objects must be exposed to

light in order to be viewed. Light damage is cumulative and cannot be

reversed. The type of light and duration of exposure are important factors

in light damage: illuminance plus time equal total exposure. Light is

divided into three sections; ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR).

Most damage to artwork is caused by the UV, which is beyond the human

eye’s ability to see, and the violet/blue and green end of the visible light

spectrum. These light wavelengths cause damage to objects through

photochemical reaction, which can result in damage such as fading,

discoloration, and embrittlement. Damage caused by IR wavelengths and

the orange/red end of the visible light spectrum cause damage through

heat.

Natural light produced by sunlight is full spectrum, which includes

UV, visible, and IR light, and is therefore most damaging to art. To

mitigate this damaging factor, many types of filtering materials are

available to control the most damaging types of light from entering the

galleries. However, it should be noted that the “shelf life” of filtering

materials vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. Artificial lighting also

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produces harmful light rays and many types of filters have been produced

to alleviate light damage from various artificial light sources.

Fluctuations in humidity also damage artwork. Art objects are

created from organic products made of plants and animals, which are

comprised of a great deal of water in their physical makeup. The art

objects made from these natural sources also contain a great deal of

moisture. If moisture is removed from an object, the result could be

cracking, splitting or warping of the object. On the other hand, if too

much moisture is added, the resulting damage could be microbial growth

such as mold or fungi, or swelling and warping of the object. Materials do

not react equally to similar moisture exposures, causing compound

objects, those made up of more than one material type, to potentially crack

or break at the joints.

The potential damage of humidity upon objects is so great that

moisture fluctuations must be controlled in order to preserve objects.

However, moisture does not act alone. A combination of the factors of

moisture and temperature, known as relative humidity, plays a role in the

deterioration of materials. Strict monitoring of temperature and humidity

and their ratio to one another, is necessary to control relative humidity to

prevent artwork damage. Towards this aim, museums use complex

43

heating, air conditioning, and humidification systems to maintain stable

relative humidity conditions within their galleries and art storage areas.

Central to art conservation is art preservation, and the key to

preservation is to maintain constant temperature and humidity control.

These controls are maintained through a system known as HVAC, heating,

ventilation and air conditioning. Actually, the concept of HVAC is quite

simple. Controlled by an energy management control system, a computer

controller, are three systems that work together to adjust the air

temperature. In any system, air needs either to be cooled or heated. As it

is cooled or heated, it needs to be circulated and purified of contaminants.

The heating system is designed to warm the air through heated

water or steam. This hot water or steam is heated through the use of

boilers. Boilers can use a fuel such as gas, coal or oil, or electricity. The

water that is boiled is circulated throughout the system by the use of

electrically run pumps. Boilers can be high temperature, which boil water

at 250° to create steam, or low temperature, which operate at 170° to 200°

to create hot water. The hot water or steam created by the boilers will be

used to heat the air that passes through the air circulation system known as

the air handler.

The air cooling system is designed to cool the air through chilled

water. This water is chilled through the use of a chiller, which is run

44

through the use of electricity. Chillers use refrigerants, which can be a

non-ozone depleting substance, compressors, fans, and a pump system to

chill water. The water is run over fins or coils that contain the refrigerant

in order to cool the water. Naturally, this process warms the refrigerant,

which is then compressed in order to enable its reuse. The heat removed

from the refrigerant is then vented out through exhaust fans located on top

of the unit. This chilled water is then pumped throughout the system

through the use of electric pumps. The chilled water will be used to cool

the air that passes through the air circulation system known as the air

handler.

Each of these water heating and cooling systems has 100%

redundancy to protect against failure. This ensures a system that will not

experience 100% failure when failure occurs in a boiler or chiller. In other

words, each system is produced in duplicate. The chiller has two chiller

units that switch back and forth. Yet, should one half fail, the other half is

100% capable of maintaining the facilities chiller needs until the other half

can be repaired. The same concept is true for the boiler system. The

boiler system has two boilers that switch back and forth. Yet should one

boiler fail, the other boiler is 100% capable of maintaining the facilities

boiler needs until the other one is repaired.

45

Now that the heating and cooling mechanisms have been

addressed, the air must be moved across these systems to be heated or

cooled. This involves air handling units that handle the air volume needed

to create good indoor air quality based upon heating, cooling, and

ventilation loads. Large buildings use several air handling units in order

to accommodate separate floors or zones within a building. Air handlers

generally have two large fans – an intake fan (return air fan or RAF) and

an output fan (supply air fan or SAF). Air enters the air handler though a

system of ducts to the return air fan. It then passes through dampers

which expels to the building exterior a certain percentage of exhaust air

and pulls in a similar amount of exterior or fresh air. This system is in

place to prevent continual circulation of the same air through out the

building, which can result in a CO2 level higher than normal. The air

handling system also maintains positive pressurization of the system,

which prevents the building from pulling in unfiltered outside air thorough

openings in or around windows or doors.

Once the air has passed through the dampers, and has mixed in an

area known as the plenum, it enters the filter section. The Nevada

Museum of Art has three sets of filters in place. The first set of filters is

coarse and called pre-filters, which is actually a misnomer. Pre-filters

filter out 30% to 40% filtration and remove particulates from the air. The

46

second set of filters is carbon filters, which are the filters that remove

airborne contaminants and gasses. Carbon filters themselves produce a

carbon dust that requires the air to pass through a third set of filters which

ideally should be HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filters. These

filters remove the carbon dust created by the second set of filters and

remove 99.97% of airborne particles.

At this point in time, the air level has an appropriate mix of reused

and new air and has passed through all of the filters. Now it is time to

pass the air over the cooling coil unit followed by the heating coil unit.

These coil units are fed by the boiler or chiller systems previously

discussed. Should the air require chilling, the cooling coil unit is on and

the heating coil system is off. And vice versa: should the air need heating,

the cooling coil unit is off and the heating coil unit is on. After the air has

been heated or chilled, it is pulled out of the air handler through the use of

the supply air fan that sends it throughout the ducting system of the

building.

The air handler unit puts out a certain amount of air volume whose

output into occupied spaces is controlled through devices known as

Variable Air Volume Units (VAV Units). These units balance air flow

from room to room and even have heating coils to raise the air temperature

at each point as needed as controlled by the central computer to assure

47

accuracy. These units offer site point control, allowing for fine tuning of

temperature control that museums need for art preservation.

Museums have a further control that most buildings do not. Most

typical office buildings do not have humidity control, although air

conditioning involves the removal of humidity during the cooling process.

Since museum collections require humidity control, humidifiers that are

electric water heaters or boilers are used to create steam. The steam

created is injected into the air stream as it enters the galleries or art storage

areas. This process is also controlled by the central computer system. Just

like the boiler and chiller systems, the humidity system also has 100%

redundancy built into it to prevent failure.

This presents the typical scenario for HVAC in an art museum

building. Clearly, the system uses a great deal of resources and electricity.

Yet, inn terms of achieving sustainability, there many ways to approach

this issue. First, there is fuel type. Some fuel types are considered

sustainable and some are not. Natural gas, geothermal, and solar energy

are considered sustainable because they have a rate of renewal that is

regenerative and cannot be depleted. Oil and electricity are not

considered sustainable because they are finite and cannot be replaced.

However, options to create or purchase sustainable electricity are

increasing. Sustainable options vary according to region in which the

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museum is located. For instance, desert or arid regions can create

electricity through the use of solar photovoltaic cells because sun is

plentiful. Coastal regions can rely on wind power, and other regions can

rely on geothermal power. For regions that have no clear cut options, a

combination of methods may be employed. Some power companies are

offering consumers the option to purchase renewable energy or a portion

of renewable energy, such as energy derived from wind turbines, instead

of traditional energy sources. Of course, this solution requires the option

be offered to consumers to purchase renewable energy.

Next, there is the option of using natural resources when designing

the system. Regions that reach cold temperatures at night can take

advantage of the cooling properties of cold air by cooling the water

required for the next day’s usage. Systems such as this require the space

to store the cooled water for usage and that is a consideration for such a

system. Areas that experience high temperatures during the day can take

advantage of solar warming to heat the water required for the HVAC

system or even the heated water requirements for the domestic water

heater usage. This water heater is outside the HVAC system and is used

to run showers, dishwashers, hot water from the tap for office and patron

use during the day. Cooling towers are another low technological solution

49

that takes advantage of evaporative cooling which is discussed further in

the Building Strategy Section.36

Renewable Energy

Humanity currently depends upon non-renewable fossil fuels such

as oil, coal, and natural gas, which are finite and cannot be replaced once

consumed necessitating the need to seek an alternative to these fuels.

However alternate energy and renewable energy are not the same things.

Alternate energy is energy that has a different source than fossil fuels.

Renewable energy is energy that is sustainable because it renews itself.

Each form of renewable energy renews itself at different rates. For

instance, geothermal energy is not strictly renewable because its rate of

renewal is thousands of years for the earth to replace the heat removed

from geothermal sources. As in fossil fuels, the key to its usage is not to

deplete the resource.

Alternative fuels come from many different sources and processes.

Current discussion of alternative fuels revolves around the use of

hydrogen, methane, ethanol, and biodiesel. As in any fuel source, there

advantages and disadvantages to each type. As the world seeks the

36 Garth Elliot, Nevada Museum of Art Engineer, Interview by author, 13 February 2007, Nevada Museum of Art, Reno, Nevada.

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optimum alternative fuel source to fossil fuels, we must be cognizant of

the short and long term affects of fuel choice upon the world economy,

and the effects of fuel production in the world on a large scale. What

follows is a brief exploration of alternate fuels.

Methane, also known as biogas, is produced from the fermentation

or composting of plant and animal waste. This process allows biogas to be

produced in small scale plants, which mitigates the need for transporting it

large distances. Unfortunately, the production of methane creates

disagreeable odors. Methane powered engines are more efficient than

gasoline powered engines.

Ethanol is another form of biofuel that is produced through the

process of fermentation. Generally it is made through the fermentation of

grains such as corn, sugar cane, or even wheatgrass. Ethanol is already

used as an extender in most gasoline and it reduces the emissions of CO

gas. It is not as flammable as regular gas, but it also has a lower energy

density than gasoline. The other concern is that the use of ethanol for fuel

will compete with the need to grow crops for food. This debate is ongoing

and has yet to be resolved.

Biodiesel is a diesel fuel derived from vegetable sources of oil,

rather than petroleum. It can be manufactured through the extraction of

oil from soybeans, oil palm, vegetable oil, or even cooking grease. The

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drawback to biodiesel is similar to that of ethanol. There is concern that

countries will clear cut tropical forests in order to obtain the economic

benefits of growing oil palm. Additionally, although biodiesel produces

less CO2 (carbon dioxide) and SO2 (sulfur dioxide), nitrous oxide

emissions are increased, but one benefit is that biodiesel is not toxic when

spilled, unlike petroleum diesel. Some biodiesel concerns can be offset by

the production of biodiesel from algae, which uses waste CO2 and creates

natural oil from it. Biodiesel for algae can be grown in mass production,

an algae farm. This concept was thoroughly researched by the National

Renewable Energy Laboratory, which is a department of the U.S.

Department of Energy, from 1978 to 1996 in a program called The

Aquatic Species Program: Biodiesel from Algae.37

Although hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, it

does not exist naturally in a pure state, which means it must be produced.

If hydrogen is produced using a renewable source, it is considered

renewable, but if it is produced through the use of a nonrenewable

resource than it cannot be considered renewable. Hydrogen can be

produced from water, methane, ethanol, as a byproduct of refining

petroleum and chemical production processes, or it may be produced

through a process called steam reforming, which produces CO gas as a 37 http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/biodiesel_from_algae.pdf, accessed April 20, 2007.

52

byproduct, or through electrolysis, an expensive and inefficient process.

Most hydrogen is currently produced from natural gas, a non-renewable

resource, in a process where 30% of energy within the gas is lost to obtain

70% of the energy in the hydrogen.38

The other difficulty that hydrogen presents is its combustibility at

ordinary room temperature, which creates transporting, handling, and

storage concerns. However, hydrogen does offer flexibility. It can either

be a fuel or converted to electricity via fuel cells. Hydrogen as a fuel

source is more efficient than methane and when burned with pure oxygen,

is 100% non-polluting. The main potential for hydrogen is in fuel cells. A

fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device that produces

electricity through the chemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen. The

electrical energy produced is direct current (DC) that can be used for

power. Fuel cells not only use hydrogen they work equally well using

methane, or which do not present the same flammability, transporting and

distribution issues as hydrogen.

The generation of power through renewable means is being

investigated throughout the world. There are large sources of untapped

power such as geothermal energy, water, wind, and solar power that may

38 Paula Berinstein, Alternative Energy: Facts Statistics, and Issues. (Westport, Connecticut: Oryx Press, 2001), 141.

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serve as renewable energy sources, but as in renewable fuels, each type of

renewable energy source is not ideal.

Due to the nature of the earth’s core, which is 4,000 miles below

the surface, temperatures can reach as high as 9000° Celsius. This heat

emanates outward from the core through the mantle, the surrounding layer

of rock which can result in molten rock, known as magma, or hot springs

or geysers that reach the earth’s surface. Geothermal power plants

produce electricity using geothermal energy in three ways: dry stream,

flash, and binary. Each of these methods is hydrothermal, using

underground steam or hot water to create electricity.

Hydropower is produced through the utilization of water on the

earth’s surface through such means as waterwheels, hydroelectric dams,

tidal power, and wave power. Tidal power is a reliable form of renewable

energy because tides are regular, based upon the orbital mechanics of the

solar system. Tidal power can be produced from the ebbing and surging

of the tides or by the use of a tidal barrage which relies on the difference

in water height at low and high tide, acting as a sluice to hold back the tide

and during its release, using a turbine to generate electricity. Concerns

related to the use of tidal power are sediment accumulation and harm to

marine life. A tidal turbine acts like a wind turbine does but is completely

submerged below the water but must be situated in a location that

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produces a strong enough current to warrant the placement. Underwater

turbines were installed in the East River in New York by Verdant Power

Company in December 2006 as a test project in Manhattan.39 This test

and others like it will address concerns about adverse effects of

underwater turbines on fish and other marine life.

Another form of hydropower is produced through waves. The

wave-electric generator is capable of generating electricity from the power

of ocean waves. This device uses the fluctuating level of water to run an

air turbine that rotates as the air is pushed in and out of the device. The

mechanical torque produced runs the turbine, which in turn drives an

electric generator. This source of electricity is completely renewable and

does not produce contaminants or harmful emissions, but must be

engineered to withstand storms. Wave-electric generators may also prove

hazardous to marine navigation if not clearly marked, and will not produce

electricity in calm seas.

Solar power is another renewable and non-depletive energy source

that has been utilized throughout history and continues to be utilized. The

amount of solar energy falling on the United States alone is more than

2,000 times the amount of energy produced by all of the nation’s coal-

39 Emily B. Hagar, “Tidal Turbines: Powering Up Under Water,” New York Times, February 2, 2007. Available from http://video.on.nytimes.com/?fr_story=a16561a2d9322a0e5953813fd7c930aa6fd8e41e accessed February 2, 2007.

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powered stations.40 The drawback to use of solar energy is the rotation of

the earth that causes night to fall, causing a temporary cessation of the

production of solar power. There are, however, proposed theories that

could potentially eliminate this issue. Space based solar power is a

concept that would deploy a ring of solar powered satellites above the

earth in geosynchronous orbit. Each satellite would have photovoltaic

cells and a transmitting antenna that would collect light, convert it to radio

frequency, and direct it to a receiving antenna on earth (retenna) which

would convert the energy to electricity. To keep the cells pointed at the

sun, the array would use an attitude control system with an inert gas such

as argon as a propellant.

The use of wind power also has ancient origins. Most forms of

wind power today are produced through the use of wind turbines, often on

large plots of land serving as wind farms. Wind farms may be placed

inland, near shore, or off shore. Advances in wind turbine technology

have resulted in larger turbines with fewer slower-turning blades with

lower failure rates. Although the benefits of wind power are the

production of power without the production of carbon dioxide gas

production, wind power is variable and unpredictable, can have a negative

effect upon migratory bird and bat species, and raises aesthetic issues.

40 Marek Walisiewicz, Alternative Energy. Essential Science, ed. John Gribbin, (New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002).

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Due to the current drive to harness renewable energy, scientific

breakthroughs and discoveries will alter the discussion and propel it

forward as humanity seeks to resolve its dependence on fossil fuels. The

renewable sources discussed here are just a few of the alternatives

available and cannot be considered an exhaustive list.

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)

Despite the lack of federally mandated regulations on sustainable

architecture, there are organizations that provide frameworks to guide

architects and contractors seeking to design and build green buildings.

Take for example, the LEED program created by the U.S. Green Building

Council (USGBC) launched in August 1998. The USGBC was formed in

1993 to establish an independent method of verifying or comparing claims

of green building. A few years later, it formed a committee of sustainable

building experts to develop a system which they called LEED, which

stands for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design.41 This

program was created to promote design and construction practices that

reduce negative environmental impact and establish guidelines for those

41 Swope, Christopher. “The Green Giant: How a Single Nonprofit – The U.S. Green Building Council – Defines Sustainability for the Nation” Architect Magazine, (May 2007), 136.

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practices. The positive results of these guidelines have been felt around

the United States: “Some 53 cities, 17 states, and 11 federal agencies have

put policies into place to encourage or require new government buildings

to meet LEED standards.”42

The LEED program is divided into several categories to reflect

appropriate application: LEED-NB for new buildings; LEED-EB for

existing buildings; LEED-CI for commercial interiors; LEED-CS for core

and shell which is designed to be complementary to the LEED-CI; LEED-

H for homes; and LEED-ND for neighborhood development. Robert

Workman, Director of Crystal Bridges Museum in Arkansas felt that the

special art conservation and environmental requirements that art museums

face could qualify for a separate LEED category.43

The LEED “whole building approach” consists of five areas of

focus: sustainable site development, water savings, energy efficiency,

materials selection, and indoor environmental quality. Buildings qualify

for points that eventually lead to one of four ratings: Certified, Silver,

Gold, or Platinum. Each of these five areas of focus is subdivided into

smaller specific categories that provide credit options. For instance, the

42 Swope, Christopher. “The Green Giant: How a Single Nonprofit – The U.S. Green Building Council – Defines Sustainability for the Nation” Architect Magazine, (May 2007), 135. 43 Robert Workman, Director of Crystal Bridges Museum, Arkansas. Telephone interview by author, 13 December 2006.

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water efficiency section is broken down into three finer categories: Water

Efficient Landscaping, Innovative Wastewater Technologies, and Water

Use Reduction. Some of these finer categories offer various point levels

based upon a percentage of achievement. A 20% reduction in water use

results in one earned point, whereas a 30% reduction offers one more

point than the 20% option.

Based upon accepted energy and environmental principals, the

LEED design offers a systematic approach that has been field tested and

participant reviewed, yet it is optional. Regardless of this optional aspect,

“Some 800 buildings around the county have now received the council’s

stamp of environmental approval, and 6,000 more sit in LEED’s pipeline

and the USGBC has set the goal of certifying 100,000 green commercial

buildings by 2010.44 The author of Green Architecture, James Wines

notes “What the green cause desperately needs is a universal commitment

by governments to research and sponsor economically affordable green

habitats.”45 In the United States, city and state governments are

responding to this perspective with positive results.

Although the LEED program is optional, the city of Chicago has

adopted its own standard, known as the Chicago Standard for public

44 Swope, Christopher. “The Green Giant: How a Single Nonprofit – The U.S. Green Building Council – Defines Sustainability for the Nation” Architect Magazine, (May 2007), 135. 45 James Wines, Green Architecture. (Jodidio, Philip, ed. Italy: Taschen, 2000), 97.

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buildings derived from the USGBC LEED green building rating system.46

The Chicago City Department of the Environment also runs The Chicago

Green Technology Center (CCGT), a green building facility that offers

educational materials that teach Chicagoans how to incorporate

environmentally friendly, cost saving features into their homes or

businesses. The CCGT also provides office space for businesses that

provide environmental products and services. Likewise, the city of Seattle

initiated a comprehensive plan as early as 1994 called Toward a

Sustainable Seattle. Environmental stewardship is the core value upon

which this plan is based and LEED plays an integral role in the plan.

LEED, as a standard, is an integral part of the city master plans of the top

ranking cities listed by a U.S. Government sustainable ranking system.

This voluntary participation and adoption of the LEED program

into city planning leaves no doubt that the guidelines are welcome and

essential, yet are just the beginning of a change in perspective and

understanding – leaving the door open to further entrepreneurial solutions.

Building Strategies

Recent exploration in the search for entrepreneurial solutions has

led architects to research building strategies, including ancient strategies

46http://egov.cityofchicago.org/webportal/COCWebPortal/COC_ATTACH/ChicagoStandard.pdf, accessed February 11, 2007.

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used by architects and builders throughout the world at various times in

human history. Besides incorporating renewable energy sources into a

building, these ancient strategies and more recently developed strategies

for sustainable architecture include building envelope strategies, site

placement strategies, alternative building materials, and lighting

alternatives.

Examples of building strategies that help maintain a stable and

comfortable inside environment year round include the use of thermal

mass. In thermal mass heating or cooling, walls use a dense product that

helps mitigate the fluctuation of severe weather or high winds and

increases soundproofing and fire resistance. Unfortunately, increasing

thermal mass of a building will increase its initial construction cost but

will decrease its lifetime heating and cooling energy needs.

Green roofs are another building strategy that has recently

encountered a renaissance. Green roofs also serve as thermal mass and

may have applicability and potential for museums. Traditional roofing

materials absorb the sun’s radiation and reflect it back as heat. This heat

can contribute to what is known as an urban heat island, which makes

cities several degrees hotter than surrounding areas. Besides preventing

urban heat islands, green roofs prevent storm water run-off. One of the

best examples of a green roof building is the Ford Manufacturing River

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Rouge Plant located in Dearborn, Michigan. Originally built in 1917 to

1925, this building was redeveloped beginning in November 2000. As

part of the redevelopment plan, a green roof, also known as a living roof,

was constructed over 10.4 acres of what was previously a heat island. It

was designed by Architect William McDonough, author of the

aforementioned Cradle to Cradle. The green roof is actually part of a

natural storm water management system that also uses porous pavement,

underwater storage basins, natural treatment wetlands and vegetated

swales. The Ford plant also utilizes a water treatment system that reuses

gray water and creates a natural marsh system that cleans water naturally.

This green roof has lowered heating and cooling costs by 5% annually and

is expected to last twice as long as a traditional roof.

Chicago City Hall, built in 2001, has a 20,300 square foot green

roof designed by Roofscapes, Inc. that saves the building $5,000 per year

in utility bills. The city of Chicago offers incentives to builders who put

green roofs on their buildings as part of an overall comprehensive

sustainable building plan for the city of Chicago.

In San Francisco, the California Academy of Sciences will

incorporate a 197,000 square foot green roof into a design that supports

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nine native plant species that will reduce storm water runoff by 50%.47 An

earlier attempt of a museum to utilize a living roof with somewhat less

success occurred with the 1969 opening of the Oakland Museum of

California. Designed by architect Kevin Roche and Dan Kiley, landscape

architect, the Oakland Museum of California was hailed as “thoughtfully

revolutionary.” The building was designed as a tri-level building where

the roof of one building formed the garden of the next. Although careful

consideration was given to the roof design in order to avoid leakage into

the galleries below, the museum building has been beset by leaks

throughout its history. 48 Recent advances and further testing such as that

conducted by Green Roof Environmental Evaluation Network, a research

cooperative between Southern University Illinois, Edwardsville49 in green

roof technology will allow architects to successfully apply this sustainable

building strategy that the Oakland Museum of California implemented

almost forty years ago.

Evaporative cooling towers are another energy efficient cooling

strategy that works best in hot arid regions of the world. A cooling tower

47 Patrick J. Kociolek, “A Sustainable Academy: The New California Academy of Sciences,” Museums & Social Issues 1, no. 2 (Fall 2006): 191-202. 48 http://www.museumca.org/about/building/design_concepts.html, accessed March 31, 2007. 49 http://www.greenroofs.com/green_research_report.htm, Green Roof Environmental Evaluation Network April 2007 Green Report home page, accessed May 20, 2007.

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is a heat rejection device that is designed to cool water by allowing a small

portion of that water to evaporate into a moving air stream. The resulting

evaporation cools the remaining water stream. The air stream that

contains the evaporated water is then released into the atmosphere. As the

evaporative process results in water loss from the system, water must be

added to replace the evaporated portion of the water flow. This cooling

method is an extremely energy efficient and cost effective method for

cooling water for the chillers of HVAC systems used in museums.

Many sustainable high rise projects take advantage of natural

ventilation by situating the building to take advantage of prevailing winds.

Some outstanding examples of sustainable high rise buildings are featured

in Big and Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century,

published in conjunction with the museum exhibition of the same name

presented by the National Building Museum in 2003. The book highlights

50 projects, some in existence and some not yet built. One example is

Lloyd’s of London, a high rise building built in 1986 that uses a natural

ventilation system. Although there many examples throughout the book,

including city master plans, not one of the buildings highlighted has the

same special environmental restrictions of art museums. Art museums

may not be able to take full advantage of natural ventilation strategies due

to these environmental control needs.

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Since generating alternative and regenerative technologies for

buildings has become a priority, innovative technological solutions and

alternative building materials continue to appear on the market. Many of

these technologies and materials will assist in garnering LEED points by

reducing water use, optimizing energy performance, reducing the heat

island effect, applying innovative wastewater technologies, maximizing

recycled content, employing creative lighting solutions, and augmenting

thermal comfort, etc. As the truth about current building materials

emerges, issues of off-gassing of chemical fumes, and the inherent costs of

production and transportation place a different economic standard on

building materials than mere purchase price. Non-off gassing, lighter, and

local alternative building materials are far more ecologically friendly and

their inherent costs are lower than those of traditional building materials.

Following are just a few of the innovative technologies that are emerging

onto the sustainable building scene.

For example, Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) is a pre-cast,

manufactured building stone made of a mixture of finely ground quartz

sand, lime, and aluminum paste as a binding agent. The steam curing

manufacturing process does not create air or water pollution and is waste

free. As a result, it is economical, environmentally friendly, does not off-

gas pollutants or toxic substances, is durable and lightweight, and provides

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thermal and acoustic insulation. Because it is lightweight, shipping costs

are reduced. It is also decay, fire, and termite resistant and can be finished

in any way. It is also a versatile building material that may be used on the

building’s exterior or interior.

Another building material that has been highlighted in the news

recently is recycled denim insulation. Blue jeans are ubiquitous in

American society but due to their nature, they wear out. Using blue jeans

as insulation is a good example of applying the “R” of reuse to alternative

building material strategy and meets LEED recycled content points. The

California Academy of Sciences has used denim insulation for their entire

new building.

Other possible alternative insular materials include cementitious

foam, an insulator made from minerals derived from sea water, which is

an environmentally safe and non-toxic insulation that is fire-proof and

sound absorbing. One of its drawbacks is that it is easily damaged by

water. Rockwool is another option that utilizes the “R” in recycle.

Rockwool is made from recycled steel slag, which is a byproduct of steel

production. It is also fungi, fire, and termite resistant and does not require

the use of toxic flame retardants.

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Lighting

Artificial lighting in museums is of particular concern due to the

damaging effect of ultra violet light and the heat produced by certain types

of light on artwork. Currently, museums tend to avoid natural lighting and

use a variety of artificial lighting systems, all of which require filtering.

Controlling the damaging effects of ultraviolet light and infrared heat is

critical to object conservation, making light levels a critical part of

agreements between institutions in order to complete exhibition loan

agreements. Typically, museums use halogen or metal halide track

lighting in galleries, which provide maximum lighting flexibility, and

florescent lighting in collection storage areas, all of which require

filtering. However, exploration in lighting technology has begun to

change the lighting paradigm in museums.

LED’s (light emitting diodes) were first developed by General

Electric Company in 1962. LED’s consume 1/5 as much energy as a

conventional bulb and lasts 100 times longer. LED’s are illuminated by

the movement of electrons in a semiconductor material which is typically

aluminum-gallium arsenide. As the electrons move photons are released,

which are the most basic units of light. LED’s can be used in place of

incandescent lights, and can be dimmed without changing the color of

light emitted. (Unlike incandescent lights which become yellow.)

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Although LED lighting is currently more expensive than incandescent

lighting, its low energy usage makes it a cost effective alternative.

Hybrid Solar Lighting (HSL) is one of the newest technologies in

the lighting field. HSL uses solar power and fiber optics to channel

sunlight into an enclosed space. Sunlight is tracked throughout the day

using a parabolic dish and is supplemented by sensors that maintain a

constant level of illumination between incoming light and traditional

artificial lighting. The light is first converted into electricity and then

reproduced as full spectrum lighting. This newly discovered process is far

more efficient than photovoltaic cells, which convert 15 % of sunlight into

electricity and then change the electricity back into light resulting in the

use of only 2% of the original sunlight. The drawback to this newly

discovered system is that the longer the fiber optics are, the more light

they lose. Presently, this system is only effective for rooms with direct

roof access.

Another alternative similar to HSL is called the Solatube. This

lighting strategy redirects light down a reflective tube and diffuses it

throughout the interior space. This system captures indirect lighting as

well as direct lighting, increasing its effective use from dawn to dusk.

This innovative technology is not applicable to zones within an art

museum dedicated to the storage and display of art, but can be used in

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non-art spaces such as restaurants, museum stores, meeting rooms and

offices. This particular lighting strategy can be used to satisfy LEED

Indoor Environmental Quality points for daylight and views.

Recently, museums have begun to experiment with natural light

use in museum galleries. Author David Clinard states that “traditionally,

color quality has been and still is one of the most critical concerns for

displaying art objects…”50 Unlike artificial light, natural light produces

full spectrum color. By avoiding direct sunlight and creating complex

systems that track and control sunlight, museums are beginning to take

advantage of natural lighting while simultaneously avoiding the harmful

effects of ultraviolet rays. The High Museum in Atlanta, Georgia,

designed by Renzo Piano, has created a complex system designed to

maximize the use of natural lighting. The ceiling of the upper floors is

punctuated by 1,000 skylights that are actually composed of three parts:

the vela, made of white aluminum acting as a reflector; the skylight that

features iron glass with low E-coating and a laminated interlayer; and the

soffitto that diffuses and directs light from the skylight.51

The Nelson Atkins Museum in Kansas City Missouri has added the

Bloch Building, designed by architect Steven Holl, that utilizes translucent

50 David Clinard, “Show & Tell: Museum Lighting.” Architectural Lighting 17 (April/May 2002): 59. 51 Emilie Summerhoff, “High Museum of Art.” Architectural Lighting 19 (Nov/Dec

2005): 26.

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glass used in conjunction with fluorescent lighting in the new galleries.

Steven Holl Architects worked closely with Richard Renfro of Renfro

Design Group, a lighting design specialist to calculate recommended light

levels for art display while simultaneously minimizing light damage.52

The use of daylighting is supported by Clinard; at the conclusion of his

article “Show & Tell: Museum Lighting,” he states “In order to reduce

lighting-related energy and maintenance problems, when appropriate, use

natural light as a source – it’s free and daylighting can drastically reduce

energy costs over time.”53

In further support of Clinard’s thoughts, artist David Behar Perahia

is currently writing his Ph.D. dissertation at Technion Israel Institute of

Technology, Department of Architecture and Town Planning, in Haifa,

Israel, about the use of daylight in museums. Technion is well known for

intertwining science with ethics, and sensitivity to social and

environmental issues. Perahia is examining design solutions that

challenge the current paradigm for lighting design in museums. He has

concentrated on museums that already use natural lighting successfully

including: Ein Harod Museum (Shmuel Bikeles, Ein Harod, Israel);

Kimbell Art Museum (Louis Kahn, Forth Worth, Texas); De Menil

52 http://www.inhabitat.com/category/architecture/, accessed May 9, 2007. 53 David Clinard, “Show & Tell: Museum Lighting.” Architectural Lighting 17 (April/May 2002): 62.

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Collection (Renzo Piano, Houston, Texas); Museum fur Gegenwarts

Kunst (Basel, Switzerland); Kunsthaus Bregenz Museum (Peter Zumthor,

Bregenz, Austria).54 Perahia is writing about natural lighting as an

aesthetic experience in museums, one that capitalizes upon full spectrum

lighting for viewing art that is as important as proper acoustics is for

listening to concerts. He also cites lack of proper lighting as one of the

reasons museum visitors experience “museum fatigue” a well known

phenomenon and phrase originally coined in the early twentieth-century

by the Secretary of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Benjamin Ives

Gilman.55

Perahia notes that any light exposure to artifacts is inherently

damaging. Modern conservation efforts seek to control the amount of

light damage in any given time frame since light damage is cumulative

and may occur at low levels for a long period of time, or at high levels for

a shorter period of time. He discussed the De Menil Collection in

Houston, Texas, a museum that incorporates daylighting in the galleries

but rotates artwork at a much faster rotation rate to compensate for the

higher levels of exposure to light. Another example Perahia specifically

cites is the Kunsthaus Bregenz Museum in Bregenz, Austria, that utilizes

54 http://www.davidbehar.net/, accessed April 3, 2007. 55 http://www.le.ac.uk/museumstudies/m&s/Issue%209/lindauer.pdf, accessed April 15, 2007.

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two layers of etched and layered glass 90 centimeters apart as walls, and

light ceilings in the hallways. This art museum was also envisioned as a

green museum; it utilizes radiant heating and cooling technology that

reduced costs associated with heating and cooling by as much as 50%

when compared to buildings of comparable size. 56

Concluding Thoughts

In the corporate world, green office buildings like Ford Company’s

River Rouge Plant provide an example and incentives for other

corporations to invest in green technology. Sustainable buildings like

Chicago’s City Hall provide incentives for sustainable practices for

government as a social proactive and accepted norm, while the California

Academy of Sciences project provides examples of innovative

architectural solutions in the museum world. Regardless of whether green

architecture is a public-relations device or an ideological commitment, the

results are the same, an exploration and commitment to sustainable

building.

Examples of sustainable buildings throughout the world are

changing the argument that sustainable building is more costly than non-

56 http://www.kunsthaus-bregenz.at/ehtml/ewelcome00.htm, accessed April 15, 2007.

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sustainable building. Over time, the initial construction expense of

building sustainably is offset by energy savings that is realized as the

building begins to operate. These savings can amortize the initial

construction costs very quickly under normal circumstances. With the

environmental cost impacts of human dependency on fossil fuels, erring

on “the green side of things” can only protect the forward thinking and

expose thinking that relies on status quo.

I believe we cannot as a society, or as a museum community,

afford to sit back and wait for solutions to come to us. Humanity has to be

intelligent enough to redesign its own future – on sustainable terms. The

art museum community must proactively explore sustainable building

options and rethink its global view. Challenging the perceived

impediment of strict environmental controls as reason why not to build

green will leave art museums free to move forward to meet their special

needs in an economically, environmentally sustainable, and “green”

manner. After all, as Architect William McDonough reminds us, human

presence in the landscape can be regenerative.

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Findings

~ Diana Lopez Barnett and William D. Browning

From the exterior and even from the interior, to the average eye

sustainable buildings do not appear any different than their traditional

counterparts. Yet, through sustainable site selection, the use of efficient

water systems, non-traditional energy systems, and recycled materials,

sustainable buildings actually enhance occupant comfort while

simultaneously benefiting the environment.

The three sites I chose to visit, the Patagonia Distribution Center in

Reno, Nevada; the Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences at Sierra

Nevada College in Incline Village, Nevada, and the California Academy

of Sciences in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California; used LEED-

NC as the guiding structure for construction, although the Academy did

not implement it until well into the design phase. LEED, Leadership in

Energy and Design, is a standard for sustainable building designed and

implemented by the USGBC, the United States Green Building Council.

LEED is divided into five categories: Sustainable Sites, Water

Efficiency, Energy & Atmosphere, Materials & Resources, and Indoor

In theory, theory and practice are the same, but in practice they are not.

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Environmental Quality. Achievement is rated through a points system and

recipients are rewarded by level, Platinum, Gold, Silver, and Certified.

The Patagonia Distribution Center received Gold on March 1st, 2007. The

Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences seeks a platinum rating, but has

not yet been awarded a rating. The California Academy of Sciences, still

in the construction phase as of this writing, also seeks the platinum level.

Each of the buildings chosen has different usage needs and

different physical environments. The Tahoe Center for Environmental

Sciences, located in the Tahoe Alpine Forest, supports laboratories,

classrooms, and offices. Patagonia Distribution Center, located in the high

desert of Northern Nevada, supports a warehouse, packing operation,

storefront, and offices. The California Academy of Sciences, located in

San Francisco, supports offices, exhibition spaces, classrooms, a

planetarium and an aquarium. As sustainable buildings are very site,

usage, and climate specific, each building offered unique perspectives for

sustainable building practices.

Patagonia Distribution Center

Recently awarded Gold Level LEED Certification on March 1st,

2007, the Patagonia Distribution Center is a 171,000 square foot

warehouse facility that is utilized to pack outgoing customer orders. The

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original facility was designed by the Miller-Hull Partnership, LLP of

Seattle, whose self proclaimed motto “Spirited Architecture through

Continual Exploration”57 provides an explanation why they were willing

to craft a sustainable warehouse. Coupled with Patagonia’s mission

statement to "Build the best product, do no unnecessary harm, use

business to inspire and implement solutions to the environmental crisis,"58

the desire to build a sustainable facility that reflected this mission was

created. The Patagonia Distribution Incorporated’s addition was designed

by a local architectural firm, Tate Snyder Kimsey, an architectural firm

that is dedicated to “environmentally responsible design and planning

solutions.”59

Using the first LEED criteria, sustainable sites, Trammel Crow

Construction recycled 93 % of construction waste created on site to meet

LEED requirements. The owners of the building requested that no

petroleum products be used in the building’s construction. As a result,

paved surfaces were either concrete for truck traffic, or finished with

porous pavers for automobile traffic that allow water to seep in to the

ground. This strategy helped reduce the heat island effect and prevent

storm water runoff into the nearby Truckee River. According to Dave

57 http://www.millerhull.com/html/index.htm, accessed March 31, 2007. 58 http://www.patagonia.com/web/us/patagonia.go?assetid=12080, accessed March 31, 2007. 59 http://www.tatesnyderkimsey.com/, accessed April 12, 2007.

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Abeloe, the Distribution Center’s Director, the pavers were significantly

more expensive than traditional asphalt or concrete. The cost of the

pavers was $500,000 for 32,000 sq. ft., but the grading and installation

more than doubled the cost. Preferred parking is provided for fuel

efficient vehicles, and bicycle racks and showers make alternative

transportation feasible. The exterior lighting is pointed downward and

does not light beyond the property line.

The storm water runoff system consists of rock-lined dry creek

beds and detention ponds that allow water runoff to settle into the ponds

and percolate into the ground. An overflow valve diverts excess water

into an underground interceptor tank with sand oil separation filters. After

filtering, the water will be released into the city storm drain and eventually

to the river. To combat the heat island effect, which is especially

important due to the sunny environment of the high desert, the roof is

made of a white membrane. This white membrane is welded together with

heat guns to form an impervious surface that helps funnel storm water

runoff into the rock lined dry creek beds.

The second LEED category, water efficiency, was achieved

through landscaping that maximized the use of native plants. The use of

native plants resulted in 50% less water usage for irrigation, and water

usage will continue to decrease as the plants grow and stabilize and less

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water will be needed for their maintenance. Furthermore, the use of

mostly native plants, shrubs, and trees – all considered Xeriscaping,

landscaping that does not require irrigation - has eliminated the need for

chemical fertilizers. Internally, 42% less usage of potable water than a

normal building is achieved through water saving strategies such as

waterless urinals, ultra low flow toilets, water sensor faucets, and low flow

showers.

The Patagonia building optimizes its energy systems through the

use of an energy management system that measures the efficiency of the

building’s systems and assists with pinpointing maintenance issues,

satisfying the measurement and verification credits of the third LEED

category, energy and atmosphere. It closely monitors the indoor water

system and outdoor irrigation system, ventilation air volume, lighting

systems, heat recovery cycles, and boiler efficiency. Although the

storefront uses traditional air conditioning for occupancy and customer

comfort reasons, the far more spacious and far less occupied warehouse

uses a night flush system to cool the building in summer months. The

building has ten exhaust fans that are monitored by energy management

system. When the exterior temperature equals or is slightly lower than

that of the building, the exhaust fans turn on and the louvers open to create

negative pressure, which in turn creates cross ventilation. This cross

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ventilation draws in the colder air while drawing out the warmer air. When

staff arrives in morning, the heated air has been replaced with cooler air.

This “night draw” works because of the high desert climate of Reno

Nevada, but would not necessarily work in other climatic zones. This

system also works for this company because operations occur with one

shift from 7 am until all the orders are filled, usually 3:30pm at the earliest

and 6pm at the latest. The night flush system cools the building down into

the 50°’s at night and in the summer months the temperature will rise up

into the 70°’s by the end of the day, a system that is partially successful

due to the application of high R-value insulation in the walls and ceiling.

Building heating is achieved through a radiant heating system that

uses two high efficiency commercial boilers to raise the water temperature

to 160°, which returns at 130° after traveling through the building’s 400

radiant heat panels. This is a closed water system that does not require the

addition of water. Additionally, the boilers have 100% redundancy, which

means that one boiler has the capability of running the entire system,

should the other boiler need repair or maintenance. In the racking area of

the building, the radiant heat system is supplemented by unit heaters that

are also run off of the boilers. The building also has two air handling units

that bring in outside air and filter it to maintain airflow throughout the

building during the day. The improved energy performance of these

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simple systems has resulted in a 47% energy-cost savings over that of a

traditional warehouse of comparable size.

Recycling of materials also fall under the fourth category,

materials and resources, and Patagonia has gone beyond traditional

recycling by recycling everything possible – in fact, 95 % of all in-house

waste is recycled. Waste plastic bags are sold to Trex, the manufacturer

that produces recycled plastic lumber called Trex, produced from waste

plastic and reclaimed hardwood sawdust. Patagonia also recycles its own

products including cotton, fleece, and Capilene® garments, and other

products such as used ink cartridges and outdated electronic devices.

The certified wood credit is also part of the materials and resources

category. In order to obtain this credit designed to encourage

environmentally responsible forest management, at least 50% of the wood

used in the building must be FSC certified. FSC, the Forest Stewardship

Council, is an international organization that promotes responsible

stewardship of the world’s forests.60 Patagonia’s building was built using

55% FSC certified wood for the entire roof except the studs and for the

particle board that is applied to the three new walls from the floor to the

eight foot level. The steel used in the building also contains recycled

content.

60 http://www.fsc.org/en/about, accessed April 2, 2007.

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In order to satisfy the daylight and lighting control requirements of

the fourth LEED category, Patagonia used several lighting strategies that

were successfully applied in this large open warehouse. Dave Abeloe,

Director of the distribution center, noted that better lighting improves

productivity, moral, and the overall health of all the workers. All artificial

lighting is T-5 fluorescent lighting that is operable by motion detector

sensors based on distance traveled. In other words, an entire aisle will not

light up if a fork truck operator is only utilizing half of the aisle.

In order to introduce sunlight into the building, three separate

strategies were applied. The first strategy was the inclusion of Kalwall in

the building walls. Kalwall allows for filtered light to enter the building

through translucent aluminum framed fiberglass skin that is very well

insulated as well as surprisingly beautiful – much like a translucent scrim.

(See Appendix A for an image of Kalwall.) The second strategy involved

the use of skylights that are comprised of three mirror panels that track the

sun as it moves through the sky by obtaining enough energy through a

small photovoltaic panel that stores electricity in a capacitor. The skylight

is designed to maximize sunlight by design – its inverted pyramid design

provides 1,000 watts of fluorescent lighting per skylight. There are a total

of 187 units installed on the building’s roof, resulting in 187,000 watts of

light or “A ton of free light!” according to Dave Abeloe. The cost per

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unit is $1,300, installed. The third strategy maximizes the use of

translucent smoke vents that reflect additional daylight into the building.

These lighting strategies alone account for a 44% decrease in lighting

costs per year and will pay for itself in 2 ½ years.

Other strategies applied towards meeting the indoor environmental

quality criteria included low or no VOC finishing products such as paint,

carpet, adhesives and sealants, thus mitigating the sources of indoor

pollutants. R-12 rigid insulation was applied to warehouse walls and R-30

insulation was used for the ceiling in order to prevent heat loss during the

winter months or heat gain during the summer months, thus improving the

thermal comfort for occupants. Windows on the second floor office area

are also operable and can be opened if needed. The building is also

monitored by CO2 monitors that measure carbon dioxide and carbon

monoxide levels as a safety factor for occupants.

This 171,000 sq. ft. building was constructed at a total cost of 16 ½

million dollars, approximately 5% to 7% more than a traditional building

of the same size, but will pay for itself over time. Incidentally, this

building was built to meet LEED silver certification – but achieved gold

level certification through the dedication of its architects, business owners,

employees, and construction company.

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Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences

Opening on August 21, 2006, the $33 million, 45,000 square foot

Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences building is dedicated to the

protection of alpine lakes and streams by supporting research laboratories,

classrooms, and offices. This three story building is the result of

collaboration between Sierra Nevada College; University of California,

Davis; University of Nevada, Reno; and the Desert Research Institute.

Supplementing this program is a work of art hanging just above the

reception area to the left as you enter the building, called “Da Da

Dumpster Diving” by local artist Elaine Jason. All of its components were

obtained from the building site and it was constructed as a multi-media

wall sculpture. This work of art reflects the dedication of all partners

involved to achieve the most sustainable building possible with today’s

technology, a building that seeks to achieve LEED platinum rating.

Under the first LEED category, sustainable sites, the building and

adjoining parking lot took the smallest footprint possible sited on an area

that produced the least possible environmental damage. Measures were

taken during construction to prevent soil loss, natural forest habitat was

preserved, material waste was recycled, and native plants were used in the

landscaping. The trees that were removed to create the building’s footprint

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were used as finishing treatment for the building interior (i.e. baseboards,

wainscoting, etc.) or shredded for erosion control and ground cover.

The building is located within 100 yards of a public bus stop and

provides bicycle racks, showering facilities, and preferred parking for fuel

efficient vehicles and carpools. Towards that aim, a compressed natural

gas pump was installed within the vicinity of the building to allow staff to

use dedicated compressed natural gas vehicles. Lighting for the building

and adjoining parking lot is directed downwards, preventing light

pollution. Prevention of storm water runoff, caused by the rain and

snowmelt that takes place in the Tahoe basin, occurs through the use of

rock drainage ditches that prevent runoff to the lake that carries sediments

and nutrients. The rocks obtained from the excavation for the foundation

were reused, preventing the need for transporting them to the site. Storm

water is reused for toilets and irrigation, which also contributes to the

second LEED category: water efficiency. Water efficiency is also

obtained through strategies such as waterless urinals, motion sensor

faucets powered by solar photovoltaic cells, aerated water flow heads for

faucets and showers, and half or full flush option toilets. This particular

facility uses two water systems; a rainwater/snowmelt collection system

for toilets and urinals, and one for remaining usages including heating,

snowmelt panels, laboratory water, and humidity for the air handling

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system. This system results in a 66.23% reduction in water use than the

typical laboratory building of the same size. Water that moves throughout

the building is filtered through anti-bacterial ultraviolet cartridges and

carbon cartridges.

The third LEED category, energy and atmosphere, is concerned

with energy systems such as heating, ventilating, and air conditioning;

lighting and day lighting controls; hot water systems; and renewable

energy systems. The Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences building

uses on-site renewable energy systems including a solar photovoltaic roof

composed of 875 photovoltaic roof tiles and nine 3,500 watt inverters

which produces 4,400 kilowatts of a month of renewable power. A co-

generator burns natural gas to create electricity when the photovoltaic

panels cannot produce enough energy to supply the building. The waste

heat created by the co-generator is used to warm water for use in the

radiant heating system.

Hot water for occupant needs is created through two solar thermal

panels. The hot water is then stored in a highly insulated water storage

tank until needed, when it is fully heated by a gas powered high efficiency

hot water heater. This system also runs the thermal snowmelt system,

which in turn is captured as part of the rain and snowmelt catchments used

for toilets and urinals.

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The building’s air handling system runs the air diffuser ventilation

system. The air handler system draws in air through the intake grille into

the plenum, an air compartment inside the air handler. As the air moves

through the system, humidity is added as needed before passing through

two sets of filters to filter out pollen, dust, etc. The filtered air then travels

throughout the building through diffusers, which are located in the lower

wall on the first floor, and the floor on the second and third floors. Air is

then exhausted through ceiling vents.

In the summer months, the cooling system consists of an

evaporative cooling tower that cools water through evaporation at night.

This cooled water is stored underground in two storage tanks and passes

through a heat exchanger to cool the water in a second system. The water

from the second system is pumped through the building’s radiant piping

system and panels the next day to absorb the building’s heat. This radiant

pipe system uses only 5% to 10% of the energy required for traditional air

conditioning systems and does not employ refrigerants or compressors,

thus eliminating emissions and excessive energy usage. This same cool

water also cools the air for the air diffuser ventilation system.

During winter months, the building’s air handling systems draw

cold air in through intake grilles into the plenum, and the air is warmed by

the heat recovery system, which captures heat from the outgoing air to

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warm the incoming air. The warmed air is then moved throughout the

building through a displacement ventilation system. Aided by high

efficiency gas boilers, the warmed water is pumped through the radiant

heat piping system, which radiates heat from floors and ceiling panels.

Heat is recovered from exhaust air through venting towers located on the

roof, which is then transferred to the water. The now warmed water

transfers the heat back to incoming air in the basement. Once the heat is

transferred, the cool water begins the cycle again. This use of exhaust

heat prevents heat-sink, where the air around the building is warmer than

the natural exterior temperature due to heat exhaust.

The fourth LEED criterion, materials and resources, provides

incentive to reuse and recycle materials, as well as choose materials that

are local and/or renewable. Toward that aim, the entire building was

insulated with recycled blue jean material. All concrete used in the

building has been mixed with 25% fly ash, which is a byproduct of

burning coal that ordinarily ends up in landfills if not used in concrete. As

part of the educational mission, an exhibition about Lake Tahoe and the

current environmental stresses placed upon it is located on the first floor.

To the side of the exhibition is an informative flip panel exhibit that

provides examples and technical information for every recycled material

used in the building. Building schematics are also displayed that highlight

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the energy system, the water system, solar and day lighting systems, and

heating and ventilation.

The final LEED criterion, indoor environmental quality, is

achieved through several strategies. Firstly, all the materials used in the

building emit low or no VOC’s, which are organic compounds that

evaporate at room temperature and are hazardous to human health.

Secondly, the building makes use of natural lighting through sky lighting

windows at the top of the center atrium, lightshelves that refract light into

interior spaces by as much as 30 feet, and large windows in exterior

rooms. All windows are dual pane argon filled to reduce heat transfer and

a low-emissivity coating, a thin metallic insulated glazing that assists in

preventing heat transfer. All windows can be opened for occupant

comfort. Internal glass walls between rooms and interior corridors pass

natural light into the corridors. All internal lighting not provided naturally

is controlled by motion sensor and all are 32 watt compact fluorescent

bulbs. These lighting strategies have resulted in a 55.2% reduction of

electricity used for lighting than a standard building of the same size and

usage.

The central atrium is designed to increase airflow throughout the

building, and the science labs have personal ventilation systems to assist

with the additional ventilation required for science laboratories. Since the

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air is circulated mostly for ventilation purposes, not heat control, fans run

much less than in a traditional building.

California Academy of Sciences

Set to open in the fall of 2008, the California Academy of Sciences

is a 420,000 square foot multi-use facility that houses the Steinhart

Aquarium, the Morrison Planetarium, a four-level rainforest, exhibition

spaces, a center courtyard, an organic café, a museum store, an

auditorium, and offices. It is set on a peninsula in San Francisco,

California, where it is surrounded by three bodies of water, the Pacific

Ocean, the San Francisco Bay, and the Golden Gate strait. Due to the

city’s varied terrain, often the weather is characterized by microclimates.

The overall climate is generally characterized by moist cool winters and

dry summers, while temperature generally ranges between 40° and 70°.61

The climatic conditions the Academy experiences are far less extreme than

those Patagonia, Inc., or the Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences are

subjected to. The Academy is over 150 years old and has occupied several

sites in its history. The site I visited in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park

is a rebuild of its former seismically inadequate building which was torn

down.

61 http://ggweather.com/sf/narrative.html, accessed May 17, 2007.

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Under the first LEED category, sustainable sites, the building took

the smallest footprint possible, giving back an acre of land to Golden Gate

Park from its former building to allow for habitat restoration. The facility

will not be taller than the original facility, thereby allowing for expansive

views – both off and on a living roof. The living roof is 197,000 square

feet and will be planted with 1.7 million plants consisting of nine native

species including beach strawberries (Fragaria chiloensis), self heal

(Prunella vulgaris), sea pink (Armeria maritime), stonecrop (Sedum

spathulitholium), tidy tips (Layia platyglossa), miniature lupine (Lupinus

bicolor), California poppies (Eschscholzia californica), California plantain

(Plantago erecta), and Goldfield plants (Lasthenia californica).62 These

species will increase natural habitat for honeybees, hummingbirds,

butterflies, and other insects. This living roof also provides two other

important results discussed in the literature review: preventing the roof

from creating a heat island, an effect where the roof absorbs heat and

radiates it into the atmosphere, and preventing storm water runoff.

Current estimates are that the roof will prevent 2 million gallons of water

runoff per year – water that would have carried pollutants such as salt,

62 http://www.calacademy.org/geninfo/newsroom/releases/2005/Green_building_facts. html, accessed May 19, 2007.

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sand, fertilizer, soil and pollutants into the water system, the leading cause

of water pollution in California.63

Since Golden Gate Park is close to public transportation, the

California Academy of Sciences took that fact one step further, when it

developed a program designed to encourage the use of public

transportation. Museum visitors producing a fare receipt from BART or

MUNI will receive an entrance discount, and participating staff members

will receive $20/per month for taking public transportation to work.64

Under the second LEED category, water efficiency, the roof is

designed to collect excessive rainwater for wastewater conveyance thereby

reducing the use of potable water for wastewater conveyance by 90 %.

The living roof will also not need irrigation, further reducing the

building’s water needs, but a system for irrigation has been installed in the

event of long periods of drought. Overall potable water use for the facility

is estimated to be 22 % less than what is required by code through the use

of low-flow fixtures and the building is plumbed to use recycled water in

the bathrooms and to backwash the aquarium filters. The salt water for the

aquariums will be drawn from the Pacific Ocean and will be purified and

recycled for reuse.

63 Patrick J. Kociolek, Renzo Piano, and Jean Rogers. “The New California Academy of Sciences,” 30 November 2005. Available from http://www.sfenvironment.org/downloads/library/aliforniaacademyofsciences.pdf., 6. 64 Ibid., 13.

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The third LEED category, energy and atmosphere, is concerned

with optimizing energy performance and renewable energy. To reduce

energy usage, the Academy used the living roof to provide insulation with

an R-value of R23. The living roof is also edged by 60,000 photovoltaic

panels that will provide 5% of the building’s energy needs and will reduce

the buildings output of greenhouse gases by 405,000 pounds per year.

Furthermore, the natural ventilation is enhanced by various techniques

including the slope or undulations in the roof, the berm at the back of the

building, and operable windows in the staff areas and the roof of the

exhibition areas. The round roof windows draw warm air upwards and out

of the building while simultaneously drawing cooler air throughout the

building. The need for HVAC is minimal and utilized only in collection

storage, auditorium, and the planetarium. The HVAC system will employ

reverse osmosis to produce desalinated and demineralized water for the

humidification system, which is 95% more efficient than traditional

electric humidifiers.65

Where artificial lighting is required, such as in the collection

storage area, high efficiency lighting has been installed. The bathrooms

will utilize low-flow fixtures that power themselves through the use of

mini-turbines. The mechanical design for the life-support system of the 65 Jean Rogers, Ph.D., PE, Environmental Engineer, Ove ARUP and Partners California, Ltd., (San Francisco, California) E-mail exchange May 20-23, 2007.

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aquarium has also been designed for minimal energy usage through the

application of large piping, small variable speed pumps, and foam

fractionators. Energy efficient foam fractionators work by removing very

fine organic waste by injecting tiny bubbles into the water to be treated.

The waste particles attach themselves to the surface of the bubbles which

then rise to the surface and form a foam, suspending the organic waste

particles within the foam.66

The fourth LEED category, materials and resources, provides

incentive to recycle demolition waste. Of the materials from the old

academy, 100% were recycled, including stone, glass, steel, wood, and

concrete. In particular, 9,000 tons of concrete were used in Richmond

road construction, 12,000 tons of steel were recycled and used by

Schnitzer Steel, and greenwaste was recycled onsite.67 To build the new

facility, 100% recycled steel was used. The concrete consists of 30% fly

ash and 5% slag, and 50% of the wood was FSC certified. The insulation

was also 100% recycled, made of denim that was collected from blue jean

collection drives on college campuses and the cutting floor of

manufacturers. For building reuse, also part of the materials and resources

66 Cover, David. “Extreme Water Reuse: Aquatic Life Support Systems for Zoos and Aquariums.” Available from http://www.watereuse.org/ca/2005conf/papers/B4_dcover.pdf, May 19, 2007. 67 http://www.calacademy.org/geninfo/newsroom/releases/2005/Green_building_ facts.html, accessed May 23, 2007.

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category, the outer walls of the African Hall were incorporated into the

new building, thus maintaining a physical link to the Academy’s past and

decreasing the need for new building materials.

The fifth LEED category, indoor environmental quality, is

achieved through several strategies. Due to the installation of low or no

VOC emitting materials such as paints, sealants, and adhesives, this

building will not require an off-gassing period after completion thus

reducing indoor air contaminants harmful to occupants. Since the

building’s floors are polished concrete, VOC’s emitted from carpet are not

a concern. Areas of the building that use daylight (90% of the regularly

occupied spaces) will have artificial light that employs sensors to adjust

the artificial light levels in response to external light levels to minimize

energy use and maximize occupant comfort. Thermal comfort has also

been addressed through radiant floor heating and operational windows in

the staff areas, as well as operational skylight windows in the exhibition

areas.

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Conclusion and Recommendations

~ James Gross, 1996

I first conceived of this master’s project topic in 2003. What I did

not foresee was that from the time I began to write about this topic in the

fall of 2006 to finishing in spring 2007, public and media attention on the

dangers of global warming would “explode.”

What has happened in this timeframe? Tom Friedman, a columnist

for the New York Times describes this revolution as “the perfect storm”

that is caused by the convergence of three events: The 9/11 terrorist attack

of the Twin Towers in New York City and the subsequent war in the oil-

rich Middle East, Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, and the advent of the

internet.68 Each of these events in its own way changed the perception of

the world and opened America’s eyes to the fragile environment in which

we live. Indeed, the sustainable living spotlight has swung inevitably

towards industrialized countries where habitants use a disproportionate

68 Tom Friedman, “The Power of Green” Interview by Brent McDonald and Scott Malcomson, New York Times, April 15, 2007. Available from http://video.on.nytimes.com/?fr_story=a16561a2d9322a0e5953813fd7c930aa6fd8e41e.

If the performance concept is so widely embraced philosophically, if the approach is so

widely accepted intellectually, if the principles are easy to understand, if the methodology

removes barriers to innovation, if the performance concept can aid in the production of

buildings that perform better at less total cost, why isn’t it universally applied?

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amount of natural resources – water, fuels, materials, and food - in

comparison to developing countries.

This emphasis upon natural resource use is highlighted in the

opening paragraph of the report titled Delivering the Sustainable Use of

Natural Resources by the Network of Heads of European Environment

Protection Agencies; “there is a limited capacity of the planet to meet the

increasing demand for resources and to absorb the emissions and waste

resulting from their use and there is evidence that the existing demand

exceeds the carrying capacity of the environment in several cases.”69 This

same report notes that globalized western lifestyle is not world compatible

– nor is the current environmental burden sustainable. Through this report

and others like it, such as the IPCC’s (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change) 4th assessment report, and the Kyoto Protocol, an amendment to

the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change designed

to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases by developed nations, the call

for action is loud and clear.70

One way to lighten our ecological footprint is by constructing

sustainable buildings. The National Center for Appropriate Technology’s

Smart Communities Network website designed to promote sustainable

solutions to reduce poverty, promote healthy communities, and protect

69 Network of Heads of European Environment Protection Agencies. Delivering the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. September 2006. Available from http://www.umweltbundesamt.de/energie/archiv/EPA_resourcespaper_2006.pdf, April 14, 2007. pg 2. 70 http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/kyoto/kyotorpt.html, accessed April 18, 2007.

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natural resources, notes that the design, construction, and maintenance of

buildings tremendously impact our environment and natural resources.

Buildings in the United States use one third of the nation’s energy, two

thirds of the electricity, produce 49% of sulfur dioxide emissions, 25% of

nitrous oxide emissions, 10% of particulate emissions, and 35% of the

country's carbon dioxide emissions.71 Sustainable buildings, on the other

hand, are more energy efficient, conserve water, minimize environmental

impact, reduce waste, and create comfortable environments with low VOC

(volatile organic compound) emissions. From the exterior and even from

the interior, sustainable buildings do not appear any different than their

traditional counterparts. Yet, sustainable buildings actually enhance

occupant comfort while simultaneously benefiting the environment.

Furthermore, within the architectural and scientific fields, there

have been many technological breakthroughs that may impact the future of

environmentally-inspired design. Some of these breakthroughs were

discovered through innovative experimentation. Consider, for example,

the use of titanium dioxide on the surface of a church designed by Richard

Meier in Tor Tre Teste, in eastern Rome. The original purpose of the

surface treatment was to minimize the cleaning requirements for the

“sails” of the building. Instead, this new material did more than repel

71 http://www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/buildings/gbintro.shtml, accessed April 14, 2007.

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soot. It actually destroyed pollutants found in car exhaust and heating

emissions. This titanium dioxide surface treatment has photo-catalytic

properties that set off chemical reactions when exposed to sunlight, one of

the chemical reactions breaks down nitrogen oxides emitted during the

burning of fossil fuels. Three years after the building opened, the “sails”

remained bright white, while the untreated joints turned a grimy gray. The

greatest reduction of pollution occurs within eight feet of the building,

which means that a pedestrian passing within eight feet of the building

will inhale fewer pollutants.72

This inspiring example was highlighted in a November 28, 2006,

New York Times article. What happened to this information after the

article was published? Will the solution it proposed be tested and applied

to other buildings? Or will the breakthrough be forgotten? Examples such

as this inspire me to believe there many sustainable building solutions that

benefit the environment, but sadly these solutions are not being

communicated, applied or sustained.

Can art museums learn and benefit from this example and other

innovative discoveries? Art museums have been reluctant to build

sustainably, as supported by the article “Why it Pays to Go Green” in the

January 2007 edition of The Art Newspaper. “…for every

environmentally conscious museum, there are several leading art museums

72 Elisabetta Povoledo. “Church on the Edge of Rome Offers a Solution to Smog.” New

York Times. November 28, 2006, sec. A, p. 10

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that have given limited attention to ecological issues.”73 The Museum of

Fine Arts in Boston cites climate and light control issues for reasons why

they did not consider building green. Art conservation has tight light,

humidity, and temperature control specifications that provide a consistent

environment for the conservation of art. Yet the same article notes that as

art museums add on to their existing facilities, they are beginning to

incorporate sustainable technologies. As my site visits to Patagonia’s

Distribution Center in Reno, Nevada; Tahoe Center for Environmental

Sciences in Incline Village, Nevada; and California Academy of Sciences

in San Francisco, California have demonstrated many environmentally

friendly strategies and technologies are applicable to art museums. The

implementation of these technologies has produced information that is

directly applicable to future sustainable building projects through study

and assessment. In fact, the implementation of these strategies are not

only applicable, many are also more beneficial than currently applied

strategies for the preservation of art.

For example, building strategies such as thermal mass and building

site placement prevent the building from heating or cooling off rapidly,

especially during incidents of catastrophic events such as earthquakes or

73 Charmaine Picard. “Why it Pays to Go Green,” The Art Newspaper 176 (January

2007): 31.

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floods where energy sources may not be available for an extended period

of time. Thermal mass and site orientation naturally temper climactic

extremes and provide for occupant comfort and savings in energy usage

and cost.

Other strategies include water conservation strategies such as low

flow shower and faucet heads, or half/full flush toilets, are readily

applicable to any building and do not effect art conservation issues.

Controlling storm water runoff is an ecologically sound practice that

benefits the environment and assists in managing excess water due to

storms or snowmelt – strategies that assist in preventing floods – which

are extremely damaging to buildings and their furnishings, particularly art.

Sustainable lighting strategies also benefit art museums. For

example, motion sensor lighting, and light dimmers are actually preferable

strategies for art museums, as exposure to less luminance slows the

degradation that occurs to art with light exposure. Using alternative

lighting in museums also benefits artwork, such as LED’s instead of heat

producing halogen or metal halide lighting. LED’s last 100 times longer

than traditional bulbs and use 1/5 of the energy. As advances in LED

technology continue, LED lighting becomes an even more viable

alternative. Other forms of non-traditional lighting that incorporate

natural lighting into non-art spaces such as offices, cafés, museum stores,

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or meeting rooms, also benefit art museums by lowering energy usage and

costs for lighting.

As David Behar Perahia discussed in an interview, many museums

in Europe and the United States have successfully integrated architectural

designs that incorporate the use of natural daylighting – often at the

request of patrons, such as the Menil Museum in Houston, Texas,

designed by a joint venture of Renzo Piano/Building Workshop, Genoa,

Italy and Richard Fitzgerald & Partners, Houston, in 1987; and the

Beyeler Foundation building in Basel, Switzerland, also designed by

Renzo Piano in 1997.74 The Menil Museum uses a system of ceiling

louvers, skylights, and large windows that allow for diffused full spectrum

natural lighting in the galleries. The Beyeler Foundation has a glazed

ceiling that also employs the use of louvers and brise-soleil, an

architectural shading technique also employed by the new wing of the

Milwaukee Museum of Art in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, designed by

Santiago Calatrava, and the Arab World Institute (Institut du Monde

Arabe) in Paris by Jean Nouvel that opened to the public in 1987. These

are a few of the many examples of art museums around the world that

74 David Behar Perahia, Ph.D. Technion Israel Institute of Technology (Haifa, Israel). Telephone interview by author, 15 April 2007.

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have successfully employed techniques and technologies that allowed for

the use of natural light in galleries.

Sustainable or high efficiency building systems can also benefit art

museums through energy and cost savings. For instance, using passive

solar heating for water, particularly in locales that receive large amounts

of sunshine, is an excellent method for lowering energy costs. Using high

efficiency equipment, heat recovery cycles, photovoltaic cells to produce

energy, sustainable fuels for energy systems, and purchasing sustainable

power are all strategies that are not at odds with art conservation.

The use of recycled materials that emit low or no VOC’s (volatile

organic compounds) such as paint, which is used in most art galleries, and

carpet, which is used in some galleries is infinitely better than using

materials that emit VOC’s – not only for the artwork’s sake but also for

the health of a building’s occupants. I believe as the need to recycle

continues to develop, so will our innovative spirit and many products will

be available that are created for recycled materials. The only concern

about recycled materials is to assure that original materials do contain

toxic ingredients or that the processes that materials undergo do not render

them toxic. I would recommend testing of recycled materials if possible.

Most of the recent developments I researched during the site visits

meet the special conservation requirements of art museums with the

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exception of a few technologies. Of the strategies I researched, two

require further testing and one is not applicable to art museums.

The use of recyclable materials such as fly ash, now commonly

used in cement production, may not have undergone rigorous testing. The

use of fly ash in cement is now a widely accepted practice that began in

the 1930’s and as of 2003, 38.7% of fly ash was used for concrete,

structural fills, road base, snow and ice control, wallboard, soil

modification, etc. instead of disposed of. Fly ash is the byproduct of

burning coal that is captured from exhaust gases through electrostatic

precipitators (filter bags) and its disposal as a waste product is harmful to

the environment, the primary concern being possible groundwater

contamination. There are advantages to adding fly ash to cement

including increased strength, durability, and workability. Less water is

required during mixing, and the production of greenhouse gases associated

with the production of cement is reduced. The principal concern with fly

ash, however, is that it contains traces of heavy metals including

vanadium, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, barium, chromium, copper,

molybdenum, zinc, lead, selenium and radium.75 The United States

Geological Survey states that “radioactive elements from coal and fly ash

may come in contact with the general public when they are dispersed in air

75 http://www.epa.gov/C2P2/pubs/greenbk508.pdf, accessed April 15, 2007. pg 3.

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and water or are included in commercial products that contain fly ash,”

but further states that “radioactive elements in fly ash should not be cause

for alarm.” 76 Regardless, further testing of fly ash in concrete is

warranted before the universal application to art museum buildings.

Hydronic radiant heating, which circulates heated water through

floors and ceilings or radiant heating panels, is another sustainable

building strategy that warrants further review. Due to the damaging

effects of water on art, any radiant heating malfunction could cause

irreparable harm to artworks. Water flowing through piping has always

been a concern for this reason, which is why many art museums use dry

pipe pre-action sprinkler systems for fire extinguishment. This system

does not allow water into the piping until two alarms have been activated;

usually a smoke alarm and heat sensor. However, the Kunsthaus Bregenz

Museum located in Bregenz, Austria, uses a radiant heating and cooling

design that employs 28 kilometers of piping throughout the building to

cool and heat the building as needed, resulting in a 50-% reduction in

heating and cooling costs. 77 The California Academy of Sciences also

used hydronic radiant heating in the staff offices. Since it appears this

strategy has been successfully applied, further study is recommended to

76 http://greenwood.cr.usgs.gov/energy/factshts/163-97/FS-163-97.html, accessed April 15, 2007. pg. 2, 4. 77 http://www.kunsthaus-bregenz.at/ehtml/ewelcome00.htm, accessed April 15, 2007.

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ascertain whether the long term application of this design is without flaws

that may cause damage to the artwork within the structure.

The second strategy, natural ventilation, allows for temperature

vacillation too great for maintaining the tight temperature controls

recommended by art conservators. Standard loan agreements often

request humidity and temperature control standards, requiring 50%

humidity ± 5%, and 70° Fahrenheit ± 2°, a very narrow window.

Patagonia’s Distribution Center in Reno, Nevada, utilizes a natural

ventilation system that employs a “night flush” procedure that allows a

temperature fluctuation of as much as 20° Fahrenheit in a twenty four hour

period. Natural ventilation also uses strategies such as operable windows,

which then allows unfiltered air, which has not been purified of

contaminants, to enter the facility. Thus, natural ventilation as it is

currently designed and utilized is not an advisable sustainable building

strategy for art exhibition and storage, but may be applied to non-art areas

of the building.

This research leads me to the following recommendations for

museums directors, museum boards of trustees, and museum staff:

Build Sustainably / Buy Green: Art museums need not conclude

that buildings cannot be simultaneously sustainable and iconic, nor that

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sustainable building cannot meet art conservation needs. Museums need

to engage in ethics-based building construction that minimizes use of

natural resources, and should be the client that demands that architects and

construction companies build sustainably. Art museums should practice

intelligent consumption by giving preference to products and services with

optimized resource consumption while simultaneously meeting their needs

to conserve collections.

Support Technology and Knowledge Transfer: Art museums that

have built sustainably or have added sustainable wings to buildings should

provide as much information about their buildings to the museum world.

My suggestion is that art museum websites should be expanded to include

detailed information about the technology and ideas used in sustainable

buildings or sustainable additions. This information, broadcast out to the

world, would display a deep commitment to sustainability issues by the art

museum world and allow other art museums with limited funding to

capitalize upon the proven sustainable architectural successes of other art

museums.

Furthermore, art museums should publish articles in the museum

and architectural fields that inform others of the sustainable technology

used in their building projects. The crux of this matter is dissemination of

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information; information leads to change. Not only can this information

be shared between museum professionals, but may also be shared by the

museum to its visitors. Art museums can enhance their visitor’s

experience of the facility by committing themselves to the educational

aspect of the building, as the California Academy of Sciences has

executed by creating a viewing platform of the living roof. By increasing

environmental awareness in visitors, art museums can assist in spurring

eco-consciousness that is essential to changing our perspective of an

existence that does not squander natural resources.

Provide Funding for Sustainability: Funding agencies such as the

IMLS (Institute of Museum and Library Services), are in a position to

fund museums in their quest to build sustainably. First, funding for

information sharing and transfer is critical. Funding website development

specific to sustainable building technology, or sustainable building

conferences for museums are two examples of forums for providing

funding for dissemination of information. Secondly, funding for building

under LEED guidelines set forth by the USGBC would assist museums in

meeting the incidental testing expenses incurred in order to meet

guidelines. As Patagonia’s Distribution Center Director Dave Abaloe

noted, meeting LEED requirements for testing increased the building’s

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costs by 5% to 7%. An IMLS grant to cover additional testing costs

would benefit the museum community as well as the environment.

Create Guidance for Sustainability in Museums: The AAMD,

Association of Art Museum Directors, could also play a vital role in

leading the museum community down the sustainable building path. The

purpose of this organization is to “…support its members in increasing the

contribution of art museums to society.” In order to serve that purpose,

the organization serves “…as a forum for the exchange of information and

ideas,”78 by bringing together art museum director with their peers.

AAMD support of sustainable practices and building for American

museums could serve as an educational conduit for art museum directors,

trustees, and museum staff by initiating museum standards and promoting

best practices guidelines for sustainable art museum buildings.

78 http://www.aamd.org/, accessed May 7, 2007.

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Glossary

Active Solar – A system using mechanical devices (pumps, fans, etc.) that transfers collected heat to a storage medium and/or the end-use.1 Biodiesel – is a biologically derived diesel fuel2 Biogas – A mixture, principally of methane and carbon dioxide produced by the fermentation of organic matter.3 Biomass – Any form of organic material that contains energy stored in chemical form, usually in compounds of the element carbon. Biomass includes animal manure, crop residue, human refuse, and wood.4 Bioremediation – The use of natural biological organisms (microbes, bacteria, plants, etc.) to break down contaminants and restore contaminated land to productive use.5 Black Water – Wastewater from toilets and urinals, which contains pathogens that must be neutralized before the water can be safely reused. After neutralization, black water is typically used for non-potable purposes such as flushing or irrigation.6 Buoyancy Ventilation - Buoyancy ventilation may be temperature-induced (stack ventilation) or humidity induced (cool tower). The two can be combined by having a cool tower deliver evaporatively cooled air low in a space, and then rely on the increased buoyancy of the humid air as it warms to exhaust air from the space through a stack.7

1 Dianna Lopez Barnett, and William D. Browning. A Primer on Sustainable Building. (Colorado: Rocky Mountain Institute, 1998), 99. 2 Stan Gibilisco. Alternative Energy Demystified. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007), 102. 3 Marek Walisiewicz, Alternative Energy. (Essential Science, ed. John Gribbin, New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002), 66. 4 Ibid. 5 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National Building Museum, 2002),183. 6 Ibid. 7 http://www.wbdg.org/design/naturalventilation.php, accessed April 3, 2007.

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Building Envelope – Elements (walls, windows, roofs, skylights, etc.) that enclose the building. The building envelope is the thermal barrier between the indoor and outdoor environments and is a key factor in the sustainability of a building. A well designed building envelope will minimize energy consumption for cooling and heating, and promote the influx of natural light.8 Carbon Dioxide – Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that exists naturally in the earth’s atmosphere. The major source of man-made CO2

emissions is the combustion of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide is the primary greenhouse gas and is known to contribute to global warming and climate change. Atmospheric concentrations of CO2 have been increasing at a rate of about 0.5 percent per year and are now approximately 30 percent above pre-industrial levels.9 Cogeneration – The phenomenon of producing power and usable heat as a byproduct of primary activities, such as manufacturing.10 Coil – Coils are heat transfer devices (heat exchangers.) They come in a variety of types and sizes and are designed for various fluid combinations.11 Comfort Zone – The range of effective temperatures and humidity over which the majority of adults feel comfortable. Generally between 68° - 79° and 40% - 60% relative humidity.12 Damper – A device used to regulate airflow.13 Daylighting – The use of natural light to supplement or replace artificial lighting.14

8 http://www.wbdg.org/design/naturalventilation.php, accessed April 3, 2007. 9 Ibid. 10 Paula Berenstein, Alternative Energy: Facts Statistics, and Issues. (Westport, Connecticut: Oryx Press, 2001), 195. 11 Samuel C. Sugarman, HVAC Fundamentals. (Lilburn, Georgia: The Fairmont Press, 2005), 283. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid., 284. 14 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National Building Museum, 2002), 183.

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Desuperheater – A desuperheater preheats water for commercial and residential applications by transferring waste heat from the condensers of air conditioners or refrigeration systems.15 Efficiency – Useful energy output divided by the power input.16 Embodied Energy – The total energy used to create a product, including the energy used in mining or harvesting, processing, fabricating, and transporting the product.17 Energy – The capacity to do work. The measure of energy is “power used over a period of time.”18 Energy Management System – A system based on a microprocessor, microcomputer, or minicomputer whose primary function is the controlling of energy using equipment so as to reduce the amount of energy used. Also called Energy Management Control System.19 Envelope - The skin of a building—including the windows, doors, walls, foundation, basement slab, ceilings, roof, and insulation—that separates the interior of a building from the outdoor environment.20 Fission – The spontaneous or induced splitting of a heavy atomic nucleus into two or more lighter fragments.21 Fly Ash – The fine ash waste collected by flue gases from coal burning power plants, smelters, and waste incinerators. Fly ash can be used as a cement substitute in concrete, reducing the concrete’s embodied energy.22

15 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National Building Museum, 2002), 72. 16 Ibid.,285. 17 Ibid.,183. 18 Ibid. 19 Samuel C. Sugarman, HVAC Fundamentals. (Lilburn, Georgia: The Fairmont Press, 2005), 285. 20 http://www.nbm.org/Exhibits/greenHouse2/goGreen/greenTerms.html, accessed March 18, 2007. 21 Marek Walisiewicz, Alternative Energy. Essential Science, ed. John Gribbin, (New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002), 66. 22 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National Building Museum, 2002), 183.

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Footprint - Land area taken up by a building.23 Fossil Fuels – Fuels found in the Earth’s strata that are derived from fossilized remains of animal and plant matter over millions of years. Fossil fuels include oil, natural gas, shale, and coal. Fossil fuels are considered non-renewable since they are consumed faster than they are naturally produced.24 FSC Certified: FSC certified forests are managed to ensure long term timber supplies while protecting the environment and the lives of forest-dependent peoples.25 Fuel Cell – An electrochemical device in which hydrogen is combined with oxygen to produce electricity with heat and water-vapor as natural byproducts. Natural gas is often used as the source of hydrogen, with air as the source of oxygen. Since electricity is produced by a chemical reaction and not by combustion, fuel cells are considered to be green power producers.26 Fusion – The process of bringing together two atomic nuclei to form one larger nucleus. Energy is released through the loss of mass in the product.27 Geothermal Power - Power generated by tapping into the heat energy stored naturally in the rocks of the earth’s crust.28 Global Warming – An increase in the global mean temperature of the Earth that is (or is thought to be) a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gasses trapped within the Earth’s atmosphere.29

23 http://www.nbm.org/Exhibits/greenHouse2/goGreen/greenTerms.html, accessed March 18, 2007. 24 Ibid. 25 http://www.fsc-uk.org/, accessed May 29, 2007. 26 http://www.nbm.org/Exhibits/greenHouse2/goGreen/greenTerms.html, accessed March 18, 2007. 27 Marek Walisiewicz, Alternative Energy. Essential Science, ed. John Gribbin, (New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002), 67. 28 Ibid. 29 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National Building Museum, 2002), 184.

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Gray Water – Water from sinks, showers, kitchens, washers, etc. Unlike black water, gray water does not contain human waste. After purification, gray water is typically used for non-potable purposes such as flushing and irrigation.30 Green – A term that is widely used to describe a building and site designed in an environmentally sensitive manner (i.e., with minimal effect on the environment)31 Greenhouse Gases – Any gas that absorbs infrared radiation in the Earth’s atmosphere. Common greenhouse gasses include water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halogenated fluorocarbons (HCFCs), per fluorinated carbons (PFCs), hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides are of particular concern because of their long residence time in the atmosphere.32 Heat Exchanger – A heat exchanger is a device such as a water or refrigerated coil that is designed to allow the transfer of heat between two physically separated liquids.33 HVAC – Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning a space using the fluids of air, water, steam, and refrigerants.34 IPCC- An Acronym for Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which was organized by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) in 1988. The role of the IPCC is to assess on a comprehensive, objective, open and transparent basis the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation. The IPCC does not carry out research nor does it monitor 30 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National Building Museum, 2002),184. 31 Ibid. 32 Ibid. 33 Samuel C. Sugarman, HVAC Fundamentals. (Lilburn, Georgia: The Fairmont Press, 2005), 286. 34 Ibid., 287.

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climate related data or other relevant parameters. It bases its assessment mainly on peer reviewed and published scientific/technical literature.35 Kyoto Protocol – An amendment to the Framework Convention on Climate Change of 1992 in which developed nations agreed to limit their greenhouse gas emissions relative to the levels emitted in 1990. This agreement entered into force on February 16, 2005.36 LEED – An acronym for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design. LEED is a rating system developed by the U.S. Green Building Council to evaluate environmental performance from a whole-building perspective over a building’s life cycle, providing a definitive standard for what constitutes a green building.37 Life Cycle Cost – The cost of buying, operating, maintaining, and disposing of a system, equipment, product, or facility over its expected useful life.38 Light Shelf – A horizontal device usually positioned above eye level to reflect daylight onto the ceiling and beyond. A light shelf may project onto a room, beyond an exterior wall plane, or both. The upper surface of the shelf is highly reflective (i.e. having 80 percent or greater reflectance.) Light shelves are also effective shading devices for windows located below.39 Natural Ventilation - Natural ventilation systems rely on pressure differences to move fresh air through buildings. Pressure differences can be caused by wind or the buoyancy effect created by temperature differences or differences in humidity.40 Non-renewable Energy Resources – Energy resources that cannot be restored or replenished by natural processes and therefore are depleted through use.41

35 http://www.ipcc.ch/about/about.htm, accessed April 18, 2007. 36 http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/kyoto/kyotorpt.html, accessed April 18, 2007. 37 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National Building Museum, 2002), 184. 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 http://www.wbdg.org/design/naturalventilation.php, accessed April 3, 2007. 41 Ibid.

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Particulate Matter – Also known as particulate emissions, particulate matter is the term for solid or liquid particles found in the air. Some particles are large or dark enough to be seen as soot or smoke, but fine particulate matter is tiny and is generally not visible to the naked eye.42

Passive Solar – Systems that collect, move, and store heat using natural heat-transfer mechanisms such as conduction and air convection currents.43 Photovoltaic (PVs) – Solid-state cells (typically made from silicon) that directly convert sunlight into electricity.44 Plenum – An air chamber or compartment.45 R-value – A unit of thermal resistance. A material’s R-value is a measure of the effectiveness of the material in stopping the flow of heat. The higher the R-value, the greater the material’s insulating properties and the slower the heat flows through it.46 Radiant Heating – Radiant heating is a hydronic (liquid based) or electric cable heating system that supplies heat directly to the floor or to panels in the wall or ceiling. Hydronic systems can be heated with a wide variety of energy sources.47 Refrigeration – Refrigeration is the transfer of heat from one place where it is not wanted to another place where it is unobjectionable. The transfer of heat is through a change in the state of a fluid.48

42 http://www.epa.gov/otaq/invntory/overview/pollutants/pm.htm, accessed April 18, 2007. 43 Dianna Lopez Barnett, and William D. Browning. A Primer on Sustainable Building. (Colorado: Rocky Mountain Institute, 1998), 100. 44 Ibid. 45 Samuel C. Sugarman, HVAC Fundamentals. (Lilburn, Georgia: The Fairmont Press, 2005), 288. 46 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National Building Museum, 2002), 185. 47http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/mytopic=12590, accessed May 14, 2005. 48 Samuel C. Sugarman, HVAC Fundamentals. (Lilburn, Georgia: The Fairmont Press, 2005), 288.

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Relative Humidity – is a measure of the moisture content of the air, related to the temperature at a given time.49 Renewable Resources – Resources that are created or produced at least as fast as they are consumed, so that nothing is depleted. If properly managed, renewable energy resources (e.g. solar, hydro, wind power, biomass, and geothermal) should last as long as the sun shines, rivers flow, and plants grow.50 Retrofit – The replacement, upgrade, or improvement of a piece of equipment or structure in an existing building or facility.51 Recycling – A series of activities that includes collecting recyclable materials that would otherwise be considered waste, sorting and processing recyclables into raw materials such as fibers, and manufacturing raw materials into new products.52 Solar Heat Gain - Solar heat gain is the measure of total heat gain (visible, infrared and UV) from sunlight that passes through a glazed surface and is eventually dissipated to the indoors.53 Storm Water Runoff – Storm water runoff occurs when precipitation from rain or snowmelt flows over the ground. Impervious surfaces like driveways, sidewalks, and streets prevent storm water runoff from naturally soaking into the ground. Storm water can pick up debris, chemicals, dirt, and other pollutants and flow into a storm sewer system or directly to a lake, stream, river, wetland, or coastal water and can have can have many adverse effects on plants, fish, animals and people.54 Sustainability - Officially defined by the U.S. Government as meeting the needs of the present generation so it doesn’t compromise the quality of life for future generations.55

49 Ward, Philip R. The Nature of Conservation: A Race Against Time. (Marina del Ray, California: Getty Conservation Institute, 1989), 15. 50 Dianna Lopez Barnett, and William D. Browning. A Primer on Sustainable Building. (Colorado: Rocky Mountain Institute, 1998), 101. 51 Ibid. 52 http://www.epa.gov/msw/recycle.htm, accessed April 3, 2007. 53 http://www.cecer.army.mil/techreports/DEA_NEW/dea_new.fle-02.htm, accessed April 3, 2007. 54 http://www.epa.gov/weatherchannel/stormwater.html, accessed April 3, 2007. 55 http://www.sustainlane.us/overview.jsp, accessed February 17, 2007.

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Thermal Mass – A material used to store heat, thereby slowing the temperature variation within a space. Typical thermal mass materials include concrete, brick, masonry, tile and mortar, water, and rock.56 Turbine – A machine composed of a set of blades mounted on a central shaft, which is made to rotate by moving fluid, such as water, steam, or another gas, usually to turn an electric generator.57 Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) – An organic compound that evaporates at room temperature and is often hazardous to human health, causing poor indoor air quality. Sources of VOCs include solvents and paints. Many materials commonly used in building construction (such as carpets, furniture, and paints) emit VOCs.58 Wind Power – Systems that convert air movement into mechanical or electrical energy. Driven by the wind, turbine blades turn a generator or power a mechanical pump.59

56 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National Building Museum, 2002), 185. 57 Marek Walisiewicz, Alternative Energy. Essential Science, ed. John Gribbin, (New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002), 68. 58 Ibid. 59 Dianna Lopez Barnett, and William D. Browning. A Primer on Sustainable Building. (Colorado: Rocky Mountain Institute, 1998), 101.

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Appendix A Patagonia Distribution Center

All images taken by the author and reprinted with permission from Dave Abeloe, Director of Patagonia, Incorporated’s distribution center.

New Belgium bicycles for employee use. Saves time and feet!

Image accessed at http://www.patagonia.com/web/us/patagonia.go? assetid=12080

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Image of a radiant heating panel that provides heat during cooler months.

Rock lined ditches leading to the detention pond where storm water runoff is allowed to seep back into the ground. Water efficient landscaping can be seen in the background.

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Image of the high efficiency boilers that provide heating of water for the radiant heating system. The two units provide 100% redundancy, providing backup in case one boiler fails.

Radiant heat system pumps circulate the hot water through a closed loop system.

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Image of louvers that open to allow exterior air in for night flush system operation. The exhaust fans create negative pressure that allows air to be drawn in through the louvers.

One of ten exhaust fans that rid the building of excess heat caused by solar gain during the day, through the night flush system.

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Image of the air handling units, one of two air handling units in the new facility that bring in outside air, filter it, and use it to provide fresh air throughout the building.

Translucent Kalwall is made of recycled aluminum frame and insulated fiberglass scrim that lights up the area using natural light. Patagonia uses Kalwall above doors and in walls.

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Image of a sunlight tracking skylight. There are 187 skylights installed in the building.

Image showing T-5 energy efficient fluorescent lighting that is motion sensor controlled, sun tracking skylights, and R-30 insulation.

135

Appendix B Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences

All images taken by the author and reprinted with permission from the University of California, Davis, Tahoe Environmental Center, and Sierra Nevada College.

Da Da Dumpster Diving, mixed media sculpture by local artist Elaine Jason, made from retrieved construction scraps.

View of rock lined drainage ditches to minimize sediment and nutrient drainage into the lake from water runoff and deciduous foliage on the southern exposure side of the building designed to maximize solar gain during winter months and minimize it during summer months.

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Half-flush full-flush option toilets

Image of the water filtration system that utilizes anti-bacterial ultraviolet filters and carbon filters.

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Image of the solar thermal panels used to produce hot water for sinks and showers, and the evaporative cooling tower behind them. The “wood” is actually Trex, a plastic recycled lumber produced from waste plastic and reclaimed hardwood sawdust.

Image of one of the two building air handling systems: the plenum is at the far end, and the yellow pipes are the heat recovery system, capturing the heat from the outgoing air to warm the incoming air.

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Solar thermal panel preheated water storage tank.

Gas powered high efficiency hot water heater for solar thermal heated water if needed to bring it up to temperature.

Image of the co-generator system that captures heat from the generator through the use of water, which is then pumped through the building to assist in heating needs.

139

Image of central atrium designed to increase ventilation and sky lighting windows, designed to decrease the need for artificial lighting.

Image of lightshelves (at window center) and large dual pane argon filled low-emissivity windows that may be opened by occupants as needed. The siding is concrete with fly-ash, which is a fire, weather, and insect resistant material.

140

Low-emissivity argon filled dual pane glass windows that may be opened, located in the not yet fully utilized greenhouse.

141

Appendix C California Academy of Sciences

View of the undulating green roof with the three “hills” under which reside the Morrison Planetarium, the Steinhart Aquarium, and a rainforest. The round objects on the hills are skylights.

The digital model for the new academy. Accessed at http://miragestudio7.com/blog/images/renzo_paino_academy_science_3.jpg

142

View of the rooftop sectioned by rock filled welded mesh gabions, designed to prevent soil erosion and placed to provide structure for the living roof.

Close up view of the gabions.

This image exhibits most of the layers of the living roof shingles, foam, tarp, and egg crate designed to capture water.

143

Biodegradable flats that will transport the plants to the roof and biodegrade as the roof plants acclimatize.

A sample biodegradable flat of the 1.7 million native plants that will cover the two acre roof. All of the plants are low growing native species that will not require irrigation.

144

Images of the aquarium life support filtering system.

145

The tip of the roofline is laid with 60,000 solar panels designed to produce 5% of the Academy’s power needs.

View of the 100 percent recycled structural steel used throughout the building.

146

Below: Scraps of leftover denim insulation. Right: Denim insulation installed. Demin will be used throughout the entire facility.

View of the back of the building, the operable windows, and the earth berm that creates a natural flow of air through the building.

147

View of operable windows in the staff office area.

View of the automatic window motors that open up at night to flush the building of warm air, replacing it with cool air for the next day’s occupancy. Also in this image is the piping for the radiant heat.

148

High efficiency fluorescent lighting that is used throughout collection storage.

Image of the skylights over the four level rainforest.

149

A closer view of the skylights from the building interior.

View of the central courtyard that will be usable throughout the year regardless of weather. The ceiling will consist of glass panels.

150

Acoustic panels in the ceiling designed to dampen sound since all floors are constructed of polished concrete.