The Transformation of the Late Roman Republic

Presented by: Guy Williams

Outline

• Introduction• Historiography• The Gracchi Period (133-121 BC)• The Professionalization of the Roman Legions• The Roman Civil Wars• Conclusion• Discussion

Introduction• By the mid second century BC, the Roman Republic appeared to be on

the ascendancy. The Third Punic War ended with the defeat of Carthage in 146 BC and cemented the position of Rome as the preeminent military power in the Mediterranean region.¹ Despite the apparent success of the Roman military in the region, the Roman Republic as a form of government began a perilous slide towards internecine warfare that eventually ended with the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. The period from 133 BC until 27 BC marked a critical time in Roman history as Rome changed from a republic into a principate (derived from the word princeps meaning first and used to describe a form of absolutism).

1 Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars, 265-‐146 BC (London, UK: Phoenix, 2006), 12.

Sources• Gaius Sallus)us Crispus “Sallust” (86-‐35 BC)• Gaius Julius Caesar “Caesar” (100-‐44 BC )• Marcus Tullius Cicero “Cicero” (106-‐43 BC)• Titus Livius “Livy” (59 BC-‐17 AD)• Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus “Plutarch” (46-‐120 AD)• Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus “Suetonius” (70-‐130 AD)• Lucius Annaeus Florus “Florus” (74-‐130 AD)• Appian (95-‐165 AD?)• Lucius Cassius Dio “Dio” (150-‐235 AD)

The Gracchi Period 133-121 BC

• At the conclusion of the Punic Wars, Rome emerged as a hegemonic power in the Mediterranean region. Despite Rome’s apparent power, the republican form of Roman government proved ill equipped to deal with the challenges of governing expanding Roman territories. This section will discuss the difficulties the Roman government faced, the attempts at progressive legislation by the Gracchus brothers, the Roman Senate’s failure to recognize the shortcomings of the militia system, and the Senate’s reliance on violence to circumvent Roman law. Throughout this process, the Roman legions struggled to maintain manning levels within their ranks using the existing levy system, but events dictated the need for change and the requirements for the professionalization of the Roman legions began during this period.

Tiberius Gracchus (163-133 BC)

• Descendant of Publio Cornelius Scipio Africanus• Veteran of Third Punic War and the Numantine War• Elected as Tribune in 133 BC• Started a campaign of land reform Lex Sempronia Agraria

(Sempronian Land Law)• Presented bill to the Popular Assembly first, rather than the Senate• Removed fellow Tribune Marcus Octavius• The entire populus Romanus (Roman people) witnessed the Senate’s

inability to prevent Tiberius from enacting his proposed legislation and the Senate not only lost face but power both perceived and realized.

• Murdered by the Senate and their supporters in 133 BC

Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (154-121 BC)• Better speaker than his brother Tiberius• Faced the populares rather than the Senate when proposing legislation• Proposed legislation that fixed the price of corn for the citizens of Rome, established a central

storage facility for cereals at Ostia, funded new road projects, colonized conquered territory, and required the state to provide clothing for the Roman army at no cost to the soldiers

• Plutarch noted that two pieces of legislation stood out as particularly irksome to the senate and plebes. One law “was devoted to the allies and extended to the Italians [non-Roman tribes that occupied the Italian peninsula] the same voting rights as were already enjoyed by Roman citizens” and the second law “regulated the appointment of jurymen.”²

• Senate used tribune Marcus Livius Drusus to counter Gaius’s efforts• Consul Lucius Opimius and the Senate kill Gaius in 121 BC

²Plutarch, Rome in Crisis Nine Lives by Plutarch: Tiberius Gracchus- Gaius ‐ Gracchus- Sertorius-‐ ‐Lucullus- Younger ‐ Cato- Brutus-‐ Antony-‐ Galba-‐ Otho‐ , trans. Ian Scott- Kilvert ‐ and Christopher Pelling (London: Penguin Books, 2010), 42.

The period from approximately 133-121 BC (the Gracchi period) marked a seminal point in the history of Rome. Divisive politics came to the forefront during this period and Le Glay writes, “The Gracchi mark a watershed in the political life of the Roman Republic; henceforth, the political class was divided into two, often mutually hostile factions, the populares (“populists”) and their rivals, the optimates (“best ones”).” ³ The Gracchi sought a solution to a strategic necessity whereas the Senate perceived the efforts of the Gracchi as a challenge to their power. The existing militia system simply failed to meet the growing requirements for additional forces as Rome expanded their territory and faced increasing threats. The militia system worked for short campaigns on the Italian peninsula, but proved impractical for lengthy campaigns away from the Italian peninsula. Regardless of the motivations behind the actions of the Senate, evidence indicated that the Roman Senate failed to implement permanent changes to the eligibility requirements for military service, resorted to violence as the final arbiter against the legislation of the Gracchi brothers, and did not succeed in healing the growing rift between the populares and the optimates.

³Marcel Le Glay et al., A History of Rome 4th ed. (Chichester, U.K.: Wiley- Blackwell, 2009), 113.‐

The Professionalization of the Roman Legion

And, indeed, if any one does but attend to the other parts of their military discipline, he will be forced to confess that their obtaining so large a dominion hath been the acquisition of their valor, and not the bare gift of fortune; for they do not begin to use their weapons first in time of war, nor do they then put their hands first into motion, while they avoided so to do in times of peace; but, as if their weapons did always cling to them, they have never any truce from warlike exercises; nor do they stay till times of war admonish them to use them; for their military exercises differ not at all from the real use of their arms, but every soldier is every day exercised, and that with great diligence, as if it were in time of war, which is the reason why they bear the fatigue of battles so easily; for neither can any disorder remove them from their usual regularity, nor can fear affright them out of it, nor can labor tire them; which firmness of conduct makes them always to overcome those that have not the same firmness; nor would he be mistaken that should call those their exercises unbloody battles, and their battles bloody exercises.--Titus Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War.

The efforts of Marius to transform the Roman military began as a matter of necessity to respond to a strategic threat to Roman interests. Sulla and Marius both developed a symbiotic relationship with their men that provided Marius and Sulla with power to influence political events and opportunities for their men to gain material wealth. This section will examine the gradual process that changed the composition of the Roman legions and the alienation of the Roman legions from the Roman state. The professionalization process that began as an emerging requirement during the Gracchi period for additional men to fill the ranks of the legions, accelerated as Marius and Sulla implemented changes to incentivize the service of legionnaires

Gaius Marius 157-86 BC

• Gaius Marius did not come from a pedigreed bloodline but emerged as a novus homo (new man) from the ranks of the equites• During the Jugurthine War makes a name for himself and uses his popularity to run for and win the consular position in 107 BC• Marius uses his support with the populares to influence the Senate and appoint him commander of the Roman forces arrayed

against King Jugurtha• Marius enlists the aid of the capite censi (those counted by head) to bolster the ranks of his legions• By opening the ranks to the capite censi Marius linked their fortunes to his own and established a new form of patron client

relationship• Marius does not win the war with a decisive battle, but through the actions of his subordinate Lucis Cornellius Sulla who

brokered a deal to capture Jugurtha• Marius wins a second term to fight the Cimbrian War• Muli Mariani (Marius Mules)• Marius implemented changes such as forced march training, standardized equipment, and changed the legions’ various

animal standards to an eagle for all legions, but he did not formally transform the Roman army from a militia-based army to a professional army overnight. The legions transformed gradually both during and after the tenure of Marius’s command.

• Marius changed the design of the pilum• Engaged in realpolitik to gain and maintain power• Held the position of consul for seven terms• Marius used Saturninus to introduce legislation that provided land for his veterans and consequently gained popularity

with his veterans and the masses for looking after the veterans. This legislation helped cement the patron client relationship between the soldiers and their commander. The common bond shared by all brothers in arms became a stronger one of paid loyalty, as the soldiers owed their fortunes to the welfare of their commander or patron.

• Marius uses his veterans to arrest tribunes. They did not form a consular army, but a private military force responding to the call of a former commander. This represented a brazen display of the naked power that stood outside the wings of the Senate house, ready to negate any political decision that a military leader might disagree with if given the necessary motivation to act

• Marius rose to power because of his tactical prowess rather than his skill as an orator or politician

Lucius Cornelius Sulla “Felix” (138-78 BC)

• Born into a noble line, but lacked the wealth of other nobles growing up• Broke tradition and associated with actors instead of members of his own class• Sulla demonstrated superior political abilities over Marius and appeared equally skillful in winning notoriety on the battlefield• Served as legate and military tribune for Marius during the Cimbrian War• During the Social War, Sulla won the Coronia Graminea (grass crown) for his actions in saving the legion at Nola• Sulla experienced a major rise as a military and political leader during the Social War, and Roman society witnessed the decline

of Marius’s influence, and the terrible strain that the war placed upon Rome’s strategic resources of manpower.• More commoners enlisted into the legions than the earlier Cimbrian and Jugurthine War. This composition fostered a greater

dependence on the patron/commander as the legions accepted more men that needed subsidies or support. The mercenary mindset grew stronger as legionnaires looked to the service as a means of employment rather than a civic duty. With the majority of the legion now consisting of legionnaires that possessed small parcels of land or no land at all, little incentive remained for legionnaires to return to civilian life.

• The legions grew accustomed to fighting opponents that used Roman equipment and tactics. At a minimum, this contributed to the desensitization of Roman soldiers about the prospect of fighting fellow Roman citizens in the impending civil wars. The Roman soldiers and veterans alike also learned that they faced no repercussions for following a commander against Roman citizens in support of political matters as demonstrated by Marius against Saturninus.

• In addition to the increased level of violence in Roman politics, the tactic of the populists soliciting support from the proletariat by promising government subsidies such as land grants, fixed grain prices, and greater representation in governmental affairs encouraged the populares to demand more.

The Roman Civil WarsThey then desisted, but Marius and Sulpicius went to confront him near the forum on the Esquiline with as many men as they had time to arm, and there took place a struggle between political enemies which was the first war conducted in Rome not under the guise of civil dissention, but nakedly as a war, complete with trumpets and military standards; such was the catastrophe to which their recklessness in political quarreling had led them.

--Appian, The Civil Wars

Sulla’s First March on Rome

• King Mithridates VI orders the murder of all Roman and Italian citizens in Asia during the spring of 88 BC• Newly elected Consul Sulla, appointed commander of Roman forces arrayed against Mithridates• Marius petitioned tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus (121-88 BC) for the nomination to command the campaign against

Mithridates. Marius is sixty-eight years old when he makes this request.• Sulpicius uses his armed bodyguards called, the “anti-Senate” to coerce the Senate and the populous to support his nomination

of Marius as the commander of Roman forces• Sulla flees the Senate chambers when Sulpicius henchmen threaten the Senate and force a vote for Marius• Sulla arrives at Nola and joins his forces there before the arrival of military tribunes appointed by Marius• Sulla pleads his case to the men (many of them his veterans from the Social War) and the legionnaires rally to his cause and

stone the tribunes sent by Marius• Sulla marches on Rome with his forces and kill Sulpicius. Marius escapes but Sulla is the first Consul to use his forces against

Rome.• After consolidating his victory, Sulla introduced legislation that prohibited any laws that did not pass through the Senate first,

increased the Senate with three hundred new members, rescinded the last legislation that Sulpicius enacted, and he forbade tribunes from ever holding any higher office than a tribune position.

• Sulla appointed Gnaeus Octavius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna as Consuls, appointed his former coconsul Quintus as theproconsul of the forces remaining in Italy and departed for Asia to battle Mithridates

Sulla’s Second March on Rome

• After Sulla’s departure, Quintus traveled north to take charge of the army that served under Gnaeus, but shortly after his arrival, the legionnaires mobbed and killed Quintus.

• Cinna arrived in Capua and convinces Roman forces to join him. While Cinna gathered forces, Marius received word and gathered forces to include slaves and farmers to join Cinna and besiege Rome.

• Cinna and Marius exercise no restraint and execute Sulla supporters. The Consul Octavius fell as one of the first victims to the wrath of Marius and Cinna and they displayed Octavius’s head on the rostra and systematically began killing political opponents

• In 86 BC, Marius and Cinna promoted themselves to consul, seized and sold property, and repealed the earlier legislation proposed by Sulla.

• Gaius Marius dies seventeen days after taking office.• Sulla’s campaign against Mithridates lasted nearly three years from 87 – 85 BC .• During this same period, Cinna chose Lucius Valerius Flaccus as Consul after Marius died and charged Flaccus with

leading two legions in a separate effort against Mithridates.• In 85 BC, the legate of Flaccus, Gaius Flavius Fimbria, incited the men to mutiny and they killed Consul Flaccus.• Sulla marches against Fimbria, but Fimbria commits suicide and Sulla absorbs Fimbria’s forces into his own legion.• Sulla sends notices to Rome about his accomplishments and his legal status as Consul before he lands in southern Italy in 83

BC.• During his push to Rome, Gnaeus Pompeius (106-48 BC), gathers an army of his own to aid Sulla

• Sulla and his forces emerged as the victor in 82 BC and Sulla quickly moved to consolidate his gains.• Sulla issues a proscribed list and executes forty senators, approximately 1600 members of the equestrian class, seizes their

property, and dispatched Pompey to North Africa to eliminate the remaining Marius supporters.• Sulla coerces the Senate to appoint him dictator and enacted new laws that removed the right of tribunes to veto or introduce

legislation; in addition, no one who previously held the position of tribune could run for a higher office. Sulla raised the number of praetors to eight and forbade all proconsuls from leaving their territories or engaging in any military action without the approval of the Senate. Lastly, Sulla raised the number of Senators to 600 and sought to place his supporters into the new senatorial positions.

• Sulla served as dictator for three years and then stepped down.• Sulla died in 78 BC• Sulla inculcated a greater sense of dependence amongst veterans towards their commander than those first introduced by

Marius in the Jugurthine War.

The Catilinarian Conspiracy

Shame on the age and on its principles! The senate is aware of these things; the consul sees them, and yet this man lives. Lives! Aye, he comes even into the senate. He takes part in the public deliberations; he is watching and marking down and checking off for slaughter every individual among us. And we, gallant men that we are, think that we are doing our duty to the republic if we keep out of the way of his frenzied attacks. You ought, O Catiline, long ago to have been led to execution by the command of the consul. That destruction which you have been long plotting against us ought to have fallen on your own head ---Cicero, O Tempora! O

• The conspiracy centered on a patrician named Lucius Sergius Catilina (103-62 BC) who served with Sulla during his second march on Rome.

• Catiline ran for Consul on three separate occasions, 66, 64, and 63 BC.• Catiline became furious after the Senate disqualified him from his first run for Consul and consequently, Catilina plans

to seize a consular position by force• Little evidence exists that supports Catilina’s involvement with the first conspiracy• Solid evidence remains about Catiline’s actual attempt to overthrow the Roman Senate during the Second

Catilinarian Conspiracy from 63-62 BC• Catiline proposed a new program called the novae tabulae (new tablets) which sought to erase debt. The program appealed to

the sentiment of those deeply in debt, but increased the chances of severe financial crisis for the Roman Republic.• Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) largely responsible for defeating Catalina’s Consular campaign• Catiline leads a failed revolt and is later killed by Senate forces• Cicero orders the execution of Roman citizens without due process• Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) as a young praetor argued against Cicero and the illegality of executing Roman citizens

without trial• The success of the Senate in preventing another attack on the Roman government remained largely a singular event• The fact that Catiline managed to raise and equip an army revealed the susceptibility of the Roman Republic to ambitious

individuals• The Catilinarian Conspiracy taught an important lesson to politically adept men like Caesar, who witnessed the physical and

political power of the military and veterans

Pompeius versus Caesar

• Caesar’s methodical climb to the eventual position of dictator, demonstrated Caesar’s political acumen as well as his military skills

• Caesar did not use the military against the citizens of Rome as a blunt object as Marius and Sulla did, but rather like a fine surgical instrument

• Caesar’s eventual conflict with Pompeius did not result from any poor political skills of Caesar, but from the Senate’s fear of Caesar’s growing power and the refusal of Pompeius to negotiate with Caesar

• Caesar chose one of the richest men Marcus Licinius Crassus (115-53 BC) and the successful military leader Pompeius as the two men to back his election bid for the consulship of 59 BC. This alliance between three key individuals in Roman politics marked the first triumvirate in Roman history and provided a mutually beneficial relationship between the three members. 4

4 Adrian Goldsworthy, Caesar: Life of a Colossus (New Haven: Yale University Press), 149; Ibid., 160; Philip Freeman, Julius Caesar (London,

UK: JR Books, 2008), 94.

• In 54 BC, Caesar’s daughter Julia died during childbirth thus severing the familial ties that Pompeius shared with Caesar and in 53 BC, Crassus died in a poorly executed campaign against the Parthians

• In 52 BC, rioting occurred because of two rival political factions and Cato pushed to appoint Pompeius as sole consul to restore order

• Caesar used his captured wealth to buy influence in the Roman Senate and to keep his exploits fresh in the minds of theplebes. Pompeius sought to mitigate Caesar’s military strength by demanding the recall of two of Caesar’s legions.

• Additionally, the Roman Senate demands Caesar return to Rome, surrender his remaining legion and face criminal charges• Caesar responds by crossing the Rubicon with one legion and marches on Rome• With only one legion, Caesar moved quickly and maintained the element of surprise. While Pompeius commanded a

larger force, it took time to muster his forces, and prudence prevented Pompeius from employing the recently returned Caesarian legions because of their questionable loyalty. Caesar also conducted a brilliant information campaign by preventing his soldiers from looting and promoting a clemency program against his opponents.

• Caesar’s speedy advance on Rome left Pompeius with few options and he, along with a sizeable contingent of the Roman Senate, fled Rome and traveled to Greece to marshal forces

• After Caesar entered Rome, the remaining senators appointed Caesar dictator and after only eleven days, Caesar stepped down as dictator, had himself appointed consul, left a portion of his forces in Rome under the command of Marcus Antonius (83-30 BC), and took the remainder of his forces to attack forces loyal to Pompeius in Hispania.5

• Caesar’s campaign in Hispania lasted approximately five months and by August 49 BC, Caesar defeated the forces loyal to Pompeius and many survivors joined the ranks of Caesar’s legions

5Plutarch, Lives: Caesar 37.1-2.

• While Caesar enjoyed victories in Hispania, his forces in North Africa under the command of Gaius Scribonius Curio suffered a terrible defeat from the forces of Attius Varius and King Juba of Numidia

• In the winter of 48 BC, Caesar sails across the Adriatic Sea and engages Pompeius in a siege for nearly five months inDyracchium. Caesar suffers a defeat, but Pompeius fails to exploit his advantage

• Pompeius failure to seize the tac)cal advantage displayed the lack of unity of command that his forces suffered from. There was only one Caesar, but the forces of Pompeius held many Senatorial generals who all sought to advise Pompeius on the course of the war

• Caesar eventually defeats Pompeius in 48 BC at the Battle of Pharsulus• After suffering defeat, Pompeius flees to Egypt and is stabbed to death by his men• Caesar defeats the majority of resistance by Pompeian supporters by 46 BC• One last group of resistance remains in Hispania and Caesar led forces on a year long campaign that ended in 45 BC• Caesar assassinated by the Roman Senate on 15 March 44 BC• Caesar recognized the inability of the Republican form of government to control vast territories and attempted to change the

system by centralizing the authority. The Senate resented a further erosion of their power and defaulted to violence which they previously used against the Gracchus brothers.

Octavian versus Antonius

• The chaotic aftermath of Caesar’s assassination caused great division within the Roman Senate and Roman territories• The period between 44-30 BC remained one of constant turmoil and warfare. The situation became so dire that at one point the

Roman Republic resembled an assortment of independent states under the control of military dictators. In the end, legislation by the Senate or effective governance did not restore order, rather the absolute victory through the application of overwhelming military force by Octavian forced peace upon Rome.

• The conflict between Antonius and Octavian, which began with a dispute about Octavian’s inheritance soon boiled out into theopen as Antonius prepared to leave his consulship and assume the governorship of Macedonia

• Antonius prepared to leave his consulship and assume the governorship of Macedonia and used legislative efforts to win additional troops and the territory of Cisalpine Gaul

• Octavian attempted to thwart Antonius’s efforts and aligned himself with Cicero and the optimates• Octavian, Pansa, and Hirtius won against Antonius in 43 BC but Antonius escaped with a large part of his force• Pansa and Hirtius die in the fighting and Octavian is left in charge of a consular army without the rank of consul• Octavian used his command to influence consular election and wins the consul in 43 BC

• Octavian rescinded the decree outlawing Antonius and in a display of Roman pragmatism, Octavian, Antonius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus entered into a formal alliance that the Popular Assembly recognized as a Second Triumvirate with a term of five years

• This Triumvirate differed from the previous Triumvirate because it was approved and ratified by the Popular Assembly. Ineffect, the Popular Assembly appointed a military autocracy with little or no oversight 6

• The Second Triumvirate chose proscription because without any oversight and little or no resistance to their edicts, the SecondTriumvirate acted as they wished in a brazen form of autocracy

• After amassing sufficient funding and resources, Antonius and Octavian began their campaign against Marcus Junius Brutus (85-42 BC) and Gaius Cassius Longinus (85-42 BC) in Macedonia. Antonius and Octavian defeated the forces of Brutus and Cassius in 42 BC at two separate battles at Philippi.

• The son of Gnaeus Pompeius, Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius (67-35 BC), sought to redress the wrong done to his father during the Caesarean Civil Wars. In 40 BC, Sextus applied enormous pressure on Octavian and Rome by maintaining a naval blockade that intercepted the grain shipments to Rome

• The eventual victory of Octavian in Sicily marked his ascendancy as the most powerful military leader in the triumvirate.Octavian now commanded some 500 to 600 warships in addition to the forty-five legions that he commanded and he further expanded his power by stripping his fellow triumvir Lepidus of his command. 7

• With the growing military power of Octavian, the friction between Antonius and Octavian grew and the final war of the RomanRepublic began as Octavian and Antonius sought to garner public support for their factions by launching disinformation campaigns against one another

6 Appian, The Civil Wars, 3.94; Michael Grant, History of Rome (New York: History Book Club, 1997), 242; Max Cary and Howard Hayes Scullard, A History of Rome: Down to the Reign of Constantine, 3rd ed. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1975), 287.7 Cary, A History of Rome, 293.

• In 34 BC, Antonius began the war of insults by conducting a triumphus in Alexandria• “And herein particularly did he give offence to the Romans, since he bestowed the honourable and solemn rites of his native

country upon the Egyptians for Cleopatra’s sake.” 8

• Octavian used the supposedly pro-Egyptian sentiment of Antonius to discredit him• In the winter of 31 BC, Octavian’s forces began their campaign against Cleopatra and Antonius, which culminated with a

sea battle at Actium• Although Cleopatra and Antonius managed to escape, they committed suicide the following year and the last civil war of

the Roman Republic ended. Octavian emerged as the richest man in Roman history and the commander of the largest Roman military force ever assembled 9

• Unlike Sulla, Octavian did not lay down the mantle of power and he lived long enough to enact lasting reforms that codified theprincipate into Roman law and ingrained his reforms into the psych of the populus Romanus.

8 Plutarch, Lives: Antony 50.4.9 Cary, A History of Rome, 296; Grant, History of Rome, 245.

Conclusion• Rome’s emergence from a Republic to a principate proved bloody and spanned over one hundred years, but the Republic had to

change in order for the Roman state to survive• The center of gravity moved from the Senate of Rome to the proconsuls and consuls that commanded the armies of Rome• The Roman army evolved from a militia-based army to a professional model to meet the needs of growing Roman Republic,

but the legions gradually turned from the Roman state and the concept of civic duty and turned instead to their generals for rewards and compensation.

• Alain de Lille wrote, “A thousand roads lead men forever to Rome,” but Roman legionnaires built those roads and it was upon their backs that men rose to power in the late Roman Republic. 10 The professionalization of the Roman army alienated the legions from the state and enabled the application of power by one individual to determine the domestic and foreign affairs of Rome.

10 Samuel Singer, Thesaurus proverbiorum medii aevi: Lexikon der Sprichwörter des romanisch-germanischen Mittelalters (Berlin: William de Gruyter, 1995), 355.

Quaestiōnēs?