Preparatory Program in Basic Science(PPBS001)

PART I PYSICS

Instructor: Prof.Dr.Hassan A.Mohammed

Syllabus: The course will cover the following topics

UNIT (0) INTRODUCING SCIENCE; MATH BACKGROUND

0.1 Science0.1.1 Useful Definitions 0.1.2 The Scientific Method0.1.3 Science Categories 0-5

0.2 Using Units in Science0.2.1 Rules for Using Units0.2.1.1 Citing physical quantities with unit0.2.1.2 Including units in intermediate steps0.2.1.3 Preserving dimensional consistency0.2.1.4 Keeping the correct case for units and prefixes0.2.2 The International System of Units (SI)0.2.2.1 Two Major Systems of Units0.2.2.2 Characteristics of the SI0.2.2.3 Conversion between the SI and USCS Systems

• 0.3 Trigonometry Overview• 0.3.1 Basic Ratios 0.3.2 The Unit Circle• 0.3.3 Sine Function • 0.4 Scalars and Vectors• 0.4.1 Definitions 0.4.2 Decomposing and Adding Vectors• 0.4.3 Scalar Product of Vectors 0.4.4 Vector Product of

Vectors

Unit (1 ) : MOTION :

• 1.1 Motion 1.1.1 Displacement & Distance• 1.1.2 Velocity & Speed 1.1.3 Acceleration• 1.2 Motion in One and Two Dimensions• 1.2.1 Linear (or 1-D) Motion 1.2.1.1 Description• 1.2.1.2 Acceleration of Gravity 1.2.1.3 Examples• 1.2.2 Planer (or 2-D) Motion 1.2.2.1 Description• 1.2.2.2 Relative Motion 1.2.2.3 Examples

2 - NEWTON’S LAWS :

2.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion2.1.1 Definitions 2.1.1.1 Inertia and Mass2.1.1.2 Force 2.1.1.3 Weight2.1.1.4 Mechanical Equilibrium 2.1.2 Statements of the 1st Law2.1.3 Spring-Effect Forces 2.1.3.1 Introducing the Spring2.1.3.2 Support Force Tension 2.1.4 Demonstrations of the 1st Law

2.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion2.2.1 Statement of the 2nd Law 2.2.2 Opposing Forces Friction 2.2.2.2 Inclined Plane Air Resistance Air Drag

2.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion2.3.1 Force, and the 3rd LawConceptual Physical Science vii M.M. al-Jibaly2.3.1.1 Defining Force 2.3.1.2 Statement of the 3rd Law2.3.1.3 Important notes 2.3.2 Examples of Newton’s Third Law2.3.2.1 Simple examples 2.3.2.2 The Horse’s Dilemma

UNIT ( II )

3 - MOMENTUM & IMPULSE:

3.1 Momentum

3.2 Impulse3.2.1 Definition 3.2.2 Relationship to Momentum3.2.3 Important notes 3.2.4 Car-Crash Example

3.3 Conservation of Momentum3.3.1 Derivation 3.3.2 Collisions3.3.2.1 Definition 3.3.2.2 Types3.3.2.3 Discussion 3.3.3 Simple Examples3.3.3.1 Zero Initial Speeds 3.3.3.2 Zero Final Speeds3.3.3.3 Worked Exercise

4- ENERGY, POWER, & SIMPLE MACHINES

4.1 Work, Energy, Power4.1.1 Work 4.1.1.1 Definition4.1.1.2 General Equation for Work 4.1.2 Energy 4.1.2.1 Definition4.1.2.2 Different Forms of Energy 4.1.2.3 Observing and Using Energy4.1.2.4 Conservation of Energy (and matter)4.1.2.5 Common Energy Units 4.1.3 Power 4.1.3.1 Definition4.1.3.2 Common Power Units

4.2 Mechanical Energy4.2.1 Potential Energy 4.2.1.1 Definition4.2.1.2 Forms of Potential Energy 4.2.1.3 Gravitational Potential Energy4.2.1.4 Important Notes 4.2.2 Kinetic Energy4.2.2.1 Definition 4.2.2.2 Derivation4.2.2.3 Important Notes4.2.3 Example of Mechanical Energy4.2.3.1 Pile Driver 4.2.3.2 Throwing a Ball4.2.3.3 Bicycle up a Hill 4.2.3.4 Pendulum.

4.3 Efficiency Definition Example : Friction4.4 Simple Machines4.4.1 Definition 4.4.2 Types 4.4.3 Law4.5 Worked Exercises

UNIT ( III)5- ELECTRICITY5.1 Electrostatics5.1.1 The Atom 5.1.1.1 Constituents5.1.1.2 Atomic Charges 5.1.1.3 Large-Scale Charges5.1.1.4 Conservation of Charge 5.1.2 Coulomb’s Law5.1.2.1 Statement of the Law 5.1.2.2 Important Notes5.1.3 Electric Field and Potential . 5.1.3.1 Electric Field 5.1.3.2 Electric Potential5.1.3.3 Capacitors 5.1.4 Conductors and Insulators5.1.4.1 Definitions 5.1.4.2 Charge Polarization 5.1.4.3 Lightning5.1.5 Charging Methods5.1.5.1 Charging by Friction 5.1.5.2 Charging by Contact5.1.5.3 Charging by Induction 5.1.5.4 Charging by Conduction

5.2 Electrodynamics

5.2.1 Electric Current 5.2.1.1 Definition5.2.1.2 Important Notes 5.2.2 Electric Resistance5.2.2.1 Definition 5.2.2.2 Resistivity5.2.3 Charge “Pumps” 5.2.4 Electric Circuits5.2.4.1 Ohm’s Law 5.2.4.2 Series circuits5.2.4.3 Parallel circuits 5.2.5 Electric Power

5.3 Alternating Voltage5.3.1 Definition 5.3.2 Wave Behavior and Rectification5.3.2.1 Wave Behavior 5.3.2.2 Rectification5.3.3 Safety Considerations

UNIT (IV) ;6- ATOMS, ELEMENTS, & THE PERIODIC TABLE

6.1 Introduction: the Submicroscopic World

6.2 Atoms

6.2.1 The Smallest Building Blocks 6.2.2 The Atom’s Three Constituents6.2.3 Charges within the Atom 6.2.4 The Atom is Mostly Empty6.2.4.1 Distances inside the Atom 6.2.4.2 A Puzzling Question

6.3 Atomic and Mass Numbers, and Atomic Mass

6.3.1 Atomic Number 6.3.1.1 Notes6.3.2 Mass Number 6.3.3 Masses within the Atom6.3.3.1 Note6.4 Elements and Isotopes6.4.1 Elements 6.4.2 Isotopes6.4.2.1 Examples 6.4.2.2 Notes

6.5 The Periodic Table6.5.1 Overview 6.5.2 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids6.5.2.1 Metals 6.5.2.2 Nonmetals6.5.2.3 Hydrogen 6.5.2.4 Metalloids6.5.3 Organization of the Periodic Table6.5.3.1 Groups 6.5.3.2 Periods6.5.3.3 Inner Transition Metals

7- PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL PROPERTIES; COMPOUNDS .

7.1 What Is Chemistry? 7.1.1 The Science of Matter 7.1.3 Basic vs. Applied Research7.2 Physical & Chemical Properties7.2.1 Phases of Matter 7.2.1.1 Defining the Three Phases7.2.1.2 Change of Phase7.2.2 Physical Properties7.2.2.1 Description 7.2.2.2 Physical Change7.2.2.3 Examples 7.2.3 Chemical Properties7.2.3.1 Description 7.2.3.2 Chemical Change7.2.3.3 Examples7.2.4 Between Physical & Chemical Changes

7.3 Molecules and Compounds7.3.1 Molecules 7.3.2 Compounds7.3.3 Naming Compounds7.3.3.1 Guideline 1 7.3.3.2 Guideline 27.3.3.3 Guideline 37.4 Mixtures7.4.1 Definition 7.4.2 Examples7.4.3 Types of Mixtures 7.4.4 Separating Mixtures

UNIT (V) :8- BONDING .

Introduction8.1 Chemical Bonding8.1.1 Introduction 8.1.2 Arrangment of Electrons8.1.2.1 Electron Shells 8.1.2.2 Valence Electrons8.1.2.3 Electron-Dot Structures8.1.3 Role of Valence Electrons in Bonding8.1.3.1 Paired and Unpaired Electrons 8.1.3.2 The Octet Rule8.1.3.3 Application of the Octet Rule

8.2 Ion Formation and Bonding8.2.1 Forming Ions 8.2.1.1 Guidelines8.2.1.2 Important Notes 8.3 Ionic Bonds 8.3.1 Definition 8.3.2 Important Notes8.4 Metallic Bonds8.4.1 Definition8.5 Covalent Bonds8.5.1 Definition 8.5.2 Important Notes8.6 Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules8.6.1 Definition

9- CHEMICAL REACTIONS:

Introduction9.1 Chemical Equations9.1.1 Reactants & Products9.1.2 Mass Conservation & Balancing9.1.3 Balancing Unbalanced Equations

9.2 Acid, Bases, and Their Reactions

9.2.1 Acids 9.2.1.1 Examples9.2.2 Bases 9.2.2.1 Examples9.2.3 Acid-Base Reactions9.2.3.1 Definition 9.2.3.2 Examples9.2.3.3 Reverse Reaction 9.2.3.4 Worked Example9.2.4 Salts9.2.4.1 Definition 9.2.4.2 Examples9.2.4.3 Neutralization 9.2.4.4 Notes .

9.3 Molecular Ions

9.4 Solutions9.4.1 Definitions 9.4.2 Types of Solutions9.4.3 Saturation and Concentration9.4.3.1 Saturation 9.4.3.2 Concentration9–1619.4.3.4 Molarity9.5 Acidic, Basic, and Neutral Solutions9.5.1 Amphoteric Substances 9.5.2 Three Types of Aqueous Solutions9.5.2.1 Neutral Solution 9.5.2.2 Acidic Solution9.5.2.3 Basic Solution 9.5.2.4 Notes

9.6 The pH Scale9.6.1 Logarithms 9.6.2 pH

9.7 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions9.7.1 Definition 9.7.2 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents9.7.3 Methods of Identifying Oxidation-Reduction9.7.3.1 First Method 9.7.3.2 Second Method9.7.3.3 Third Method

Lecture 1 & 2

UNIT (1) : 1- MOTION

1.1 Motion :

Motion is the study of an object’s change of location .

An object’s motion is determined by its

displacement (d), velocity (v), and acceleration (a).

Object: car – crate(box)- rock-ball –boat-child

1.1.1 Displacement & Distance :

Displacement is a vector quantity.

It represents the distance covered by an object and the

direction in which the object moved.

We usually use the symbol ( d ) for displacement.

The magnitude (d) of the displacement is a scalar quantity

called distance. The SI unit for distance is the meter

(m).

1.1.2 Velocity & Speed:

Velocity is defined as the rate of change in displacement:

Velocity = displacement ÷ time interval, or :

v = d / ∆ tSpeed is the magnitude (v) of the velocity. It is a measure of how

fast an object moves, or the rate at which distance is covered.

Objects rarely move at a constant speed. Speed usually fluctuates

and it is more correct to define the average speed as:

Average speed = distance covered ÷ time interval, or:

vave = v = d / ∆ t

The SI unit for speed is: meter per second (m/s).

A commonly used unit is the

kilometer per hour (km/h).

The USCS unit for speed is the mile per hour (mi/h),

used on American car speedometers .

It is easy to show that these units are related as

follows:

1 m/s = 3.6 km/h = 2.24 mi / h.

Example:

Using the same data as in the earlier example of

displacement, assume that the two objects covered d1

and d2 in 10 and 4 seconds, respectively

We conclude that:

v1 = 10 m / 10 s = 1 m/s v1 = 1 m/s, due east

v2 = 8 m / 4 s = 2 m/s v 2= 2 m/s, 30º north of east.

1.1.3 Acceleration:

Acceleration, ( a ), is the rate of change in velocity:

Acceleration = velocity change ÷ time interval, or:

Obviously, a is a vector quantity. In this equation, vi is the

initial velocity, and vf is the final velocity. The SI unit for

acceleration is meter per second squared (m/s2).

The magnitude of acceleration can be positive or

negative. A negative acceleration means that the

velocity decreases. Negative acceleration is also

called deceleration.

In our discussion, we refer to the three vectors:

d, v, and a, as the motion vectors.

1.2 Motion in One and Two Dimensions

1.2.1 Linear (or 1-D) Motion

1.2.1.1 Description

An object moving along a straight line is said to be in linear motion .

This is the simplest form of motion, and we deal with it in most of our

discussion of motion. A simple example of linear motion is a car moving

along a straight and Level road.

Assume that an object in linear motion is subjected to a constant acceleration (a), covering a distance (d) in a time interval (t). Let its initial and final speeds over this distance be vi and vf . From this, we can derive the following important equations of motion:

1.2.1.2 Acceleration of GravityAn important example of linear motion is:: motion under the effect of the

Earth’s gravitational field. This field produces an acceleration of

gravity, g, that acts on all objects within it. g always points

downward toward the center of Earth. The value of g decreases

with altitude and its value at sea-level is:

When an object is in free fall, its motion can be described by the above equations, replacing “a” with “g”.

1.2.2 Planer (or 2-D) Motion;

1.2.2.1 DescriptionPlaner motion is motion that takes place within just one planeWe also call it two-dimensional (2-D) motion.To solve planer motion problems,

the motion vectors are sometimes decomposed to components in two directions (such as x and y). The components in each direction are then treated as in linear motion. We will apply this approach later in our study of the inclined plane.

1.2.2.3 Examples

1. Assume that an arrow is

shot horizontally from a

height (h) with a speed (v),

and that air resistance is negligible.

We can decompose the arrow’s motion into a vertical part,

which is free fall, and a horizontal part, which has constant

speed. Using the earlier equations of motion, we can then

say that:

2. A man swims across a

river with a velocity Vm,and the

velocity of the river’s downstream

current is (Vc) .Normally, Vm is given

relative to the river, and Vc is given

relative to land.

From these, we can calculate

the man’s velocity relative to land

as:

3. A man moves with a velocity V m-s on

board of a ship that travels at a velocity V s-b

relative to a fixed bridge. We can calculate

the man’s speed as observed from the

bridge as :

Vm-b = Vm-s + Vs-b

Φ is the angle between Vm-s and Vs-b

. When Φ = 0º or 180º, the motion reduces

to linear motion as shown; and when Φ =

90º, the net velocity can be calculated using

the Pythagoras theorem.

Examples:

Information you might need:

d =1/2at2 +Vi t Vf2 -Vi

2 = 2ad Vavg = Vi + Vf/ /2 = d/t

a = Vf -Vi / t g = 10 m /s2 1m / s = 3.6km /h

F = m.a d = v √(2h/g)

A100-kg crate is moved along in a linear path;1-The crate is pushed a distance of 10m in 5 seconds. Its average speed is;(a) 1 m/s (b) 2m/s (c) 3m/s (d) 4m/s

2- The crate is pushed to increase its speed from 3 m/s to 5 m/s. Its average speed is:(a) 1 m/s (b) 2m/s (c) 3m/s (d) 4m/s

3- If the crate is pushed to increase its speed from 1 m/s to 3 m/s in 4-seconds, its average acceleration is : (a) 1 m/s2 (b) 2 m/s2 (c) 0.5 m/s2 (d) 4 m/s2

4- If the crate is pushed with a force of 200 N , its acceleration is : (a) 1 m/s2 (b) 2 m/s2 ( c) 0.5 m/s2 (d) 4 m/s2

5-Velocity is the same as:(a)displacement (b)deceleration c)average speed (d)directed speed

Lecture 3 & 4

2 -NEWTON’S LAWS:

2.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion

2.1.1 Definitions2.1.1.1 Inertia and Mass:

Inertia is a natural concept that means : if the object is at rest, it tries to remain at rest; and if it is moving, it tries to continue moving.

Inertia is an object’s opposition to changing its current state of motion.

An object’s inertia depends on the amount of matter

it contains: the more the matter, the more the inertia.

The quantity that describes the amount of matter in

an object is called “mass”

Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. It is also a measure of an object’s inertia.

We use the symbol “m” for mass; and its SI is the kilogram (kg).

2.1.1.2 Force:

We define force as a pull or push.

Force is what causes acceleration and motion.

Forces can be

gravitational ,electric ,magnetic ,nuclear or, simply,

muscular.

To fully know the effect of a force, we must know its

magnitude and direction. Therefore, force is a

vector quantity. We usually use the symbol F for

force. The SI unit for force is the Newton (N).

When more than one force act on an object, we often need to calculate the net force acting on the object. The net force is the VECTOR sum (or resultant) of the individual forces:

Net force is also called unbalanced

2.1.1.3 Weight

Weight is the force acting on an object because of gravity.

We use the symbol w for weight; and its unit is the Newton (N) – since it is a force. From its definition, we note that weight is proportional to the gravitational acceleration (g). Weight w is also proportional to the object’s amount of matter (or mass m). Therefore, we conclude: w = m × g ; a vector always pointing down toward the Earth’s center.

2.1.1.4 Mechanical Equilibrium

When no net force acts on an object ( ΣF = 0 ), we say then

that the object is in mechanical equilibrium

From this, we conclude that mechanical equilibrium is two types:a)Static equilibrium : when the object does not move (v = 0).b)Dynamic equilibrium : when the object moves with constant velocity.

2.1.2 Statements of the 1st Law:

Newton’s 1st law of motion (also known as the inertia law) states that:

In other words, we may restate this law as follows:

When no net external force acts on an object, it remains in a state of uniform motion.

Here, “uniform motion is motion with a constant velocity, v.

When no net external force acts on an object, itsvelocity remains constant.

From the earlier discussion of acceleration, we know that a constant velocity means zero acceleration. Therefore, we may also restate this law as:.

From the concept of mechanical equilibrium, we may again restate Newton’s 1st law as:

When no net external force acts on an object, itsacceleration remains zero

When no net external force acts on an object, it is inmechanical equilibrium.

The above four equivalent statements of Newton’s 1st law are summarized in the following table:

2.1.3 Spring-Effect Forces

2.1.3.1When a spring is stretched, it tries to

Contract and when compressed ,it tries to

expand. The spring’s force F is proportional

(but opposite to) the change in its length (∆x).

This is known as Hooke’s law,

and is written (in 1-D) as:

F = - k ·∆x

where k is a constant (unit: N/s2)

that indicates the spring’s stiffness

2.1.3.2 Support Force:

According to Newton’s 1st law,

the net force on the book is zero.

Since we know that this object is

acted upon by the gravitational

force (i.e., its weight) there must

be an equal and opposite

force,FN, to cancel it and make

the net force zero. This force is

called the “support” force

It is important to note that the support force is always

perpendicular to the surface on which the object

rests, which means that it is NOT NECESSARILY

vertical. It is vertical only when the object rests on a

horizontal surface.

The support force is what gives the reading of a weighing scale.

2.1.3.3 TensionIf a load hangs motionless from a rope, it has zero acceleration, which means that there is zero net force acting on it. Since we know that the load is acted upon bythe gravitational force, there must be an equal and opposite force, T, to cancel it and make the net force zero. This force is called “tension”

FN = W = m g

T = = W = m g

Example: In the figure below, a painter stands on a painting staging (H) that hangs from two ropes attached to a high roof. The system is in static equilibrium, which means:

2.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion2.2.1 Statement of the 2nd LawApplying a force on an object produces acceleration. In the figure, we see that increasing the force produces more acceleration, and that increasing the object’s mass causes the acceleration to decrease. Therefore, we conclude Newton’s 2nd law of motion:An object’s acceleration is directlyProportional to the net appliedforce and inversely proportionalto the object’s mass.

From this, we note that:1. The unit of force, Newton, is the force needed to accelerate a 1-kg mass by 1 m/s2.2. The weight-mass relationship can now be re-derived:

3. The 1st law is a special case of the 2nd law, with

Examples:

A 50- Kg barrel is pushed along a linear path:

1- If the barrel speed increases from 2m/s to 4m/s over a distance of 3m, its acceleration is:(a) 1 m/s2 (b) 2 m/s2 (c) 0.5 m/s2 (d) 4 m/s2

2-If the barrel is pushed with a net force of 50 N , its acceleration is:(a) 1 m/s2 (b) 2 m/s2 (c) 0.5 m/s2 (d) 4 m/s2 3- The normal force on the barrel is:(a) 0 N (b) 5 N (c) 500 N (d) 50 N

4-The measurement in a bathroom scale is caused by : (a)Dynamic force (b)tension force ( c) electric force (d) support force

5-The measurements in a hanging scale is caused by; (a)Dynamic force (b)tension force ( c) electric force (d) support force

6-If a moving car makes a sudden stop , the passengers fall forward. This is explaained by: (a) lnertia (b) gravitation (c) acceleration (d) friction

2.2.2 Opposing ForcesOpposing forces are forces that oppose the normal course of motion. In this subsection, we discuss two such forces: friction between surfaces, and air resistance.

2.2.2.1 Friction:When we apply a force to slide one surface against another, we feel an opposite force trying to

prevent the sliding. This force is called the force of friction. No sliding will take place unless the force we apply overcomes the frictional force.

Important Notes:

1. When we push a stationary object to slide, “static” friction pushes back

with an equal force: Ff . If we increase our push, Ff increases. Both forces

continue to increase until we can overcome the maximum frictional force, at

which point the object starts moving.

2. Once the object starts moving, the “dynamic” friction becomes lessthan the “static” friction, and our excess pushing force would cause the object to accelerate. The following figure shows a plot of friction versus applied force where motion starts when the applied force is 50 N.

3. We may then decrease our force to justcancel the “moving” frictional force, causingthe object to move with constant velocity (zeroacceleration), as in the example shown in theadjacent sketch.

4. we note that an increase in the normal force would act like adding glue between the two surfaces. Thus, it is easier to push an empty crate (less glue) than a crate full of books (more glue). We conclude that friction is proportional to the magnitude of the normal force:Ff F∝ N.

5.The last relationship can be converted to equality by introducing a constant. μ is an empirical constant called the coefficient of friction. It is dimensionless, and it gives the relative frictional values for different pairs of surfaces.Thus we have:

2.2.2.2 Inclined PlaneIf an object of mass (m) rests on a ramp of angle θ, its weight (w =m × g)can be decomposed into two components, one perpendicular to the surface ( ), and one parallel to it (From the adjacent diagram, we have:

We saw earlier that the magnitude of the normal force always equals

Any object falling in normal (non-vacuum)conditions is subject to air resistance. Air resistance (FR) arises from the bombardmentof the falling object with air molecules, which produces an opposing force from the air molecules on the object. The following factors increase bombardment rate and, consequently, air resistance:1. Object’s cross-sectional area FR A.∝2. The square of the object’s speed: FR v∝ 2

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