PREfACE - Higher Education | Pearsontailed and rigid in their approach to required design steps at a...

PREfACE

The loftier the building, the deeper must the foundation be laid.

—Attributed to thomAs À Kempis

Why ThIS BOOk WAS WRITTEN

As the Industrial Age cast its long shadow over the twentieth century, America experienced an urgent, unprecedented demand for a modernized citizenry and workforce. It was in this era that the practice known as instructional design emerged as a respected way of preparing instruction for education and training. In his landmark 1977 text, design pioneer Leslie Briggs proposed that using a prescribed, orderly sequence of steps, each step creating a product and building on the steps before it, helps solve one of the most complex chal-lenges modern educators and trainers face: how to create instruction that consistently achieves desired results over time and across students. Though never proposed as a foolproof method, nor touted as the only path to good teaching, systematically applied instructional design offers logical—what some would call “common sense”—procedures for generating effective instructional solutions.

Changing times, however, have a way of disturbing the foundations of long-established principles. The last decades, tumultuous and transformed by technology, was a time of rumbling challenges to some of education’s most fundamental concepts. Just when the answers to doing good design seemed solid and unshakeable, the questions themselves changed in form and character. As terms such as constructivism and virtual environments began to dominate design conversations, the underpinnings of traditional systematic instructional design methods seemed to some to slip away. This textbook proposes that the following themes are critically important in order to make time-honored instructional design procedures an even sturdier basis for building instruction to meet today’s complex needs.

•Emphasizing essential qualities of effective design. Over the years since instructional design evolved into a systematic set of prescribed procedures, some designers have become increasingly de-tailed and rigid in their approach to required design steps at a time when flexibility and adaptation are becoming synonymous with survival. As Leslie Briggs stressed, design should be an “orderly but flexible sequence” (p. 7). This textbook focuses on the essential features of systematic design that offer clear benefits for improved results while still allowing maximum flexibility in how to carry them out in ways that address variations in design environments.

•Illustrating design methods appropriate for any learning paradigm. Briggs also maintained that instructional design should be “value-free . . . a problem solving methodology, not a position on what the goals or methods of instruction should be” (p. 16). This text shows how instructional design can be useful for creating effective materials and strategies for traditional, teacher-led classroom instruction, as well as for the inquiry-based, often-online, learning environments that have emerged in schools and training organizations in recent years.

•Demonstrating design for new technologies. As the capabilities of technologies to support teaching and learning have evolved, it has become clear that new learning platforms (what some designers call media or delivery systems) present dramatically different design challenges and call for very different development procedures than those for in-person instruction. Just as architects adapt their structural designs and building procedures according to the inherent qualities of various materials and sites they select (or are given to use), good instructional design requires carefully arranging the environment in which instruction will be used, thus creating a reliable structure to support learning. This text offers specific guidelines gleaned from both research and practice for how to create materials in ways that both manage the unique design challenges of distance and multimedia technologies and take advantage of their capabilities.

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xii Preface

•Recognizing that learning to design is different from designing. Design in real-world environ-ments is a complex enterprise, each project fraught with new and unique problems and questions that would not usually surface in a semester-long college classroom or week-long workshop, let alone be ad-dressed sufficiently in a textbook. Most current designers seem to agree that, though basic design skills remain crucial, experience in solving real-world design problems and in working with a design team are vital qualities for those who provide today’s instructional solutions. This textbook emphasizes that a first course on instructional design should help students focus on the rationale for each design step and design fundamentals, while giving them glimpses into real-world applications through examples and hands-on work with their own design projects. Each chapter provides explanation, example student projects, self-check exercises, and project criteria that help both students and instructors address design fundamentals that are achievable in a first course.

The purposes of this book are, therefore, to provide an accessibly-written, easy-to-understand introduc-tion to instructional design that shows novices to the field how they can begin to apply systematic methods to their own design work; and to offer essential information about instructional design steps and processes that can increase the likelihood of instruction achieving desired results, even for today’s complex, multimedia and distance learning environments.

Though new and daunting challenges have emerged in education and training, this text proposes that the systematic methods described so long ago by Briggs remain relevant and vital. These are methods that can help prepare instructional designers to be astute architects of twenty-first century education and training.

WhO CAN USE ThIS TExTBOOk

This text has been created as an introduction to systematic instructional design concepts. It is most useful to those students and current professional educators and trainers who are new to the practice of systems-based instructional design, including: school teachers and school district staff development personnel; university faculty and trainers; trainers in business, industry, medicine, and the military; and any other personnel who need new tools to help them fulfill their assignments to create effective instruction.

COmpONENTS IN EACh ChApTER

Each chapter helps support both instructors and student by providing:

•Opening organizers. These include a list of topics and outcomes to be covered and a hypothetical scenario that sets the stage for the problems and issues central to the chapter.

•Audio overview. Chapters 2 through 9 in the Pearson eText* have author-recorded audio overviews of the chapter, describing why the step covered in that chapter helps make the instruction product more successful.

•Two teaching sections. For each design step, first we provide a section of background on essential concepts, followed by a “how-to” section with explanation and examples.

•Four example student projects. These are artifacts, in the Pearson eText*, from design projects cre-ated by students in various education and training settings, each illustrating how to carry out the design steps described in the chapters.

•Self-check activities. These are activities in the Pearson eText* at the end of each content section, each matched to chapter outcomes, that encourage review of concepts and practice with topics students have just read about.

•Chapter summaries and end-of-chapter exercises. These end-of-chapter materials in the Pearson eText* help students review and reflect on the key terms and main ideas of each chapter.

•Student project assessment aids. These checklists guide and assess students’ products at each design step.

*These enhancements are only available in the Pearson eText, and will not be available in third-party eTexts such as CourseSmart or Kindle versions. To learn more about the Pearson eText, please go to www.pearsonhighered.com/etextbooks.

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1

1Rationale for Using a Systematic Instructional Design Approach

Chapter 1 Topics

▪ Why educators and trainers learn instructional design

▪ Origins of systems methods and characteristics of current design models

▪ Essential characteristics of all systematic design models

▪ Criticisms of systematic instructional design processes

▪ Essential characteristics of this text’s approach to instructional design

▪ How new designers will learn a systematic approach using this textbook

Chapter 1 Learning Outcomes

1. In scenarios describing systematic instructional design situations, identify which type of desirable results the activity could help achieve.

2. Explain the evolution of instructional design approaches by identifying the order in which key activities came about.

3. Identify essential characteristics of any systematic approach to designing instruction.

4. Identify some of the criticisms of past systematic design approaches and models.

5. Identify characteristics of the instructional design approach used in this textbook.

6. Analyze scenarios to identify problems that caused instruction to fail, and to identify features of the instructional design approach used in this textbook that could have prevented them.

7. Compare instructional design skills of apprentice designers learning from this textbook to those of experienced designers who have been applying the skills for some time.

Let us watch well our beginnings, and results will manage themselves.

—AlexAnder ClArk

(1826–1891)

Chapter

# 151252 Cust: Pearson Au: Robyler Pg. No. 1 Title: An Introduction to Systematic Instructional Design, 1/e Server:

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2 PartI • Analysis

SCENARIOA results-driven approach to creating instruction

Twogoodfriends,BillandCory,meetafterworkonedayinacoffeeshop.Billisaninth-gradeteacherinajuniorhighschoolandCoryisatrainingmanagerinaninsur-ancecompany.

“ThisdayremindsmeofthatoldChineseproverb:‘Mayyouliveininterestingtimes’,”saidBill,sittingdownheavily.“Youknowthetechnologicalrevolutionwe’vebeenhearingabout?Well,itcametoroostonmydesktoday.”

“Really?”saidCory.“Whathappened?”“RememberthehealtheducationcourseIhavebeenteaching,theonethedistrict

administratorsweresopleasedwith? It seems theywere really impressedwithmyInternetactivitiesandthePowerPointpresentationsIdesigned,somyprincipaltoldmetodaytheywanttocreateacurriculumofourcorecoursesinonlineformat.Oneofthecorecoursesishealtheducation,andtheythinkI’mjusttheguytoputthatoneonlineasamodelfortheothers.”

Corylaughed,“Didyouknowtheysaytherearetwootherproverbsthatgowiththatfirstone?Itsoundslikethesecondonealsocametrueforyou:‘Mayyoucometotheattentionofimportantpeople.’NowyouknowwhatIwentthroughatwork.Ihadtoputmyharassment-preventionworkshoponline,too,youknow.”

Billlookedrueful,“IwishIcouldsaythere’sanappforthat.Iwasstillintheprocessof figuringoutwhat todoabout someof thehandouts andactivities thatweren’tworkingsowell.”Hesighed,“IguessI’lljustputallthematerialsinadigitalformat,uploadthemalltothedistrict’sMoodlesite,andtrytofigureouthowtomakeitallworktogetherlater.Butmaybeyoucouldgivemesomepointers?”

“I’dbegladto,Bill!”saidCory,beaming.“Themainthingistodesignthecoursefirst, then design the space to house it. This is your golden opportunity to createsomethingthatworksgreatforthekidsandmakesgooduseoftheonlineformat. Iwasluckytobeabletoattendsomeinstructionaldesignworkshopsonhowtocreateonlineandblendedunitsandcourses.Whenthecompanyagreedtosendmetothetraining,oneofthefirstthingswelearnedisthatit’snotjustamatterofuploadingeverythingyouarealreadydoing.Youreallyhavetofocusmoreonstructureand,ofcourse,buildingininteractiontotaketheplaceofbeinginaface-to-faceclassroom.Thegoodnewsisthatthecourseworkssomuchbetternowthaniteverdidbefore.Evaluations are consistently positive, and almost everyone passes the course the firsttime.”

Billshookhisheadmournfully.“Itsoundslikealotofwork,”hesaid.Butthenhelookedhopeful.“Howdidyoumakeitworksowell?”heasked.“Yousayeveryonepassesit?”

“Nearlyeveryone,”saidCory,nodding.“Abigpartofitssuccesswastheresultof theanalysisandplanning thatgoes into it.Thesequence isnowsolid;when itwasin-person,wewereassumingsomeskillsinthefirstlessonsthatweweren’tre-allyteachinguntillater,andpeopleweregettingconfused.Thewayweweretestingthemwasn’tthatgreat,either.Itreallyhelpedwhenwefieldtestedthecomponents.Wewereabletoreviseeachofthembeforethecoursewentactive.It’sreallyagreatcoursenow;theemployeeslikebeingabletoworkonitwhenevertheyhavetime,wedon’thavetoarrangeworkshopsthattakeemployeesawayfromtheirwork,andIloveteachingit!”

“Maybe the districtwould agree to sendme to thatworkshop youwent to,” Bill said thoughtfully. “Maybebefore Icandevelopanonlinecourse, Ineedsometrainingmyself.”


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Chapter1 • RationaleforUsingaSystematicInstructionalDesignApproach 3

“Soundslikeaplan,”saidCory.“JustbecarefulofthatthirdChineseproverbintheseries: ‘Mayyourwishesbegranted.’Youcouldbecomeyourdistrict’sgo-todesigner!”

FOUNDATION CONCEPTS OF SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

The term instructional design is a generic one, commonly used to mean any approachtocreateinstruction.Thischapterservestointroducetheconceptandpro-ceduresofsystematic instructional designbyexplaininghowitdiffersfromotherdesignapproaches,howithasevolvedovertheyearssinceitwasfirstused,andhowtoday’sdesignersuseit.

Why Systematic Instructional Design? The Need for a Results-Oriented Approach

The conversation between Bill and Cory, representatives of two different teaching cultures,focusesonthe“results”thatClarkspokeofinthischapter’sopeningquotation.Asonecompanypresidentsaid,“Ourclientsarenotaskingforprofessionalism,theyareaskingforresults.Nothingismoreprofessionalthanresults”(Zemke&Rossett,2002a,p.34).Regardlessofdifferencesintheirteachingenvironmentsorsubjectmatter,profes-sionaleducatorsmustconfirmthattheirinstructionhasbeensuccessful.Perhapsthatiswhythemethodsdescribedinthisbookareusefulinsomanydifferentsettings:Theyprovidetheessentialplanningand“beginnings”thatcreatethehoped-forresults.Inthisdiscussion,instructional designmeanssystematic instructional design:asetofproce-duresforplanninganddevelopingteachingmethodsandmaterialstohelpmakesuretheyachievedesiredresults.TheseproceduresarealsobecomingincreasinglyimportantaseducatorssuchasBillandCoryfacethechallengesofcreatingortransferringinstruc-tiontoanonlineorblendedenvironmentinawaythattakesfulladvantageofthecapa-bilitiestheseenvironmentshavetooffer.Thefollowingarethekeyresultsindicatorsthateducatorslookfortoconfirmthatinstructiondoesthejobitwasdesignedtoaccomplish.

1. Students are motivated to learn and are kept engaged in learning. Sys-tematicmethodsworktoensurethatstudentsaremotivated.Theycallforana-lyzinglearnercharacteristicstoidentifywhatwilldrawlearnersintothelearningenvironmentandkeeptheminterestedinlearning.Systematicmethodsalsocallforcreatingorlocatingmaterialsandstrategiesbasedonthefindingsofananaly-sisoflearnercharacteristics.

2. Standards are addressed and students can pass required tests. Thefocusofasystematicapproach to instructionaldesign is identifyingdesiredcompe-tenciesandverifyingthatinstructionisdesignedtomakesurestudentsacquirethesecompetencies.Competencieseithermaybebasedonstandardsthatstu-dentsmustmeetontestsordesired“habitsofmind”thatteacherswantstudentstopracticeintheirlearning—oracombinationofboth.

3. Instruction meets needs of learners with differing ability levels. Part of aninstructionaldesignplanrequires identifyingtheenablingandprerequisiteknowledgeandskillsthatstudentsmusthaveinordertolearnthedesiredcom-petencies.Italsorequiresdescribingtheconditionsthatwillhelpstudentslearn.Suchanalyseshelp teachersmorequickly identifywhat studentsbring to thelearningtasksandhowtheymaybehelpedtohigherlevelsoflearning.Designmethodsalsocall for creating strategies tomanage instruction foragroupofstudentswithvarying“entrylevels.”


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4. Instruction is consistently successful in various situations. Partofasys-tematic instructional design process requires designers to review and try outinstructionwith students, findoutwhatworksandwhatdoesnotwork, andreviseittomakeitbetterabletomeetitsownstatedobjectives.Whenpossible,tryoutsaredonebypeopleotherthantheone(s)whodesignedittohelpensureinstructioncanachieveconsistentresultswheneveritisused.

Designprocessesthatincorporatetheabovekey-resultsindicatorshelpmeetthechallengesteachersandtrainersfaceandincreasethelikelihoodthattheirinstructionachieves theresults theywant. Instructionaldesign isdone inorder toanswer thefollowingquestionsaboutinstructionalmethodsandmaterialsbefore theyareusedwiththegeneralpopulationofstudentsforwhomtheywereintended:

•Doestheinstructionhelpstudentslearn?•Doestheinstructionkeepstudentsengagedinlearning?•Cantheinstructionhelpteachersandtrainersmeettheneedsofstudentswith

varyingabilitylevels?•Doestheinstructionworkwellovertimeandwithsimilargroupsoflearners?

Throughoutitslife,theconceptofdesigninginstructionhasenjoyedsuchwide-spreadappealthatseveraldifferentperspectiveshavearisenonwhatitisandhowbesttoaccomplishit.Anoverviewofpastandcurrentperspectivesoninstructionaldesignwillhelpclarifywhere the termoriginatedandhowthemethodsdiscussedhereevolvedfromthesebeginnings.

Check Your Understanding 1.1

Objective 1 Exercise—Characteristics of Successful Instruction.Foreachoftheinstruc-tionaldesignactivitieslistedbelow,identifyfromthefollowinglisttheinstructionalresultitisdesignedtoachieve.Puttheletter(s)ofthedesiredresultsbesidethenumberofeachactivitydescription.Asingleactivitymayachievemorethanoneresult.

Desired results: A. Studentsaremotivatedtolearnandarekeptengagedinlearning. B. Standardsareaddressedandstudentscanpassrequiredtests. C. Instructionmeetsneedsoflearnerswithdifferingabilitylevels. D. Instructionisconsistentlysuccessfulinvarioussituations.

______ 1. Atrainerforanursingcertificationprogramispreparinganonline,self-instructionalmoduleforRNstoupdatetheirknowledgeofpresurgicalprocedures.Sheana-lyzes theenabling skills required foreachof thenewstate standards in thisareaandmakes sure the instruction is closelymatched to skills required for eachstandard.

______ 2. Thewritinginstructorforthedistrict’supper-levelalternativeschoolplanswrit-ingactivitiesmatchedtotheinterestsofteenagestudents.Heknowsthatmanyofthesestudentsaremorelikelytowanttowritebetteriftheyhaveanidentifiedaudience,sohearranges“e-pals”inothercitiesandcountrieswithwhomtheycancorrespondandworkwithonwritingprojects.

______ 3. Thetrainingdirectorforaninsurancecompanypreparesavideo-basedtrainingpackageforcustomerrelationspersonnelonhowtocarryoutthecompany’scustomer complaints policy. He asks two local human resources supervisorstoreviewthetrainingmaterialsandgivehimtheircomments,andhehastwoexperiencedcustomerrelationsemployeesgothroughtheentirepackageasstu-dents.Healsorequestsagroupofcustomerrelationsemployeesfromanother


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Evolution of Systematic Instructional Design Models: ADDIE and Beyond

In the viewofmany educators, the term instructional design is synonymouswithinstructionalplanning;theyfeelitmeansanyprocessthatisusedtodevelopinstruc-tion.However, even asmost educators recognize that they shouldbeprepared toteacheffectivelybeforetheygointoaclassroomorbeforetheydevelopadistancelearningunit,theyusuallyuseafairlygeneralandunstructuredapproachtoaddressthispreparation.Theymayconsiderthegeneralneedsofthetopicintermsofwhoisbeingtaught,whathastobecovered,thecontextinwhichitwillbeused,andanyrequiredtestassociatedwiththecourseorcontent.Thentheygoaboutsettingupaseriesofactivitiesbasedonthesegeneralneedsandtheavailablematerials.

Suchaplanningapproachhasnorequiredsequenceordesignsteps,andmaterialsmaynotbematchedtothespecificcharacteristicsoflearnerswhowilluseit.Insomecases,primaryresourcesormaterialsmaybelimitedtoexistingonessuchastextbooksandwhiteboard.Also,thereisrarelyatryout-and-revisionphasethatcallsforgatheringinformationtoassessandrevisethedesign.Onceinstructionisdevelopedusingagen-eralplanningapproach,thenextstepdependsontheinstructorwhousesit.Instructionmaynotchangeagreatdealotherthanadditionsorupdatestocontent;orifitdoesnotachievethedesiredimpact,itmaychangeeverytimetheinstructorteachesit.Ineithercase,instructiondesignedinthiswaymayrelyontheinstructorworkingcloselywiththestudentstomonitorphysicalcues(e.g.,smiles,nods,frowns,bodylanguage)orreceivecomments(e.g.,e-mails)asindicationsthattheyunderstandwhatisbeingpresented.Sometimes,itreliesexclusivelyonresultsofahigh-stakestestsuchasanend-of-courseorcertificationexamtoindicatewhetherornotinstructionisworkingasdesired.Buteventhislatterindicatorisabluntinstrumentwhenitcomestodeterminingwhatmustbedonetoimproveinstructionifitisclearitisnotachievingdesiredresults.

There is anotherway toprepare instruction,one that ismore systematic andbasedonalonghistoryofsuccessfuluseinbusiness,industry,andmilitarytrainingand, lessoften, inschoolsanduniversities.Asseveralauthorshaveemphasized intheirhistoriesof instructionaldesign, therehavebeenmanyvariations in thepro-cessesassociatedwithinstructionaldesign,andeventhenamehasseenseveralvaria-tions,e.g.,systematicinstructionaldesign,systemsapproaches,instructionalsystemsdesign(Saettler,1990;Seels&Glasgow,1998).Thislongandproductiverecordmaybeviewedinthreeperiods:origins,evolutionofmodels,andmodernperspectives.

ORIGINS OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND ITS TERMINOLOGY. Theearliestreferencestotheterm“instructionaldesign”wereinpapersandreportsfromthe1940sand1950sdescribingthedevelopmentofmaterialsand“audiovisualmaterials” forpost-WorldWarIImilitary,industry,anduniversitytraining(Twelker,Urbach,&Buck,1972).Inthesedaysofbuildingalargeandskilledworkforceforanincreasinglytechnologi-calage,Americanenterpriseswantedinstructionthatpreparedworkersasquicklyas

branchoffice touse thepackageasstudents.Heusesallcommentsand testinformationfromthesepersonneltorevisethematerials.

______ 4. A technology education teacher finds that students come into his classwithvarying levels of knowledge about the types of softwarehe teaches.Hehasstudentscompleteachecklistoftheircurrentknowledge,thenhegroupsthemaccordingtotheirabilities,withmoreskilledstudentsandlessskilledstudentsworkingtogether.Eachgroupmemberisassignedaroleintheprojectsaccord-ingtowhattheycandowell,withassistance.

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possible.Indeed,thisremainsacriticalneedinbusinessandindustry;timespentintrainingistimetakenawayfromassignedwork.Somanypeopleneededtobetrainedthatmediaandmaterialsweredesignedtosupplementandsupport(andsometimesreplace)instructiondeliveredbyin-persontrainers.Designtechniqueswerecreatedtohelpensurethathigh-qualitymediaandmaterialsweredevelopedasquicklyaspos-sible.Educationalpsychologistswhohadbeenhelpfultothemilitaryindevelopingtestingandtrainingduringthewarbecamekeymembersofthedesignteam.Tothistask,theybroughtlearningprinciplesbasedonbehavioralandcognitivelearningthe-oriesthatwerejustcomingintopopularuse,aswellasresearchonhowthesetheoriesappliedtothedevelopmentof“audiovisualmaterials.”Theyreferredtotheproductstheydevelopedas“trainingsystems.”Thatis,theentireprocesswasviewedasasys-temwithinputs,outputs,processes,andfeedbackandcontrolcomponents.Learningactivitiesforstudentstodoweretheinputs,studentbehaviorsafterinstructionwereoutputs,learningitselfwastheprocesscomponent,andfeedbacktodesignershelpedthemmakeimprovementstothesystem.

Astrainingsystemswerebeingdevelopedinthe1940sand1950s,instructionaldesignbecameidentifiedinthemindsofmanyuniversityandtrainingpersonnelwiththeclassicaldefinitionofeducational technology.Althoughitwastotakeonotherdefinitionslater—astechnologiesforlearningbecamewidespreadineducationandtraining—Saettlerreportsthatthetermeducational technologywasusedasearlyas1948 to describe the process of solving educational problems using a systems ap-proach.Eachsituationinwhicheducationortrainingwasneededwasaproblemtobesolved,andtheresultingsolutionwasasystemofinstruction.Inthe1960s,theterminstructional technologyalsocameintousewithadefinitionsimilartothatofedu-cational technology,butwithafocussquarelyonsolvingproblemsdirectlyrelatedtoteachingandlearning,asopposedtootherproblemsineducation(e.g.,administrativeandcommunicationsproblems).Instructionalmaterialsandmediaandthewaystheywereusedwere“technologies”(i.e.,toolsandmethods)specificallycreatedtohelpsolveinstructionalproblems.Reiser(2012)saysthatalthoughinstructional technology isanapttermforasystematicapproachtosolvinginstructionalproblems,theterm instructional design and technologyissometimesusedasasynonymforinstruc-tional technologytodifferentiateitfromwhatmostpeopletendtothinkofas“com-puters,DVDs,mobiledevices”(p.5)andotherequipmentandsoftware.Buteducatorsand trainerswhocreate instruction,whetherornot theyusea systematicmethod,usuallyrefertothemselvesas“instructionaldesigners.”

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS OVER THE YEARS. Inthe1960sand1970s,systematicinstructionaldesignmethodsgainedevengreaterpopularityaseducationalpsycholo-gistsbegantoapplybehavioralandcognitivelearningprinciplestheyhadusedwithtrainingsystemstolearningproblemsineducation.Behavioralandcognitivelearningprinciplesguidedinstructionaldesignfirstatuniversitylevels,theninschools.Similartotrainersinthemilitary,business,andindustry,universityandschooleducatorswerefacedwithanincreasinglylargenumberofstudentsenteringclassroomsatmanydif-ferentabilitylevels.Educatorsclearlyneededhelpmanagingthistask,andAmericanbusinessandindustryleaderswererelyingonschoolstosendthemstudentswhohadafoundationofskillsandknowledgethatpreparedthemtoentertheworldofwork.Saettler(1990)observed,“The1960’sproducedmostofthemajorcomponentsoftheinstructionaldesignprocess”(p.345):theory-basedinstructionaldesignprocessesandmodelsbasedonthem.

The1970sand1980switnessedthecreationofamultitudeofinstructional de-sign models,orsetsofdesignstepsthatreflectagivendesignphilosophyortheory.In1972,Twelkeretal.describedfivesystemsmodels inwidespreaduse.By1980,AndrewsandGoodsonreportedover40models,andthenumberhascontinuedto


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Though often referred to as an instructional design model, ADDIE is actually an umbrella term for a whole family of models.

growinthedecadessincethen(Branch&Merrill,2012;Gustafson&Branch,2002;Reigeluth& Carr-Chellman, 2009). Each consisted of discrete design steps and, inmanycases,substepswithinthesesteps(Andrews&Goodson,1980;Bradens,1996;Briggs,1977).Mostofthesemodelsarevariationsonthesamegeneraldesignphases,asequencecommonlyknownasADDIE,anacronymfor:analysis,design,develop-ment, implementation, andevaluation.However, asBranchandMerrill (2012)andMolenda(2003)pointout,ADDIEisnotreallyamodel.Rather,itis“anumbrellatermthatreferstoafamilyofmodelsthatshareacommonunderlyingstructure”(Molenda,p.1; also seeBranchandMerrill,p.9).Molendasays that theoriginsof the term ADDIEareobscure.“Thenameitselfseemstohavebeendisseminatedbyword-of-mouth,beginningperhapsinthe1980s”(p.3).

True instructionaldesignmodels, especially thoseused in large-scale trainingdevelopment,breakdowneachdesignstepintosubstepsandcallformoreintensiveanalysisanddocumentationofeachsubstep.Thestepsusuallyinclude:identifyinganinstructionalneed(sometimescalleda“needsassessment”step),statinggoals,analyz-inggoalsforcomponentskillsandknowledge,statingobjectives,developinginstruc-tionalstrategies,selectingandcreatingmediaandmaterials,field-testinginstruction(a.k.a., formativeevaluation),andrevisionbasedonresultsoffieldtests.Themostwidelypublicizedmodelsare those thathavebeendescribed inpopular textbooksandrepresentinterpretationsofvariousexperts(Dick,Carey,&Carey,2009;Morrison,Ross,Kalman,&Kemp,2013;Seels&Glasgow,1998;Smith&Ragan,1999).TheseareshowninTable1.1,alongwithtwoothernonsystemsmodels.Table1.2givesthedefiningfeaturesofeachmodel.

Inthe1990s,atheorybegantodominatediscussionsabouteffectiveteachingandlearninginthesamewaythatbehavioraltheoriesdidinthe1950sand1960s.Thoughthis theory, known as constructivism or inquiry-based learning, is not so much alearningtheoryasa“teachingtheory,”RoblyerandDoering(2013)saythatconstruc-tivistprincipleshavebeendevelopedfromlearningtheoriesasoldasthoseofDewey,Vygotsky,Piaget,andBrunerandasrecentasGardner’smultipleintelligencestheory.Constructivist methodscallforarrangingactivitiessothatstudentsdirecttheirownlearning,ratherthanlearnfromdirectteachingbyteachers.Willis(1995),anadvocateofconstructivistmethods,saidthatinstructionalplanningprocessesforconstructivistorinquiry-basedteachingdonothavetouseasystematicdesignmodelwithaspecificsequenceanddetailedsetofsteps.Hefeltthattraditionalinstructionaldesignprocesses


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TABLE 1.1 Summary of Steps and Processes in Current Design Models

Models Based on Systems Approaches Other Models

X = Described in modelx = Implicit in model

Dick, Carey, & Carey

Morrison, Ross, Kalman, & Kemp

Seels & Glasgow

Smith & Ragan

McTighe & Wiggins (UbD®)

Willis (R2D2)

Needs assessment/analysis (identify instructional goals)

X X X X x x

Learner analysis X X X X

Context analysis X

Task analysis (sequence content)

X X X X

Identify entry behaviors

X X X X

Write objectives X X X X x

Develop assessments

X X X X X X

Design instructional strategies

X X X X

Design implementation/delivery strategies

X X X x

Develop materials X X X X X

Formative evaluation X X X X X

Revise materials X X x x X

Summative evaluation

X X X X

TABLE 1.2 Defining Characteristics of Current Design Models

Models Characteristics

Dick, Carey, & CareyFirst published: 1978

The first to elaborate a “classical” systematic design sequence and also the first to publish in textbook format

Kemp, Morrison, & RossFirst published: 1994

Has elements in common with most systems models, but does not specify a sequence; any element may be addressed at any time

Seels & GlasgowFirst published: 1990

Described as a “generic” instructional systems design (ISD) model based on the five sequential ADDIE phases

Smith & RaganFirst published: 1993

Described as a “common model of instructional design;” the first to include context analysis and revision in the design sequence

McTighe & Wiggins (UbD®)First published: 2004

Known as “backward design,” because it takes a different sequence to what many teachers use to design instruction

Willis (R2D2)First published: 1995

“Process is recursive, reflective, and somewhat chaotic” (Willis, 1995, p. 12); calls for constant review and revision at each step


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weretoolinearandsetdownobjectivestooquickly,whichledtoinflexible,oftenin-adequatedesign.Consequently,headvocateda“recursiveandreflective”instructionaldesignprocess that called for beginningbydevelopingmethods andmaterials and allowingspecificobjectivestoariseoutofdevelopment.HecalledthismodelRecursive, Reflective Design and Development (R2D2)(Willis&Wright,2000).Althoughthis approachhasintuitiveappeal,thenatureofthemodelmakesitdifficulttoreplicate,andonlyafewapplicationsofithavebeenreportedintheliterature,primarilybyWillis’students(Chen&Toh,2005;Merkley,Duffelmeyer,Beed,Jensen,&Bobys,2007).

Mostrecently,anattempttostreamlinethesystematicprocessandtailorittotheneedsofK–12teacherswastheso-called“backwarddesign”strategysometimescalledUnderstanding by Design (UbD®) (Wiggins&McTighe,2011). It consistsofonlythreesteps:(1)identifydesiredresults,(2)determineacceptableevidence(thatresultshavebeenachieved),and(3)planlearningexperiencesandinstruction.Thoughithassomeofthefeaturesofasystematicmodel(e.g.,creatingassessmentsbeforedevelop-inginstructionalstrategies),itismorealesson-planningprocessthanatruesystematicinstructionaldesignmodel.


Objective 2 Exercise—Evolution of Instructional Design Approaches.Explaintheevolu-tionofinstructionaldesignapproachesbynumberingthetermstoshowthechronologicalorderinwhichtheycameabout.Placeanumberbesideeachtermtoshowtheorder.

_____ADDIE_____Constructivistmethods_____Educationaltechnology_____ R2D2

_____Systematicinstructionaldesignmethodsandmodels_____UnderstandingbyDesignorUbD®


Essential Characteristics of Systematic Instructional Design Activities

Thehistoryofinstructionaldesignhasshownthat,forinstructiontobeeffectiveonaconsistent,reliablebasis,itmustbecreatedusingafairlystructuredapproachthatre-flectskeyfeatures.Oneofthe“grandfathers”ofinstructionaldesign,LeslieJ.Briggs,de-scribedfeatureshefeltwereessentialforeffectiveinstructionaldesign(1977,pp.7–8):

1. Asystemdesignedtosolveaproblem 2. Agreementamongobjectives,materials,andassessments 3. Anorderly,butflexible,sequenceofplanningtodesignthesystem 4. Designproceduresbased(asmuchaspossible)onresearch 5. Tryoutandrevisionoftheresultinginstructionalsystem

AfinalfeatureBriggsnamedwascomparisonoftheresultingsystemwithothersystemstoseeifthenewoneisanimprovementovertheother.However,henoteslaterthatthisfinalstepactuallyfollowsthedesignprocessandisnotanintegralcom-ponentofit(p.338).Intoday’spractice,thisfinalstepisanoptionalone.

SystematicinstructionaldesignapproacheshavecomeabouttomakesurethatdesignactivitiesreflectthekeyqualitiesBriggsoutlined.Instructionaldesignbasedonasystemsapproachhasseveralkeyadvantagesover lessstructuredmethodsofdeveloping instruction. The characteristics of systematic instructional design (ID)thathaveproven tohave themostbeneficial impact include:orderlyplanningand


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documentation,carefulmatchingofkeycomponents,developmentofsupportingme-diaandmaterials,andatryout-and-revisionphase.

PLANNING AND DOCUMENTATION. IDdocumentationissometimescomparedtoles-sonplanning,butIDcallsformoreintenseanalysisandmoredetaileddocumentationthantypicallessonplans.Also,lessonplansmayactuallyonlydocumentinstructionthathasalreadytakenplaceonce.However,IDplanningcanaddressmanykindsofproblems,includingtheneedforanewandbetterinstructionalapproachwhenthecurrentonehasnotworkedwell.Forexample,thereisatopicthatstudentsrepeatedlyhavetroublelearning;orstudentscometotheclassroomatmanydifferentskilllevelsandneedpersonalinstructiontheinstructorhasnotimetoprovide.Therequiredplan-ninganddocumentationhelpsensurethenewinstructionmeetstheseneeds.

ALIGN OBJECTIVES, ASSESSMENTS, AND INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES. Threeactivitieslaythefoundationforallwell-designedproducts.First,instructionalobjectivesarealwayswrittenintermsofwhatthestudentsshouldbeabletodoaftertheycompletetheinstruc-tion.Forthisreason,theyoftenarereferredtoasperformance objectives or outcome-oriented objectives.Second,assessmentsaredesignedtomeasureexactlywhatisstatedintheobjective.Third,teachingstrategiesfocusonmakingstudentsabletodotheperfor-mancestatedintheobjectivesanddemonstratethisachievementinassessments.Passingtestsormeetingcriteriaisnotthesolefocusofinstruction,butisanessentialfeatureofit.

CREATE MATERIALS AND DEVELOP MEDIA. Unlikeinstructionthatispurelylecture,sys-tematic IDapproachesusuallycall forcreatingmaterials that instructorscandependupontoachievereplicableresults;thatis,theyhelpdifferentgroupsofstudentslearnwell.Forexample,theremaybelearningpackets,presentationsoftwareslides,videos,multimediapresentations,and/orwebpages.Partoftherationalebehindthisisthathu-manperformanceisalwaysextremelyvariable.Well-designedmaterialsandmediahelpmakeinstructionmorereplicable,thatis,ithelpsittobeconsistentlyeffectiveovertime.

INCLUDE A TRYOUT-AND-REVISION CYCLE. Systematic IDapproachesalwaysassumethateventhemostwell-designedinstructionwillneed“finetuning”beforeitisusedwithstudents.Therefore,thedesignerteststheteachingsequenceandmaterialswithcolleaguesandstudents,identifiesneedsforrevisions,andrevisesproductstomakethemevenmoreusefulandeffective.


Objective 3 Exercise—Essential Characteristics of Systematic Approaches to Instruc-tional Design.Selectandputtogethersomeofthefollowingphrasestobuildanappropri-atedescriptionofasystematicapproachtoinstructionaldesign,accordingtotheperspectivedescribedinthischapter.(Youmayusemorethanonesentencetobuildyourdescriptionandaddotherphrases,ifdesired.)Ifseveralsmallgroupsareworkingonbuildingthisdescrip-tion,comparedescriptions.

alwaysmakestestsorexams emphasizesquantitativedatacollectionfocusesonlyondirectedinstruction isgearedtosolvingproblemshasatryout-and-revisioncycle requiresdevelopingmediaand/ormaterialscallsforaten-steportwelve-stepprocess matchesobjectives,assessments,andstrategiesrequiresdetaileddocumentation emphasizesqualitativeskillsrequiresintenseanalysis ishighlyprescriptive



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Current Critiques of Systematic Instructional Design

Systematicinstructionaldesignmodelsallhavethesamecharacteristics:planninganddocumentation; aligned objectives, assessments, and instructional strategies;mediaandmaterialswithreplicablecontent;andatryout-and-revisioncycle.Butdoestheapproachwork?Thatis,doesitproducethedesiredresults?GustafsonandBranch(2002)reportseveraldescriptionsofsuccessfulinstructionaldesignprojectsinthelit-erature.However,theyalsosaythatthereasonmore“successstories”havenotbeenpublishedisthat“practitionersdonothavethetimeormotivationtopreparescholarlyarticles”(p.20)abouttheirsuccesses.Systematic instructionaldesignisapractical,results-orientedapproach.

As isevident fromthehistorical foundationsdescribedearlier in thischapter,therearemanydifferentwaysoflookingatinstructionaldesign.Areviewofcurrentviewsandissuesonthistopicwillshowtheunmetneedsthatledtothistext’sper-spective.Traditional instructional designbasedon systems approaches is currentlythemostpopularmethod.Systemsmodelshavebeenusedtodesignsuccessfultrain-ingandteachingprogramsinbusiness,industry,andmilitarysettings,althoughtheyhaveseenlimiteduseinschoolsanduniversities.Severalcommonissuesshowwhysystematicinstructionaldesignhasnotseenuniversalacceptanceeveninfieldswhereitiscommonlyused.

VARIATIONS AMONG MODELS. BranchandMerrill(2012)saythatmanyvariationsamong models come about because of differing requirements for implementinginstructionaldesign in various settings.Classroom instructiondeliveredbyan in-structor calls fordifferentdesignmethods thanproducts suchas computer-basedinstructionalmaterialsorforinstructionalsystemssuchasdistancelearningcoursesorself-pacedtrainingtutorials.Regardlessofthereason,thesheernumberofmod-elscurrentlyinexistencetendstoconfusemanyeducatorsandwould-bedesigners.Whichone is correct?What featuresmakeonebetter thananother? Should therebe a different model for each design situation? Should certain key design steps berequired?

CRITICISMS OF SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN. The2000sandbeyondpresentnewchallengestoAmericaneducationandtrainingaswellastothosewhodesigninstructionforthesesettings.Oneofthechallengestodesignerscomesfromanun-expectedsource:someofthosetrainerswhohavedependedfordecadesoninstruc-tionaldesignmodelsandmethodsbasedonsystemsapproaches.IssuesofTraining (Gordon&Zemke,2000;Zemke&Rossett,2002a,2002b)werea forumforanat-tackontraditional“ISD”asithasbeenpracticedinbusinessandindustrytraining.Theauthorsof thesearticles summarized the commentsof sixprominentbusiness andindustrydesigners.Thedesignerssaythatmodelsastheyhavebeenappliedinthepastareineffectivefortheneedsoftoday’slearnersbecausetheyhavethefollow-ingdrawbacks:

1. Systematic models take too long. Thecritics say thatmanycurrentmodelsbasedonsystemsapproacheshavesomanyrequireddesignstepsandcallforsuchextensiveanalysisanddocumentationthattheprocessbecomesunwieldy.This isespecially true ifdesignersmustgetapprovalsondocuments foreachdesignphasebeforetheycanproceedtothenextphase.Bythetimeallthestepsaredone,criticssay,thetopicmayhavechangedsomuchthatinstructionisnolongerrelevant.

2. They ask designers to follow steps blindly. Designerswhousedesignmod-elshavejustifiedthetimeittakestocompletethesemodelswiththebeliefthat


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theypresentaninstructional technology:atoolwhich,ifusedcorrectly,willleadinvariablytogoodinstruction.However,criticssaythatitrequiresdesignerstofollowdesignstepssorigidlythatcompletingthedesignprocessbecomesthecentralfocus;theylosesightofwhetherornottheresultinginstructionreallymeets learners’needs.Theypointout thatnothing inherent indesignmodelsensuresgoodinstruction;theinsightsandskillsdesignersbringtothetaskisstillanimportantvariable.

3. Today’s workforce requires learning-to-learn skills. Somecritics say thatdesignerslearntofollowmodelssorigidlythatthefocusoftheinstructionbe-comesmerelyimpartingasetofskills.Today,theysay,thelearningexperienceisas importantaswhat is learned.Instructionthatfocusesonlyonskillspro-duces“homogeneousemployeeswholackflexibilityandcreativity”(Zemke&Rossett,2002b,p.35).Instructionshouldrequirestudentstobeflexible,creativelearners,ratherthanrobotswholearnthingsinaroteway.

4. They provide little or no guidance on design of learning environments. Afinalcriticismofpastdesignapproachesisthattheyfailtogiveadequateguid-anceonhowtodesigntheenvironmentsinwhichinstructionisdelivered.Forexample,instructionalmaterialssuchasonlinediscussionsandpodcastsorvod-castsmaybewelldesigned,buttheirsuccessinanonlinecoursedependsgreatlyupon the structure and support of the environment in which they are used.Evenlearningactivitieswithinin-personclassroomsareincreasinglytechnologydriven,andsomeguidanceisneededonhowtostructureanenvironmentthatsupportstheseactivities.Thisstepthatemphasizesstructuringlearningenviron-mentsmaybeseenasthe“I”(implementation)phaseofADDIE,whichmanyothermodelseitherignoreortreatonlycursorily.


Objective 4 Exercise—Criticisms of Past Design Approaches.Identifyfromthefollowinglistsomeofthecriticismsofsystematicdesignapproachesthatthistextbookaimstoaddress.Placeacheckmarkbyallthatareapplicable:

_____ Systematicmodelsaretoocomplextounderstandandfollow._____ Systematicmodelstaketoolong._____ Somemodelsaskdesignerstofollowstepsblindly._____Theprocessesdonotalwaysproducedesiredresults,eveniffollowedclosely._____ Systematicdesignmethodscannotfosterskillsthattoday’sworkforcerequires._____Thereislittleornoemphasisorguidanceondesignoflearningenvironments._____ Somemodelsworkbetterthanothers._____ Designmodelslackanadequatetheorybase._____ Designmodelscannotteachworkerstoexercisecreativityorflexibility.


AN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODEL TO MEET TODAY’S NEEDS

Thissectionfulfillsthreepurposes.First,itdescribesfundamentalcharacteristicsofanin-structionaldesignmodelthatcanmeettoday’sneedsandachievedesiredresults.Second,itprovidesanoverviewofthestepsandactivitiesthemodelcallsfor.Finally,itoffers adviceanddirectiontonoviceinstructionaldesignerswhoarejustlearningthisapproach.


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Characteristics of an Effective Instructional Design Model

Althougheventhecriticsofsystematicinstructionaldesignmethodsdonotsaythattheyshouldbeabandonedentirelyinfavorofan“artisticapproach,”itseemsevidentthatchangesarerequiredinthewaysuchmethodsarelearnedandapplied.Thistext-bookemphasizesaninstructionaldesignapproachbasedonthestepsandelementsoutlinedbyBriggsover35yearsago,butupdatedtoreflecttoday’sdesignchallenges.Theapproachdescribedhereemphasizessomeoftheessentialfeaturesofallsystem-aticmodels,butitalsooffersanewwayoflookingattheminordertoaddressprob-lemsinpastusesofthesemodels.

1. ID should focus on solving a problem. TheIDprocessshouldbeginandendwithaproblemthathasbeenidentifiedbysomeoneinanorganizationorinsti-tutionsuchasabusiness,school,orcollege.Thefirststepintheprocessshouldbetoconfirmthattheproblemcan,indeed,besolvedbyinstruction,ratherthanbyachangeintheenvironment.Forexample,ananalysisoftheproblemmaydiscoverthatstudentsarenotusingthelibraryforresearchbecausetheydon’tliketospendtheirfreetimegoingthere,ratherthanbecausetheydon’thaveadequateinstructioninlibraryskills.Workersmaybeusinganewsoftwaresys-temincorrectlybecausetheyareskippingstepstosavetime,ratherthanbecausethey don’t know correct procedures.One example of a common problem intoday’ssocietythatdoesrequireinstructionistheneedtotransferanin-personcourse to anonlineorblendedenvironment. In any case, once aproblem isidentifiedasrequiringinstruction,everythingthedesignerdevelopsshouldhaveademonstrableimpactonsolvingtheproblem.

2. ID should be an orderly but flexible activity. DesignersareencouragedtothinkofthestepsintheIDmodelasaheuristic,ratherthanaprescription:stepsfor thinking through important instructional planning decisions in an orderlyway,ratherthanasa“cookbook”setoftasksthat,oncecompleted,guaranteesahigh-qualityproduct.Thismeansthatdesignersmustknowagreatdealabouteffectiveteachingbeforetheycancreategoodinstructionalproducts.Theknow-ledgeandexperiencetheybringtodesignisasimportantasdesignstepstoen-sureasuccessfulinstructionalpackage.Onefeatureofmodel-basedinstructionaldesign that sets itapart from less systematicplanningmethods is that it callsforspecifyingkeyinformationaboutexpectedstudentperformance(e.g.,goals,objectives, assessment strategies) before designingmethods of teaching theseperformances.However,designersareencouragedtoseeboththesetasksandtheirproductsasguidelinesthatmaychangeasnewideasorinformationarise.Designdocumentsshouldneverbeconsideredendsinthemselves.

Systematic instructional design always focuses on solving a problem.


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3. ID should incorporate what we know about effective teaching and learning. Severaldesignstepsprovideopportunitiesfordesignerstoapplyprinciplesfromlearning theory, research,andeffective instructionalpractices.Thesestepshelpensure that the resulting instruction incorporates findings fromwhatweknowabouthowpeoplelearnandretainknowledgeinvariouslearningenvironments,andhowbesttomeettheneedsoflearnersatvaryingabilitylevels.Itisimportanttonotethatthedesignmodelusedinthisbookallowsforinstructiontoreflectcon-structivistprinciples.Muchoftheinstructionfortoday’slearnerscanandshouldreflectthenewemphasisonsettinggoalsandusingteachingandassessmentstrat-egiesthatempowerstudentlearningandrepresentachangedroleforinstructors.

4. ID should confirm that the instructional system works. Several designstepsfocusonhowtomakesureinstructionworksasdesignersintended.Initialstepsinthedesignprocessrequiredesignerstostatecriteriafordeterminingthatstudentshavelearnedfromtheinstruction.Finalstepscallfortryingoutmateri-alstomakesurethesecriteriaarebeingmet(formativeevaluationactivities)andconfirmingthattheinstructionis,indeed,responsivetotheproblemthatiniti-atedthedesignactivityinthefirstplace.

5. ID should provide assistance in using new technologies for learning. Instructionaldesignprocessescallforcreatingmediaandmaterialstosupportlearning.Althoughdevelopingthesematerialstakestime,italsosavestimebe-causepowerful, reusable resourceswithproven effectiveness are available tosupportinstructionforspecifictopics.Thesematerialsmakeitpossibleforpeo-pleotherthanthedesignertousetheinstructionwithconfidencethatmateri-alsweredesigned,tested,andimprovedforusewithagivenpopulation.The“audiovisual”materialsdevelopedbydesignerssomanyyearsagohaveevolvedintomore sophisticatedadvanced technologies suchas instructional software,multimedia,andwebpages.Whileinstructionalmaterialsinprintformatwillbeinuseforsometime,newertechnologiessuchase-texts,distancetechnologies,andmultimedia products have been shown to offer such uniquely powerful,interactivefeaturesthatinstructionaldeliverysystemsbasedonthemhavebe-comeincreasinglyevident.Thesenewenvironmentspresentuniquechallengesfordesigners,aswellasuniqueopportunities.Thistextbookemphasizeshowto addressthespecialdesignconsiderationsthesenewtechnologiespresent.


Objective 5 Exercise—Instructional Design Characteristics Emphasized in This Text. Identify from the following list the characteristics of the systematic design approaches emphasizedinthistextbook.Placeacheckmarkbyallthatareapplicable:

______ 1. Offersguidanceforstrategiesthatareprimarilyconstructivist______ 2. Specifiesthatgoals,objectives,andassessmentstrategiescannotbechangedlater______ 3. Providesseveralactivitiestomakesuretheinstructionisworking______ 4. Showhowtomeetchallengespresentedbynewlearningenvironments______ 5. Offersaprescriptionforhowtodesign“can’t-fail”onlinelearningenvironments______ 6. Designactivitiesalwaysfocusonsolvinganinstructionalproblem______ 7. Offershighlyprescriptive“cookbooksteps”thatguaranteegoodinstruction______ 8. Offersstepsinthedesignmodelasaheuristicforthinkingthroughkeydecisions______ 9. Requiresthatdesignersalreadyknowagreatdealabouteffectiveteaching______ 10. Requiresdesignerstocreatestrategiesthatreflectprinciplesfromlearningtheories



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Design Model Overview

Theinstructionaldesignapproachusedinthistextisrepresentedbythemodeldia-gramshowninFigure1.1.Thismodelreflectsessentialstepsplaced inanoptimalorder for carrying themout. Thismodel allows for the considerable variation thatoccursinthecontextofactualinstructionalprojects.Itisintendedasaguide,ratherthanaprescription.AnoverviewoftheactivitiesaccomplishedateachdesignstepisprovidedinFigure1.1andTable1.3,butdetailsonhowtocarrythemoutisgiveninsubsequentchapters.

Phase I: Analysis

•Identify instructional problems and state goals. Designersbeginbygath-eringinformationtoconfirmthatasystematicinstructionaldesignprocesswill,indeed,resultinagoodsolutiontotheproblem.Twoactivitiesleadtoprepar-ingastatementofoneormorelearninggoals.First,designersgatherinforma-tiononthenatureoftheproblemanddecideifinstructionisthebestsolution.Sometimes,instructionwillnotsolvetheproblembecausetheproblemisbasedonotherneeds.Ifitis,designersmustdecidewhetherornotthespendingtimeonacompletesystemsapproachisfeasibleand,ifnot,whatmodifiedapproachshouldbeused.

•Analyze goals. Good instruction requireswhatGagné referred to as condi-tions that are designed to support learning(1992).Theseconditionsmayincludeteachingallthesubskillsortasksthatcomprisethefinalskill,usinganappropri-atesequenceandstrategiestoteachthem,andmeetingthespecialrequirementsoflearners(e.g.,readinglevel,accommodationsfordisabilities).Toensurethattheseconditionsaremet,designersidentifywhatkind(s)oflearningthegoal(s)represent(e.g.,conceptsversusproblemsolving,cognitivedomainversusaffec-tivedomain),preparealearningmapofanoptimalsequenceforlearningtasks,andwriteadescriptionofessentialconditionsforthelearningenvironmentandmaterials.

•State objectives and assessment strategies. Usingthelearningmapstoguidethem,designerswritestatementsofobservablebehaviorsthatstudentswillhaveaftertheyhavelearnedandspecifyappropriatewaysaninstructorcanmeasurethesebehaviors.Becausetherewillbeaclosematchbetweenthestatementofwhatastudentwillbeabletodoandthewayitwillbemeasured,objectivesandtestspecificationsarepreparedatthesametime.Finally,thedesignerstatescriteriathatcanbeusedtosaywiththedesireddegreeofconfidencethatthestudentshavemettheobjectivesoftheinstruction.

FIGURE 1.1 Representation of the systematic instructional design model.

Phase II: Design, Development, Implementation

• Design/develop assessment instruments• Design instructional strategies• Develop materials and media• Develop learning environments

Phase III: Evaluationand Revision

• Formatively evaluate instruction; revise as needed• Optional: Summatively evaluate instruction

Phase I: Analysis• Analyze needs and state goals• Analyze goals for learning conditions and sequence• State objectives and assessment strategies


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TABLE 1.3 Instructional Design Steps, Critical Focus Questions, and Products

Steps Critical Focus Questions Products

Phase I: Analysis

Analyze need(s) and state goals • Whatisthereportedproblem?• Doestheproblemhaveaninstructionalsolution?• DoestheinstructionlenditselftoasystematicID

approach?

Instructional goal statements: Statements of actions students will be able to demonstrate as a group after instruction

Analyze goals for learning conditions and sequence

• Whataretheconstraintsondesignresources?• Whatcharacteristicsofthelearningenvironmentwill

affecthowinstructionisdesigned?• Whatcharacteristicsoflearnerswillaffecthow

instructionisdesigned?• Whatskillsandknowledgearerequiredinorder

to do the performance specified in the instructional goal?

• Inwhatordershouldtherequiredskillsand knowledgebelearned?

• Whatskillsandknowledgeshouldberequiredasentry behaviors or entry skills?

Description of design environmentDescription of learners and learning environmentLearning map(s)

State objectives and assessment strategies

• Whatbehaviorswillstudentshaveaftertheyhavelearned?

• Whatisthebestwaytomeasurestudentbehaviors?• Whatcriteriashouldstudentsmeetonassessments?

Instructional objective statementsDescriptions of assessment strategiesStatements of criteria

Phase II: Design, Development, and Implementation

Design and develop assessment instruments

• Whatinstrumentsareneeded?• Inwhatformatshouldassessmentsbeadministered?

Assessment instrumentsDelivery system for assessments

Design instructional strategies • Whatinstructionaleventsareneededforthetypeoflearning?

Planning documents (e.g., storyboards)Instructional media/materialsDirections for using materials

Develop materials and media • Whatmaterialsareneededtodelivertheinstruction? Planning documents (e.g., storyboards)Instructional media/materials

Develop learning environments • Whatplatform(e.g.,classroom,contentmanagementsystem)isneededtoimplementinstruction?

• Whatmustbedonetoorganizeanoptimallearningenvironment?

• Whatsupportisneededfortheinstructiontobesuccessful?

Directions for using materialsLearning environment ready for use by students and teachers

Phase III: Evaluation and Revision

Formatively evaluate instruction • Doesinstructionengagestudents?• Doestheinstructionteach(i.e.,enablestudentstomeet

thestatedobjectivesandpassthetests)?• Isinstructioneffectivewithstudentsofvariousability

levels?• Isinstructioneffectiveovertime?

Data/feedback on students’ attitudes toward instructionData/feedback on students’ performance with instruction

Revise instructional components and characteristics as needed

• Whatchangesdoesformativefeedbackindicateneedto be made in goals, objectives, sequence, strategies, materials,and/ormedia?

Revised, improved instruction

OPTIONAL: Summatively evaluate instruction

• Istheprogram/productbetterthanthepreviousone?• Istheprogram/productbetterthananalternative

choice?• Shouldtheprogram/productbeadoptedorcontinued?• Didlearnedskillstransfer?• Didtheprogram/productimprovetheorganization?• Hastheproblembeensolved?

Data/feedback from learners and those in the organization to make decisions


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Phase II: Design, Development, and Implementation

•Design and develop assessment instruments. Designerspreparetheactualinstruments and procedures thatwill assess howwell students havemet the objectives.Dependingon thebehaviors beingmeasured, instrumentsmaybemental skill and information tests (e.g., multiple choice, short answer), per-formanceor criteria checklists, rubrics,or combinationsof these. Instrumentsincludedirections,criteriarequiredforpassingtests,anyinformationinstructorswould need to administer them, and the delivery system for the assessments(e.g.,anonlinetestingsystem).

•Design instructional strategies. Designersselectstrategiestomeetrequiredconditionsforlearning,strategiesthatarematchedtothetypeofskillsbeinglearned and learner needs, including those for motivation. Strategies alwaysconsiderbest theoriesforguidinglearningtoensurebothmotivationandre-tention. These decisions set the stage for how materials and media will bedesigned.

•Develop materials and media. Atthisstage,designerscreatetheresourcesthatwillcarryoutinstructionalstrategies.Theyfirstpreparestoryboardsorotherplanningdocuments,andthencreatethemediaandmaterialscomponentsbasedontheplans.

•Develop learning environments. Finally,thedesignercreatesaclassroomen-vironmentwithcharacteristicsneededtodelivertheinstructionalmaterials.Thisenvironment may be traditional/in-person, online, or a combination of these(blended).Thismayalsomeanpreparingteachersandstudentstolearninadif-ferentwaythantheyareusedto.

Phase III: Evaluation and Revision

•Formatively evaluate instruction. Designersgatherfeedbackanddatatode-terminewhatshouldbechanged to improve theclarityandusefulnessof thematerials.Theyusethisinformationtomakeanyneededrevisions.

•Revise instruction. Anythingintheinstructionmayberevisedbasedonfeed-backfromtheformativeandsummativeactivities.

•Optional: Summatively evaluate instruction. Anoptional,postdesignstepisevaluatingtheinstructiontomakedecisionsaboutadoptingorcontinuingitbygauginghowwellitmeetscurrentneeds.Dependingonthefindingsatthisstep,designersmayrecommendfurtherchangestotheinstructionorthewayitisimplemented.Technically,thisisnotastepinthedesignmodel,thoughitisoftenlistedassuch.


Objective 6 Exercise—Instructional Problems Addressed by Instructional Design Pro-cesses. Analyze each of the following scenarios by identifying problems it reflects andcharacteristicsof the instructionaldesignapproachused in this textbookthatmighthavepreventedtheproblem.

•Identifyoneormorepossibleproblemsthatcausedinstructiontofail.•Identifyoneormoreinstructionaldesignstepsthatcouldhelpmakeinstructionmore

successful.

1. AlthoughalloftheteachersattheHappyHillsElementarySchoolhadbeentrainedin Internet use in districtworkshops, none of themwas using online activities intheir classrooms.Theprincipal assumed thedistrict-level instructionhadnotbeen

(Continued)


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effective,andassignedtheMediaSpecialisttodoawell-designedsequenceofinstruc-tiononInternetuse.TheMediaSpecialistdevelopedaverygoodinstructionalunitonInternetskills.Aftertheywentthroughtheunit,alloftheteachersdemonstratedtheyknewhowtogetontoandusetheInternetintheirteaching.However,asoftheendoftheschoolyear,theystillwerenotusingtheInternetintheirclassrooms.OneteacherconfidedtotheMediaSpecialistthatsheandtheotherteachersknewhowtousetheInternet,buttheyknewthedistrictfrequentlybroughtdownthesystemformaintenanceduringschoolandtheycouldn’tbesureitwouldbeupwhentheyneededit.

2. Ms.Phibuswashavinggreatdifficultyteachingherthird-gradestudentstodowordproblemshavingtodowithmoney.ManychildreninherclasshadrecentlymovedtotheUnitedStatesfromMexico.Shehadtestedthemandtheyseemedtohaveagoodgraspofarithmeticandmathfacts.Yettheerrorstheymadeontheseproblemsseemedtobearithmeticerrors.Oneday,oneofthestudentstimidlyputuphishandandasked, “Ms.Phibus,isadollarthesameasapeso?”

3. ThepersonnelintheApexInsuranceCompanyalwayshatedtheirrequiredtrainingsessionswheneveranewversionofthecompany’ssoftwarecameout.Thetrainingmanagerrequiredthateachparticipantdemonstratetheyachievedtheobjectivesofthetraining,soeveryonehadtotakeatestoverthematerialcoveredinthesessions.Be-causethereweresomanypersonnelbeingtrained,thetestswerescoredonascanningmachineandthedatasenttothePresident’sofficeinareport.Ifanypersonnelfailedthetest,theywouldnotreceivecreditforthetrainingunlesstheytookremedialtrain-ingontheirowntime.Manyworkersfailedthesessionsthefirsttimearound;mostsaidthesituationwasunfair.Theskillstaughtinthesessionsemphasizedhands-on,practicalskillsinwhichtheyusedthesoftware,whichallofthemsaidtheyknewtheycoulddo.Yettheycouldn’tpassthepaper-and-pencilteststhataskedthemquestionsaboutthesoftwareandhowitwastobeusedinthefield.

4. Mr.Washingtonwasdistressedabouthow little interesthis studentshad inplays.Theschoolwasinatownwithseveraltheatergroups,andhewasactiveinmostofthem.Hehimselflovedreadingandactinginplaysandwantedtoimpartthislovetohisstudents.However,hefeltthatbeforetheycouldappreciateagoodplay,theyneededthepropergroundinginthefundamentals.Sowhenhetaughtaboutplays,hebegantheunitbyhavinghisstudentsreadoneofhisfavoriteplaysandidentifythepartsofit(e.g.,characters,plot,subplots).Iftheycouldnotidentifytheparts,hewentthroughitwiththemandpointedthepartsout,thengavethemanotherplaytoread.Mostofthetime,studentsweresoturnedoffbythesecond“dissection,”theywerefindingwaystomisshisclass.Noneofhisstudentsexpressedanyloveforplaysafterhis“playunit.”

5. Dr.OrtellawasTrainingManagerforaninternationalconsultingcompany.Hede-velopedaseriesofonline lessons to teachemployeeshowtouse thecompany’sonlineresearchtoolstogatherinformationfortheirprojects.Employeescouldgothroughtheseunitsbythemselveswherevertheywereandlearnhowtotakeadvan-tageofthecompany’sInternetresourcestohelpthemlocateinformationfortheirproducts and reports.Dr.Ortegawas veryknowledgeable in this subjectmatter,andstudentsexpressedhighinterestinthistypeofinstruction.However,afterthematerialswerepostedandthefirstgroupsofstudentsusedthem,itwasapparentmanyweren’tlearningtheskills.Somehadtroublefollowingthedirectionsforhowtoaccesstheinstruction.Otherssaidtheyweren’tclearonwheretolocatematerialsinthecoursespace.



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Information for Novice Designers

Justaswithmostcomplexskills,theapproachdesignersusewhentheyfirstpracticeinstructionaldesignmethodsisverydifferentfromwhattheywilldowhentheyhavemoreexperience.TolearntouseanIDmodelandtheprocessesitdescribes,noviceorapprenticeinstructionaldesignersmustpracticeit—ofteninincrementalsteps.Someofthestepsinthedesignprocessmayrequireengaginginsomefairlyunfamiliarandanalyticalwaysoflookingattheelementsofgoodinstruction.Consequently,practic-ingdesignactivitiesmaybetimeconsuming,andthestepsandproductsmayseem“compartmentalized.”Butforlearningcomplexskillsinanyendeavor—fromlearningtoplaytennistoengaginginhighlevelsofscientificresearch—practicingeachcompo-nentofthelearningprocessisnecessary,maybetimeintensive,andrequiresfocusedattention.And, themore the“learner”applieshimself, themore fluidandefficientthelearnerbecomes.Thisisalsotrueforlearningtodesigneffectiveinstruction.Themorepracticedyoubecomeintheindividualcomponentsoftheinstructionaldesignmodel,themoreskillfulyouwillbecomeinplanningforanddevelopinginstructionthatachievesdesiredresults.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DESIGN DOCUMENTS. Eachstepinthedesignprocessproducesapartofaninstructionaldesign.Thefirststepsproduceadocumentthatdescribesspecificationsfor thedesign; laterstepsproducethematerialsbasedonthis“blue-print.”Studentswilllearnmostfromthistextiftheyapplywhattheyreadandcre-ate their own instructional design planning document and instructional materials. Dependingonthelengthofthesemesterandtheavailabilityofastudentgrouptotryouttheinstruction,theymayalsocompleteformativeevaluationandrevisionsteps.Thedesigndocumentstheyproduceinreal-worldsituationsmaybemoredetailedorlessso,dependingontherequirementsandconstraintsofthedesignenvironment.

CONTRAST WITH LESSON PLANS. IDcallsformoreintenseanalysisandmoredetaileddocumentation than lessonplans.Whileboth IDdocuments and lessonsplans aredocumentationofinstructionalplans,theymaybecontrastedinthefollowingways,whichwillalwaysholdtrue,nomatterwhatthedesigner’sexperiencelevel:

•Purposes. IDdocumentsshowhowtheinstructionalunitwascreatedandhowthe instructionalactivitiescameabout,while lessonplansshowonlyhowtheinstructionshouldbecarriedout.

•Contents. IDdocumentsshownotonlythegoals,objectives,andinstructionalandassessmentactivities,as lessonplansdo, theyalsoshow theanalysesonwhich the instructional activitieswere based and the formative evaluation orfield-testingplans.

•Uses. IDdocumentsactasblueprintsforhowtheinstructionshouldbecreatedandcommunicateprimarilytothedesignteammembersandtheclients.Lessonplansaredocumentationrequiredbyschooldistrictsandareusedprimarilytoevaluateteachersandcommunicatewithsubstituteteachers.

•Emphases. TheemphasisinIDdocumentsisonreplicabilitybyusinglearning objectsorself-contained,single-purposeinstructionalcomponentsthatcanbereused a number of times in different learning contexts (Nash, 2012; Wiley,2000).Thesemaybeassimpleasanonlinegameorexerciseorascomplicatedasan interactive simulation.Each serves tomake instructionmore replicable,nomatterwho implements it. Lessonplans focusondocumenting theuseof already-availablematerialsandinstructoractionstocarryoutinstruction.Chapter7 willgivemoredetailonthedesignandpurposeoflearningobjects.


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Objective 7 Exercise—Comparison of Novice and Expert Approaches to Using a Sys-tematic Approach.Comparetheskilllevelsofthoselearninginstructionaldesignfromthistextbook(novicedesignerorND)tothoseofexperienceddesigners(ED)bylabelingeachofthefollowingasND+EDorED-only.

_____ Learnhowtoadaptthemodeltovariousdesignsituations._____ Createaproductateachstepintheinstructionaldesignmodel._____ Becomehighlyefficientintheuseofasystematicinstructionaldesignapproach._____ Createadesigndocumentthatactsasablueprintforhowinstructionwillbecreated._____ Createadesigndocument thatshowsanalysesonwhich instructionalactivitiesare

based._____ Createadesignthatcallsfordevelopmentoflearningobjects.


Sample Student Projects

Before selecting a topic for your own product, see the Sample StudentProjects for four examplesof hownovicedesigners accomplished theseproceduresfortheirownprojects.

Chapter 1 Summary

• Systematic instructionaldesign, the topicof thisbook,isasetofproceduresforplanningandde-velopingteachingmethodsandmaterialstohelpmakesuretheyachievedesiredresults.

• Systematic instructional design is based on theADDIEdesignparadigm,ageneraltermforallde-signmodelsthatconsistoffivephases:analysis,design,development,implementation,andevalu-ation.Theapproachbeganinthe1960sasawaytocreateeffectiveinstructionmoreefficientlyandhas evolved specific steps and techniques over theyears.

• All systematic models call for: intense planninganddocumentationcycles;aligningobjectives,as-sessments, and instructional strategies; creatingmaterials and developing media; and a tryout-and-revisioncycle.

• Criticism of some systematic design modelsare that they: take too long; ask designers to

follow steps blindly; fail to train today’s work-force in required learning-to-learn skills; and providelittleornoguidanceondesignoflearn-ingenvironments.

• Essential characteristics of a design process tomeet today’s instructional design/developmentsneedsmust: focus on solving a problem; be anorderly but flexible activity; incorporate whatweknowabout effective teaching and learning;confirmthattheinstructionalsystemworks;andprovideassistanceinusingnewtechnologiesforlearning.

• The design model to be described includesthreephasesorsteps,eachofwhichhasseveralsubsteps. These are: analysis (identify instruc-tional problems and state goals, analyze goals,and state objectives and assessment strategies); design,development,andimplementation(designanddevelopassessmentinstruments;designand


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References

Andrews,D.H.,&Goodson,L.A.(1980).Acomparativeanalysisofmodelsof instructionaldesign. Journal of Instructional Development, 3(4),2–16.

Bradens,R.(1996).Thecaseforlinearinstructionaldesignanddevelopment:Acommentaryonmodels,challenges,andmyths.Educational Technology, 36(2),5–23.

Branch, R., & Merrill, D. (2012). Characteristics of in-structionaldesignmodels. InR.Reiser&J.Dempsey(Eds.),Trends and issues in instructional design and technology(3rded.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PearsonEducation.

Briggs, L. J. (1977). Instructional design: Principles and applications.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:EducationalTech-nologyPublications.

Chen,C.J.,&Toh,S.C.(2005).Afeasibleconstructivistinstructionaldevelopmentmodelforvirtualreality(VR)basedlearningenvironments:ItsefficacyinthenovicecardriverinstructionofMalaysia.Educational Technol-ogy Research & Development, 53(1),111–123.

Dick,W.,Carey,L.,&Carey,J.(2009).The systematic de-sign of instruction(7thed.).UpperSaddleRiver,NewJersey:Pearson,Merrill.

Gagné,R.,Briggs,L.J.,&Wager,W.(1992).Principles of instructional design (4thed.).Orlando,FL:Harcourt,BraceCo.

Gordon,J.,&Zemke,R.(2000).TheattackonISD.Train-ing, 37(4),42–45.

Gustafson,K.,&Branch,R.(2002).Whatisinstructionaldesign?InR.Reiser(Ed.)Instructional design and tech-nology.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PearsonEducation,Inc.

Merkley, D., Duffelmeyer, F., Beed, P., Jensen, S., &Bobys, A. (2007). Using the R2D2model for creatingcollaborationamongpracticingteachersandpreserviceteachersduringreadingassessmentpreparationatfouruniversities.Journal of Technology and Teacher Educa-tion, 15(4),463–482.

Molenda,M.(2003).TheADDIEmodel.InA.Kovalchick&K.Dawson(Eds.),Educational technology: An encyclo-pedia.SantaBarbara,CA:ABC-Clio.

Morrison,G.,Ross,S.,Kalman,H.,&Kemp,J.(2013).De-signing effective instruction(7thed.).NewYork,NY:JohnWiley&Sons.

Nash,S.(2012).Learningobjects.InR.Reiser&J.Dempsey(Eds.),Trends and issues in instructional design and technology(3rded.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PearsonEducation.

Reigeluth,C.,&Carr-Chellman,A.(Eds.).(2009).Instructional- design theories and models, volume III: Building a common knowledge base.NewYork,NY:Routledge.

Reiser, R. (2012). A history of instructional design andtechnology. InR.Reiser&J.Dempsey(Eds.),Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (3rded.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PearsonEducation.

Roblyer,M.D.,&Doering,A.(2013).Integrating educa-tional technology into teaching(6thed.).Boston,MA:PearsonEducation.

Saettler,P.(1990).The evolution of American educational technology.Englewood,CO:LibrariesUnlimited.

Seels,B.,&Glasgow,Z.(1998).Making instructional de-sign decisions(2nded.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Mer-rill,PrenticeHall.

Smith, P., & Ragan, T. (1999). Instructional design (2nded.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Merrill,PrenticeHall.

Twelker, P., Urbach, F., & Buck, J. (1972). The system-atic development of instruction: An overview and basic guide to the literature.Corvallis,OR:TheU.S.Interna-tionalUniversity.(EricDocumentNo.ED059629)

Wiggins,G.,&McTighe,J.(2011).The understanding by design guide to creating high-quality units (2nded.). Alexandria,VA:ASCD.

Wiley,D.(2000).The instructional use of learning objects. Retrievedfromhttp://www.reusability.org/read/

Willis, J. (1995). A recursive, reflective instructional de-signmodelbasedonconstructivist-interpretivisttheory.Educational Technology, 35(6),5–23.

Willis,J.,&Wright,K.(2000).Ageneralsetofproceduresfor constructivist instructional design: The new R2D2 Model.Educational Technology, 40(2),5–20.

Zemke,R.,&Rossett,A.(2002a).Ahardlookatinstruc-tionalsystemsdesign.Training, 39(2),26–34.

Zemke, R., & Rossett, A. (2002b). The opening salvo.Training, 39(2),35.

develop instructional strategies, materials, andmedia; and implement learning environment);and evaluation (formative evaluation, revision,andsummativeevaluation).

• Instructionaldesignmethodsrequiredocumenta-tionthatdiffersfromlessonplans,andmethodsfornovicedesignersdifferfromthoseofexperi-enceddesigners.


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Chapter 1 Exercises

Exercise 1.2: Questions for Thought and Discussion—These questions may be used for small-group or classdiscussionormaybesubjectsforindividualorgroupac-tivities.Takepart in thesediscussions inyour in-personclassmeeting,oruseyourinstructor-providedonlinedis-cussionareaorblog. a. AccordingtoZemkeandRossett(2002a),someexperts

arguethatinstructionaldesign(i.e.,instructionalsys-tems design or ISD) should be more prescriptive.TheyquoterespectedinstructionaldesignerM.DavidMerrill as saying that“ISD is essentially a series ofempty boxes, andweneedmore content for thoseboxes...AShakespeareansonnetisveryprescriptive,veryprecise.Yetwritingasonnet isaverycreativeact.There’s nothingwrongwith the right prescrip-tions”(p.30).Shouldinstructionaldesignbehighlyprescriptiveastoitsstepsorshoulditsimplyprovideguidelines?Giveargumentsdefendingeachposition.

b. GordonandZemke (2000)pointout that“Personaldevelopment gurus have turned up their noses atthenarrownessofISD’sambitions,dedicatedasitistoteachingpeopletodospecificjobsinsteadofex-pandingtheirmentalhorizonsortransfiguringtheirlives” (p. 44). For what educational purposes caninstructional design serve a meaningful role? From

whatyouhavereadsofaraboutinstructionaldesignprocesses,doyoufeeltheyprecludeinstructionthatexpandsstudents’“mentalhorizons”?

Exercise 1.3: Design Project Activities—Asyoudevelopyourinstructionalproductforthiscourse,usethefollow-inginformationtoguideyourwork.Beginthinkingaboutatopicforwhichyouwouldliketodesignaninstructionalpackage.Remember that what you design for this course may have to meet different criteria than what you will design when you have more facility in using the model and when you are not as time limited.Usethefollowingcheck-listtohelpyoudecideonanappropriatetopic._____ 1. Thetopicwouldlenditselftoaboutanhouror

twoofinstruction._____ 2. Itisinanareainwhichthefundamentalcon-

ceptswillnotchangerapidly._____ 3. Youareacontentareaexpertinthisarea._____ 4. Youhave access to a groupof students (your

ownorothers)tofield-testtheinstruction._____ 5. Asemesterwillbeenoughtimetodevelopthe

required media and materials (since develop-ingatleastonekindofmediaormaterialisa requiredpartofthedesignproject).

Click here to complete Exercise 1.1: New Terms and Concepts


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23

2Analyzing Needs and Identifying Instructional Goals

Chapter 2 Topics

▪ Why assessing needs is a necessary first step in instructional design

▪ Analyzing situations to identify problems

▪ Stating instructional goals based on performance needs

▪ Steps in doing a needs assessment

▪ How to avoid common problems in assessing needs

▪ How to avoid common problems in writing instructional goals

Chapter 2 Learning Outcomes

1. Identify purposes that needs assessment can serve.

2. Decide on the needs assessment model and documentation appropriate for given situations.

3. Identify characteristics that given instructional goals need to meet required criteria.

4. Identify and sequence steps in a needs assessment.

5. For each of several scenarios, identify the needs assessment issue or problem that may prevent designers from getting at the real problem.

6. Identify instructional goals that are not stated appropriately, tell what is wrong with them, and correct them.

The engineer’s first problem in any design solution is to discover what the problem really is.

—Unknown

Chapter


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SCENARIOHow do you know it’s a training problem?

ArvisBelt,superintendentofWilcoCountyIndependentSchools,wasmeetingwiththreeofheradministratorsandavisitor.Astheysatdownattheconferenceroomtable,EdDabayvick,AssistantSuperintendentforInformationSystems,spokefirst.“Good morning and thanks for agreeing to meet today about the SpecEd train-ing I’m recommending. I’d like to introduce our visitor to you. Say hello to Lee Servatius,oneofthetopinstructionaldesignersfortheBestTrainConsultingGrouphereinthecity.Ithinkyouknowtheirworkfromtheworkshopseriesforprincipalstheydidforuslastyear.Lee,thisisournewsuperintendentArvisBelt,ourDirec-torofSpecialEducation,MayChou,andourDirectorofStudentServices,HowardWashington.”

After greetings were exchanged, Ed spoke again. “As I said in my memo, Ithinkwehaveatrainingproblemonourhands,andLeeisjusttheonewhocanhelpussolveit.TheSpecEdsystemhasbeenfullyinstalledandoperationalnowforoversixmonths,yetonlyabout20percentofourschoolsaremakinguseofall themodules.Thetrainingworkshopsandonlinehelpsystemthatcamewiththepackageobviously havenot been enough. I’ve asked Leehere to look intodesigning an online course for us so that our school people could access it at theirconvenience.”

Lee noticed that May and Howard exchanged worried looks before Howard begantospeak.“Well,now,Ed,Ihavenothingagainstmoretraining,asI’vetoldyou,andIcertainlyhaveagreatdealofrespectforBestTrain.Iwasthinking,though,thatbeforewebeginmoretraining,perhapsweshouldaddresssomeoftheperformanceissuessomeofourschoolshaveraised?”

Edflushedslightly,straightenedupinhischair,andplacedhisrighthandontheSpecEdmanual.“Howard,thissystemisacknowledgedtobethebestinthecountry.Youknowhowmanyotherlargedistrictsareusingit,andit’sacentralpieceinourefforttocomplywithfederalmandatesonspecialeducationrecordkeeping.Ithinkourprincipalsjustdon’tliketochangefromtheoldsystem.But,asmuchtaxpayerfundsaswespentonSpecEd,theymustbeginusingit.Thathastobeourprimarygoalthisyear.”

Arvissmiledandsaid,“IknowthissystemwasinplacebeforeIarrived,andI’vecertainlyheardgoodthingsaboutitelsewherearoundthecountry.ButI’dliketohearwhatourprincipalsaresaying,too.”TurningtoEd,shesaid,“Isn’tourprimarygoalreallytomakeiteasierforourschoolstosupporttheirspecialeducationunitsandgivestudentsbetterservice?Maybethereissomereasonbehindwhythey’renotusingitoptimally,ratherthanjustreluctancetochange.”

AsEdwasabouttospeakagain,Lee,theinstructionaldesigner,interjected,“Youknow,Ed,Imaybeabletohelp.Ifyou’rewillingtospendalittletimeonsomepre-liminarywork,Icouldtalkwiththeprincipals,gathersomeinformation,andgetbacktoyouinacoupleweekswithrecommendationsonnextsteps.Mightsaveussometimeonidentifyingtrainingneeds.”

“Thatsounds likeagreat idea,Lee!”saidLynn,beaming.“Ed,whydon’tyousend theprincipalsane-mail introducingLee?HowardandMaycanhelporganizethingsattheschoollevel.We’llplantomeethereagainattheendofthemonthandtalkaboutnextsteps.”


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Chapter2 • AnalyzingNeedsandIdentifyingInstructionalGoals 25

BACKGROUND ON NEEDS ASSESSMENT AND GOAL-SETTING STRATEGIES

This chapter begins a descriptionof the first steps in the systematicmodel of de-signing instruction, introduced inChapter 1. This section reviewsbackground andessential characteristics of the first step in themodel: analyzingneeds and statinginstructional goals.

Listen to LearnHowNeedsAssessmentandGoal-SettingImproveInstruction

A Review of Needs Assessment Rationales and Techniques

InthefoundationaltextAnalyzing Performance Problems(1997),MagerandPipesaidthat“Solutionstoproblemsarelikekeysinlocks;theydon’tworkiftheydon’tfit”(p.v).Systematicdesignofnewinstructionalmaterialshasproventobeaneffectivesolutionformanytrainingproblems.However,astheWilcoCountySpecEdscenarioatthebeginningofthischaptershows,evenworsethanhavingatrainingproblemandnoinstructiontosolveitishavinginstructionwithnotrainingproblemtosolve.Thatiswhyanessentialfirststepininstructionaldesignisconfirmingwhetherornotaninstructionaldesignsolutionisagood“fit”withtheproblem.Thisfirststeprequiresansweringfourquestions:

1. Whatistheproblem? 2. Iftheproblemisahumanperformanceone,isinstructionthebestsolution? 3. Ifthesolutionisinstruction,issystematicinstructionaldesignthebestwayto

provideit? 4. Ifaninstructionaldesignapproachisfeasible,whatshouldbetheinstructional

goals?

Theprocessofansweringthesecriticalquestionsinresponsetoproblemsanddiscoveringthegapsbetweencurrentanddesiredresultsisknownasneeds assessment (Swart&Kaufman,2009)and,thoughaninvaluableprefacetodecidingonappropri-atesolutionsforproblems,itisoftendifficulttoconvincepeoplethatitisimportant.Twoprimaryreasonsaccountforthisdifficulty:(1)Needsassessmenttakestimeandresources,and(2)humannatureissuchthatpeopletendtojumptosolutions,ratherthantakingtimetoexplorethenatureof theproblem.However, thoughneedsas-sessmentscancostanorganizationintimeandresources,MullerandRoberts(2010)observethatskippingtheneedsassessmentstepisoftenmoreexpensivethancom-pleting it. Ifneedsassessment isomittedand thesubsequent instructionproves tomakelittleornodifferenceinbringingaboutthedesiredchange,theorganizationwillhavewasteditsresourcesonasolutionthatdoesnotwork.MullerandRobertsalsonotethattherearemanywaystoanswerneedsassessmentquestions,someofwhicharequick,easy,andmuchlessinexpensivethanacomprehensiveneedsassessment.

Inthescenariothatopenedthischapter,theinstructionaldesignerissuggestingacursoryneedsassessment:interviewingpeopleinWilcoCountyschoolstofindoutwhytheyarenotusingtheSpecEdsystem.Theanswermay,indeed,bethattheywerenotproperlytrainedandneednewinstructionalgoals,orstatementsofperformancedeficitsthatcouldberemediedthroughinstruction.Butothercausesfortheperfor-mance problem are possible. For example, as the Special Education Director sug-gested,theremaybeproblemswiththeSpecEdsystemthatmakesitdifficulttouse.


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Thesystemitselfmaynotbedesignedtosolvetherealperformanceproblem:helpingschoolsprovidebetterservicetostudents.Thoughothersmaybepressingto jumptoaninstructionalsolution,theinstructionaldesignerisusuallytheoneresponsibleformakingsureitisagoodfitfortheproblem.Ifnot,thepersonnelwhohiredthedesignermayfindthattheirmoneyandtimewerewasted,andtheproblemremains.

Termsoftenusedinplaceoforcloselyrelatedtoneedsassessmentinclude:front-end analysis,needs analysisortraining needs analysis,andperformance analysis. Ininstructionaldesignliterature,eachofthesetermsissometimesdifferentiatedfromneedsassessmentandsometimesusedinterchangeablywithit.Inthisdiscussion,thetermneeds assessment isusedas statedearlier:discovering thegapsbetweencur-rentanddesiredresults.Front-endanalysisisaddressedinthistextasaprocessthat followsneedsassessment(seeChapter3).

IDENTIFYING THE REAL PROBLEM. Identifyingtherealperformanceprobleminagivensituationisoftendifficultevenwhenthereissufficienttime.Intheopeningscenario,EdDabayvickclearlyfeelstraininghasbeeninadequate.Hewantsbetterinstruction,butisthatarealneed?Hehasidentifiedthedesiredgoalas“gettingtheschoolstousetheSpecEdsystem,”butisthatthegoalthatwillleadtoanimprovedenvironmentorisitjustameanstoamoreimportantend(improvedservicetostudents)?Obtain-ingusefulresultsdependsuponansweringthesequestions,whichareimpossibletoanswerwithoutfurtherinformation.

InthecaseoftheWilcoCountyschoolpersonnel,therealneedisprovidingbet-ter,timelyservicetostudentswithspecialneedsand/orbeingabletokeepupwithpaperworkbetter.Thepersonnelmaybelieve theSpecEd system isnot capableofmeetingthisneedand,eventhoughthesystemwaspurchasedatgreatexpensetothedistrict,itmaybethatitisaflawedsolutiontotherealneed.Forexample,Hiruma,Sivo, and Pounds (2012) did a needs assessment to determinewhy virtual schoolstudentswere failing state exams after courses.Onlywhen they found that a gapinteacherpreparationwastheproblemdidtheydecideonanappropriatesolution.

Designers do a needs assessment to determine if an instructional solution is a good fit for the problem.


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Oncetheydeterminedthatnewinstructionwasneededandknewthetargetaudienceforthatinstruction,theyusedsystematicmethodstodesigntwoonlineteacherdevel-opmentcourses.

DETERMINING THE BEST SOLUTION. Evenifaperformanceproblemisidentified,itmaynotrequireaninstructionalsolution.Thereareanumberofreasonsbesideslackofskillsthatpeoplefailtodowhatisexpectedofthem.Sometimestheydon’thavetherighttoolsorthetoolstheyhavearenotworkingproperly.Sometimespeoplecoulddoaskillatonetime,buttheyjusthavenothadrecentexposuretoitand/orpracticewithit.Learnersmayalsofailtoperformasexpectedformanyofthesesamereasons.Forexample,studentssometimesdonotpassimportanttestsbecausetheylackmoti-vationorinsightintothereasonstheyneedtolearn;ortheylearnaskillbuthavenoopportunitytopracticeituntilweeksormonthslaterontheexam,andbythentheyhaveforgottenit.

If personnel cannot do a desired performance, sometimes systematically designedinstruction,whichusuallyrequiresconsiderableresourcesandtimetode-velopmediaandmaterials,isstillnotthebestsolution.Acheaperorfastersolutionmaybeabetterone.IfmanyoftheWilcoCountypersonnelreallylacktheskillstheyneedtousethesystem,itmaybethatfewerpeopleneedtointerfacewiththesystemso that theycanreceive individual training fromacompanyrepresentative,or thatmorehelpmanualsneedtobemadeavailabletothemsotheycanlookupkeyinfor-mationthemselves.Athoroughneedsassessmentidentifiesboththerealproblemandthetypeofsolutionthatwillbemostfeasibletoimplement.


Objective 1 Exercise—Purposes of Needs Assessment.Fromthelistofitemsbelow,placeacheckmarkbesidethosethatarepurposesaneedsassessmentcanfulfill.

_____ Preventshavingtodoacompletefront-endanalysis_____ Mayestablishifthesolutionshouldbeinstructionalornoninstructional_____ Identifiesthemostappropriatepeopletoincludeonadesignteam_____ Pinpointsgapsbetweencurrentanddesiredresults_____ Helpsdifferentiatebetweenwantsandneeds_____ Identifieswhichsolutiontotheproblemismostfeasible_____ Providesinsightsintoreasonspeoplelackneededskills_____ Identifieswhetherornotproblemsarehumanperformanceones_____ Helpspreventjumpingtosolutionsbeforetheproblemisidentified_____ Specifiestimeandresourcesneededforinstructionaldesign


Essential Characteristics of Needs Assessment Processes

Althoughdesignersareoftenasked toplayakeyrole in identifyingproblemsanddeterminingbestsolutions,theapproachtheyusevariesconsiderablyfromonesitua-tiontoanother.Thissectionaddresseshowtoselectandcarryouttypesormodelsofneedsassessmentsthatmatchtherequirementsofthesituation.

NEEDS ASSESSMENT MODELS. AstheSpecEdscenarioillustrates,instructionaldesign-ers who are brought in as consultants or who are working in their role as train-ingdirectorsareoftencalledupontosolveproblemsthatarepresentedtothemas


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“trainingneeds”or“instructionalneeds.”Atthispoint,theirfirststepistodoaneedsassessment,butdependingonthesituation,theydonotalwayshavetostartattheverybeginning.Forexample,whenthedecisionhasalreadybeenmadetotransferanin-personcoursetoanonlineorblendedenvironment,thenatureoftheproblemhasalreadybeenestablished,andthedesigner’sroleismuchclearer.Theonlyneedsassessment issuethedesignermayface isstating instructionalgoals, if theoriginalcoursedidnotalreadystatethemadequately.

Clearlythen,thereismorethanonetypeofneedsassessment,andwhichtypeadesignerusesdependsuponthesituationandthenatureoftheproblem.AsMcCallum(2008)observes,everyfieldmayrequireitsownneedsassessmentproceduresbecause“Theprocessselectedisdependentuponthedesiredgoalsandtheintendedoutcomesas identified by the stakeholders” (p. 19). Two general types or models of needsassessmentarediscussedhereintermsofwheneachisanappropriatechoice.Some-times,designersmustdoboth.Figure2.1showshowtodecidewhichisneededandhowtheseprocessesfittogether.

•Model 1: Performance analysis. This model is appropriate for situationswheretheproblemisclearlyoneinvolvingdesiredversusactualperformance,butthesourceoftheproblempreventingdesiredperformanceisnotclear.Thiskindofneedsassessment,performanceanalysis,issometimesdescribedasastepprecedinginstructionaldesign,butinfact,itmaybedoneinplaceofit,iftheanalysisrevealsaproblemthatcannotbeaddressedbyinstruction.PerformanceanalysiscameoutoftheworkofThomasGilbert(2007)onhumanperformanceimprovement(alsoknownashuman performance technology),whichfocusedonmakingorganizationsmoreproductiveandsuccessfulbyimprovingtheirwork-force.SwartandKaufman(2009)saythattheresultofaperformanceanalysisisaperformance needorgapbetweencurrentperformanceandthedesiredperfor-mancethatwillfurtherthegoalsoftheorganization.Thus,toidentifythenatureof thegap, thedesignerbeginsbyreviewingthegoalsof theorganization,asidentifiedinitsdocumentsandbypeoplewithintheorganization.Organizationaldocuments (e.g.,mission statements, policy andproceduresmanuals, reports)alsoprovideinsightonhowtheorganizationhasworkedtoachieveitsgoals.Finally,thedesignermayuseinterviews,discussionswithpersonnelinorrelatedtotheorganization,and/orsurveystodeterminehowwellthegoalsarebeingmet.Theaimofalltheseactivitiesistodeterminethetruesourceoftheproblemandarriveatasolutionthat isbothfeasibleto implement(i.e.,withincurrentresourceandtimeconstraints)andeffectiveinaddressingtheperformanceneed.

FIGURE 2.1 Decision making on needs assessment models.

Problem is clear?

Do Model 1 (performance analysis)

NoBegin

Instruction needed?

Yes

Yes

Do Model 2(instructional

needs analysis)and state goals/design

conditions

NoImplementnoninstructional

solution


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•Model 2: Instructional needs analysis. Whentheproblemisclearlyonethatmustbeaddressedbyinstruction(e.g.,whenacourseneedstobeupdatedoranorganizationwantsanexistingcourse transferredtoanonlineformat),yetanotherkindofneedsassessmentisrequired:aninstructional needs analysis.This activity helps make two kinds of decisions: which goals the instructionshould includeandwhichkindof instructionaldesignprocess is feasible.Tomakethefirstkindofdecision,thedesignerexaminescurrentgoalsandstan-dardsthecourseshouldaddressandcreatesgoalstatementsthatwillserveasthefoundationoftheinstruction.Beforeproceedingfurther,designersusuallyaskpersonnelintheorganizationtoreviewthegoalsandmakeanyneededad-ditionsorcorrections.

Finally,yetanothersetofdecisionsmustbemade.Thesystematicinstruc-tionaldesignapproachtakestime,resources,andskillstoimplement.Therefore,thedesignermustaskthefollowingquestionstodeterminewhatisfeasibleforthesituation.Systematicmethodsarethechoiceifaninstructionalneedsanaly-siscansatisfactorilyanswereachofthefollowingquestions.Ifanswersareun-clearoriftheansweris“no,”somemodificationstothemost-desiredsystematicapproachmaybenecessary:•How much time and support are available for designing instructional

materials? The organization must be willing to support an instructional designerand/oraninstructionaldesignteamastheycreateinstruction.Thismaymeanallocatingspecialfundsforthedesigneffortorreleasingpersonnelfromotherdutiestoserveonadesignteam.Sometimesarigorousinstructionaldesignprocesssimplyisnotpossibleandamodifieddesignprocessmustbeusedtoaddresstheproblem.

•Will the topic allow for easy updates to instruction later? Thedesignermustconfirmthattimespentoninstructionaldesignisacost-effectiveinvest-ment;thatis,instructionwillnotneedtobecompletelyredesignedeveryfewmonths.Inthisfast-pacedtechnologyage,itisdifficulttofindmanytopicsthatwillnotchangeatallovertime.However,instructioncanbedesignedinwaysthatalloweasyupdatestodetails.Forexample,differentversionsofasoftwarepackagemaybereleasedeverytwoyears,butthedifferencesareusuallyintermsofaddedfunctionsanddifferentappearance features. If instruction iscreatedtobeonlineratherthaninprint,theseupdatescanbemadequicklyandeasilywhilepreservingthebasicstructureofthematerial.

•Will designers have access to critical information during design work? Designersmust either be experts in the content of the instruction,ortheymusthaveaccesstothosewhoare.Whendesigninginstructionforaworkplace,designersoftenmustbeabletoobserveworkersdoingthetasksand obtain first-hand information onwhat constitutes a good performance.Sometimesajob analysisisneeded,whichisidentifyingstepstoaccomplisheachofthetasksagivenworkerdoesinhis/herroleintheorganization.Thismayrequiresomeonetoobservetheworkeranddocumenttasksandhowtheyareaccomplished.

•Will those who need the instruction be available to use it after it is designed? Even thoughpersonnelmayneed instruction, theymaynotbeabletobereleasedtoparticipateinit.Designershavetoconfirmthatinstruc-tionwillbeusedafteritismadeavailable.

NEEDS ASSESSMENT DOCUMENTATION. Depending on the situation and the typeofneedsassessment, thedesignermaybeasked toproducea report todocumentthe performance problems(s) and recommended solutions. Documentation of the


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performanceproblemandjustificationforagivensolutionmaybeneededinorgani-zationswheredecisionmakersmustjustifycostsandotherresources.Iftheproblemisonethatinstructioncanaddress,thenthedocumentreportstheinstructionalgoals.Itisusualtoaskkeypersonnelintheorganizationtoreviewthegoalsandrecommendchangesoradditionsbeforeproceedingtothenextdesignstep.


Objective 2 Exercise—Needs Assessment Models and Documentation.Foreachof thefollowingsituations,identifyanappropriateneedsassessmentmodeltobeginwith(1,2),andidentifywhatdocumentationwouldbeneeded(reporttojustifyagivensolution,instruc-tionalgoals,orpossiblyboth—i.e.,PB).Circlethemodelandplacecheckmarkstoindicateneededdocumentation.

Needed Documentation

Model (Circle one) Report Goals PB Situations

(1) 12 _____ _____ _____ YouareaninstructionaldesignerforHighpressConsultants.Asmallprivatecollegewantsyourcompanytodevelopanonlinetrainingprogramforitsfacultymembers,whohaveresisteddevelopingonlinecourses.Thecollegefeelsbetter-trainedfacultywouldhelpitachieveitsdesiretohaveabiggeronlinecourseoffering.

(2) 12 _____ _____ _____ AsmallcompanyhashiredyourdesigncompanytotransferitsHRbenefits-trainingworkshoptoanonlineformat.Itwouldliketomakethetraining moreaccessibleandconvenientfor itspersonnel.

(3) 12 _____ _____ _____ Youareadesignerinthehumanre-sourcesandtrainingdepartmentofalargediscountstorechain.Thedirectorofthedivisionresponsibleforfulfillingcustomers’onlineordersfindsthatful-fillmentoftenlagsordersinmanyloca-tionsaroundthecountry.Herequeststhatyoucreateatrainingprogramforfulfillmentpersonneltoincreasetheirproductivity.


Essential Characteristics of Instructional Goals

Onceaninstructionaldesignerdeterminesthatinstructionis,indeed,themostappro-priatesolutiontotheproblem,designtasksmaybegin.Thefirsttaskistostatetheneedsintermsofdesiredperformances.Forsomesituationswheretheneedisclearlythatof instruction,desiredperformancegapsarealsoclear,andinstructionalgoalsmaybewrittentoaddressthosegaps.Inothercases,designersmayneedtocollectmoreinformationorobserveworkerstodeterminehowtostatedesiredperformances.Theseperformancestatementsbecometheinstructionalgoals.Thissectionaddresses


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howtowritethesegoalstatementsinawaythatmakesthemusefulforfurtherdesignwork.Eachinstructionalgoalshouldmeetthreecriteria:Itmuststateanobservableperformance,thetypeoflearningmustbeclear,anditmustincludethecriteriare-quiredtomeetthegoalinaneducationalortrainingcontext.

WRITE GOALS IN TERMS OF LEARNED PERFORMANCES. Tobemostusefulforlaterde-sign,thedesignermuststateeachinstructionalgoalintermsofanactionthestudentswill do after instruction to demonstrate they have learned. Learning is an internalprocessthatcannotbedirectlyobserved,butperformancesareexternalandobserv-ablebyothers.Therefore, it isessential thatgoalscontainaverbthat identifiesanobservableactionandanobjectorcontentoftheaction.(Later,criteriawillbeaddedtothesestatements.)Table2.1givessomeexamplesofinternallearnedabilitiesandstatements of external performances that meet these requirements. The first andmostimportantcriterionforgoalstatementsistousewordsthatconnoteobservable actions.Forexample,avoidwordssuchasknow, understand, really understand,andappreciate.Notethedifferencebetweenthe“internal-condition”verbsincolumn1ofTable2.1andthe“external-action”verbsincolumn2.

CATEGORIZE GOALS ACCORDING TO TYPES OF LEARNED PERFORMANCES. Severallearn-ingtheoristshavecreatedtaxonomies of learned abilitiesorcategoriesbasedonanal-ysesofthescopeoflearningoutcomes.Itisimportanttoidentifywhichtypethegoalrepresentsbecausedifferenttypesoflearningrequiredifferentinstructionalstrategies.

TABLE 2.1 Example Learned Abilities and Statements of Observable Performances

Learned Ability Stated as Internal Process

Learned Ability Stated as External Performance

Knows when customers need assistance Discriminates between customers that do and do not need assistance

Understands the difference between links and nonlinks on a web page

Classifies web page objects as links or nonlinks by their appearance

Knows the difference between types of sentence structures

Identifies sentences as simple, compound, complex, or compound–complex

Knows how to use AutoCAD to create 3-D planes in space

Demonstrates the procedure for using AutoCAD to create a 3-D plane in space

Knows how to summarize a product in order to sell it effectively

Generates an effective sales summary for a given product

Knows symbols for chemical elements from the periodic table

States the element for any given symbol from the periodic table

Memorizes the names for machinists’ tools States the correct name when given an image of any tool in the machinist’s workbench

Knows the alphabet by heart States all the letters in alphabetical order

Knows how to work well in a small group Adopts successful strategies for collaborative small-group work

Is fast at computer keyboarding Executes a keyboarding exercise at a minimum of 60 WPM

Understands the importance of being drug free Chooses to refrain from taking drugs


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ThemostcommonoftheseareBloom’sTaxonomyofEducationalObjectives(Andersonetal.,2001;Bloom,1984;Krathwohl,Bloom,&Masia,1971)andGagné’sCategoriesofLearnedCapabilities(Gagné,1985;Gagné,Briggs,&Wager,1992).

Bloomwasthefirsttostatetypesoflearnedoutcomes.Heandhiscolleaguesbasedthistaxonomyonanalysesofobjectivesthatstudentsinvarioussettingswererequiredtolearn.Themaincategoriesinhistaxonomyarecognitive,affective,andpsychomotor domains. Each is broken down further into subcategories. The mostwidelyusedbyinstructionaldesignersarethecognitivecategories,whichwereorig-inally: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. A later revisionof the taxonomybyAndersonet al. (2001) listed subcategories asknowledge,comprehension,application,analysis,evaluation,andcreation.

Gagnéderivedhiscategorizationofcapabilitiesbasedonthewaypeoplemen-tally process them and store them inmemory. These types are: intellectual skills,verbalinformation,cognitivestrategies,motorskills,andattitudes.Hefurtherdividedintellectual skillsandverbal information intomorespecific skills. Intellectual skillswere:discrimination,concreteconcepts,definedconcepts, ruleusing,andproblemsolving.Verbalinformationsubcategorieswere:label,facts,andconnecteddiscourse.(SeemoreonthesesubcategoriesinChapter3.)

Several authors have attempted to correlate Bloom’s Taxonomy and Gagné’s Categories.Table2.2andTable2.3arebasedontheworkonAndersonetal.(2001)andKoohangandHarman(2007),thoughitshouldbenotedthatcategoriesheredifferfromtheiranalysisinsomecases.NotethatGagné’sVerbalInformationcategorycor-respondsmostcloselytoasubcategoryinBloom’sCognitivedomain:Remembering.

BecauseGagnéwas able to demonstrate that each type of learned capability requireddifferentinstructionalconditionstofosterit,hiscategoriesareespeciallywellsuitedforuseinaninstructionaldesignmodel.Hefounditusefultouseaspecificverbtodesignatethetypeoflearning.Bloom’sapproachwastotaketheperformance

TABLE 2.2 Comparison of Gagné’s Categories and Bloom’s Taxonomy Domains

Gagné’s Categories Analogous to Bloom’s Taxonomy

Intellectual skills Cognitive domain

Verbal information skills Cognitive Level 1: Remembering

Cognitive strategies

Motor skills Psychomotor domain

Attitudes Affective domain

TABLE 2.3 Comparison of Gagné’s Intellectual Skills and Bloom’s Cognitive Domain

Gagné’s Categories: Intellectual Skill Subcategories Analogous to

Bloom’s Taxonomy: Cognitive Domain Subcategories

Discriminations, concrete concepts, and defined concepts

Level 2: Understanding

Rule using Level 3: Applying

Problem solving Levels 4–5: Analyzing and Evaluating

Cognitive strategies Level 6: Creating


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TABLE 2.4 Types of Learned Capabilities and Verbs to Designate Each

Bloom’s Domains* Gagne’s Categories

Domain/Subdomain VerbsCategory/Subcategory Verbs

Cognitive:• Remembering

Count, define, label, list, name, quote, recall, recite

Verbal information State

• Understanding Demonstrate, discuss, explain, summarize, tell

Intellectual skills:• Discrimination Distinguish

• Concreteconcept Identify

• Definedconcept Classify

• Applying Apply, compute, produce, show, transfer, use

• Ruleusing Demonstrate

• Analyzing Analyze, compare, contrast, deduce, diagram

• Problemsolving Generate

• Evaluating Appraise, defend, judge, support, evaluate

• Creating Construct, create, design, write

Cognitive strategies Originate

Affective Choose, act Attitudes Choose

Psychomotor Assemble, fix, carry out, construct, perform

Motor skills Execute

*NewdomainsbasedonAndersonetal.(2001)revision.

verbsalreadyinuseinthefieldandplacethemunderthedomains.Anyverbworks,aslongasthedesignerisabletoclassifywhichtypeoflearningtheinstructionalgoalrepresents.SeeTable2.4forasummaryofthetypesofskillsandactionverbscom-monlyusedtodenoteeachtypethatcouldbeusedforinstructionalgoals.

Inchoosingthetypeoflearningtoexpressintheinstructionalgoal,itisusuallybesttostayatthedomainorcategorylevel,becauseataskanalysisorcontentanalysis(discussedinChapter3)willrevealthesubcategoriesofskillsrequiredtoachievethegoal.Abriefsummaryoftheseskillsisgivenheretohelpinformthisdecision.

•Intellectual skills (Bloom’s Cognitive domain). Gagnéetal.(1992)saythat,unlikeothertypesoflearnedperformance,“Anintellectualskillmakesitpossibleforanindividualtorespondtohisenvironmentthroughsymbols”(p.53).Forexam-ple,words,numbers,andevensoundscanstandforobjectsorideas.Gagnéetal.saythisuseofsymbolstakesfiveformsthatincreaseincomplexityaccordingtothementalprocessespeoplemustusetoaccomplishthem.AlthoughallfivearelistedinTable2.2andTable2.3,designersoftenconsideronlythreegeneraltypestodif-ferenoughtoaffectdesignofinstruction:concepts,rules,andproblemsolving.

•Verbal information category (Bloom’s Cognitive domain—Remembering subdomain). Nomatterwhatthecontentarea,therearemanyitemsthatpeo-plemustsimplymemorizeandbeabletorecitebyheart.Thisisnotbecauseit


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iseasyknowledgetotest,asconstructivistssometimesmaintain,butbecauseitmakesiteasierandfasterforpeopletolearnmoreaboutthecontentandtocom-municatewhattheyknowtoothers.Gagnéetal.identifythreedifferentkindsofverbalknowledge:labels,facts,andorganizedknowledgeorverbalchains.AsGagnéetal.arequicktopointout,memorizingtheseitemsisnotthesameasknowingthemeaningbehindthem.However,havingtolookthemupeverytimeoneneedsthemwouldimpedelearningmeaningandapplicationskills.

•Cognitive strategies category (Bloom’s Cognitive domain—Creating subdo-main). Gagnéetal.saythat,inadditiontolearningcontentskillsandknowledge,peoplealsocanlearngeneralstrategiesforlearningandforrememberingwhattheylearn.Theysaythatcognitivestrategiesarecontrolprocessesbywhichlearners“selectandmodifytheirwaysofattending,learning,remembering,andthinking”(p.66).Cognitivestrategiescanbeorganizing(e.g.,figuringoutwaystorememberlargeamountsofmaterial),metacognitive(e.g.,teachingoneselftoteachingoneselftoget themostoutofreadingbyusingcertainstandardquestions),oraffective(e.g.,teachingoneselftofocusattentionandmanagetime).Beingabletoworkwellinasmallgroupmayrequireseveralofthesetypesofcognitivestrategies.

•Motor skills category (Bloom’s Psychomotor domain). Theseareabilitiestoperformphysicalactswith“rapidity,accuracy,force,orsmoothness”(Gagnéetal. (1992),p.92).Examplesofmotor(shortforpsychomotor)skillsinclude:holdingapencilandformingletterscorrectly,executingabackhandintennis,andtypingatagivenspeedonakeyboardortypewriter.

•Attitudes (Bloom’s Affective domain). Shapingthewaypeoplefeelaboutanactivityoraboutotherpeoplehasalwaysbeenanimportantpartofschoollearn-ing,butitisbecomingevenmoresointoday’ssociety.Forexample,wenotonlywantpeopletolearnhowdrugsworkinthehumanbody(intellectualskills),wealsowantthemtoformintentionsabouthowtheywillreactifsomeoneoffersthemdrugs.Charactereducationisanareaofschoolcurriculuminwhichmanygoalsfocusonformingattitudes.

SETTING PERFORMANCE CRITERIA FOR INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS. Thefinalstepinstating instructionalgoalsistoincludeacriterionthatwillindicatetoanorganizationthatthegoalhasbeensuccessfullyachieved.Itisimportanttonotethatthatthisisnotan individualgoal,but agroupone.Becausegroupsusually containpeopleof allabilitylevelsandassessmentsarealwayssubjecttomeasurementerror,itisrarethat 100percentofstudentswillbeabletomeetagivengoal.But,insomecases,thegoalissoeasytolearnorsofoundationaltofurtherlearningthat100percentofpartici-pantsshouldbeabletoattainit.Designersmaysettheperformancecriterionbasedonpastexperiencewiththiskindofknowledgeandthepercentageofsuccessfulstudentsthatwouldbeanadequateindicationtheinstructionisworkingasitshould.

However,performancecriteriaareimportantindicatorsofprogramsuccessand,thus,provideabasisforsummativeevaluation(seeChapter10)ofaprogram’sim-pact.Due to this reality, overall performance criteria for all instructional goals areoftensetbytheorganizationitselforbyagenciestowhichtheorganizationreports.Forexample, theoriginalNoChildLeftBehindActof2001specified that inordertomeetAdequateYearlyProgress(AYP)certainpercentagesofstudentshadtopasstests in core content areas, and those percentageswere to increase until in 2014, 100 percent of students would have to meet achievement criteria (Choi, Seltzer,Herman,&Yamashiro,2007).Itiscommonforlargecompaniestostipulaterequiredcriteriaforworkerstogetcreditorcertificationasaresultoftraining.Designersmustdetermineorganizationalrequirements inorder toset finalperformancecriteria forinstructionalgoals.Table2.5showsexamplesoffinalperformancegoalsthatmeetallthreecriteria,includinggroupperformancecriteria.


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TABLE 2.5 Examples of Instructional Design Goals

In an entry-level submarine crew training course for communications specialists, 95 percent of the trainees can discriminate between sonar emitted by U.S. submarines and submarines of other countries.

In a Grade 4 class, 90 percent of students can identify sentences as simple, compound, complex, or compound–complex.

Ninety percent of engineering workshop participants can demonstrate the procedure for using AutoCAD to create a 3-D plane in space.

In a GED preparation class, at least 80 percent of students can generate a paragraph that contains all required components.

Ninety-five percent of high school students can state the element for any given symbol from the periodic table.

Ninety percent of fifth-grade students can label the name of any given U.S. state from its shape and location on the U.S. map.

In a workshop on small-group collaboration techniques, 90 percent of participants adopt a strategy for successful group work.

Eighty-five percent of keyboarding students can execute a typing exercise at 60 WPM.

In a workforce of 250 workers who have participated in drug prevention workshops, at least 225 choose to remain drug free (as indicated by their responses on a survey).


Objective 3 Exercise—Characteristics of Instructional Goals.Foreachofthestatementsontherightbelow,identifycomponent(s)itismissing(ifany)thatwouldmakethestatementmeetcriteriatobeusefulinstructionalgoals.Placetheletter(s)ofthemissingcomponent(s)listedontheleftonthelinenexttothestatement.

Missing(canbeanyorall): A. Isstatedasaperformance. B. Performanceisobservable. C. Criterionforsuccessisgiven. D. Nothingismissing.

______ 1. Demonstratehowtofindthesquarefootageareaofafloorplanfromablueprint.

______ 2. Atleast85percentofstudentsintheundergraduatechemistryclasswilllabelchemicalelementswithcorrectsymbolsfromtheperiodicchart.

______ 3. Atleast90percentofstudentsintheSATprepcoursewillunderstandtheimportanceofeffectivestudyskills.

______ 4. Executeaprocedurefortransferring apatientfrombedtogurney.

______ 5. Allstudentsinthearchitecturalstruc-turescoursewillgenerateadesignforaload-bearingwallbetweentwostructures.



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COMPLETING A NEEDS ASSESSMENT AND PREPARING INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS

Sample Student Projects

Beforedoinganeedsassessmentandwritinginstructionaldesigngoalsforyourownproduct,seeSampleStudentProjectsforfourexamplesofhownovicedesignersaccomplishedtheseproceduresfortheirownprojects.

Procedures for Completing Needs Assessments and Writing Goals

Withexperienceinanumberofsituations,designerslearntorecognizewhenitisfeasibletodoafullneedsassessment,andwhentheymustuseanabbreviatedproceduretomakeadecisionaboutwhetherornottoproceedwithdesigninginstruction.Sometimestheneedsassessmenthas(orhasnot)beencompleted,andthedesignerissimplyaskedtobegindesigninginstruction.However,mostdesignexpertsagreethatitisfoolhardytomakea“go/nogo”decisiontodesigninstructionintheabsenceofneedsassessmentdata.

Iftheydodecidetoproceedwithdesignworkandwriteinstructionalgoals,design-ersoftenhavecontentexpertsandpotentialusersoftheinstructiongivefeedbackonthegoalsandapprovethembeforeproceedingwithfurtherdesignwork.Inyourcourse,yourinstructorservesthisroleandreviewsyourproject’sinstructionalgoals.Somede-signersdevelopgoalsandcompleteaninstructionalanalysis(describedinChapter3) priortohavinganyonereviewtheinitialwork.Theessentialaspectofthisworkisthatathoroughanalysisofinstructionalneedshasbeendoneandreviewedforaccuracybythosewhowillberesponsibleforimplementinginstruction.Novicedesignerstakethefollowingapproachtogainexperienceinanalyzingneedsandwritinginstructionalgoals.

SELECT A NEEDS ASSESSMENT STRATEGY. Afterfocusingonatopic,thedesignermustdecidewhether todoaModel 1orModel 2needs assessment, or if bothmaybeneeded.Thisstepfocusesonclarifyingthenatureoftheproblemsothatsubsequentactivitieswill, indeed, address the realneed. If aModel2needsassessment is se-lected,designersmayskipdatacollectionandstatementofneedandproceedtostateinstructionalgoals.IfaModel1needsassessmentisselected,adesignerdecideshowtogatherinformationtoestablishthenatureoftheperformanceproblemanddeter-minewhetheritrequiresinstruction.Theymaydecidetodevelopasurvey,prepareinterviewquestions,orsimplyanalyzethecharacteristicsofaworkorschoolsituationinawaythathelpsthemcometoadecision.Naturally,iflearnersaredoingneedsas-sessmentsinaninstructionaldesigncourseorworkshop,theymusteventuallyidentifyatopicforwhichinstructionisneededandaninstructionaldesignisthebestwaytomeettheneed.However,iftheneedisnotclear,theycantakethefollowingstepstoconfirmanddocumentthatdecision.

IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM OR COLLECT DATA. IfthenatureoftheproblemisnotclearandaModel1needsassessmentisnecessary,designersidentifywhichdatawillbemostuseful inclarifying theproblemand themostappropriatesolution.Thismayrequiretalkingwithkeypersonnel,observingworkers,examiningrecordsanddocu-ments,and/orcreatingandimplementingorquestionnaires.Althoughdesignersmaynotusethefollowingquestionsverbatim,thequestionstheydoaskortheprocedurestheyuseshouldbedesignedtoaddressthefollowingissues.

•What is the problem? Theymayaskthesupervisors“Whydoyouthinkyourpersonneldonotusethecorrectproceduretodothetask?”Thentheymayasktheworkers thesame thing.Or theymaydecide toobserve thepersonnelas


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theydotheirworktasks.MeyersandJohnson(2008)recommendinvolvingkeypersonnelinidentifyingneeds,observingthat“Thenecessityofthisneedsanaly-sisstepcannotbeunderestimated.Knowingthekeyparticipantsintheplannedinterventionandtheirlearningandtaskneedsserveafoundationalstepwhencreatinganyinstructionalororganizationalchangeintervention”(p.473).

•If the problem is a human performance one, is instruction the best solution? Basedonthedatayoucollect,youwilldecideiftheproblemisonethattrainingcouldaddressifthepersonnelcould,infact,dotheperformanceifsomethingintheenvironmentwerechanged.

•If the solution is instruction, is a systematic instructional design approach the best way to provide it? Ifinstructioncouldaddresstheneed,askyourselfthefourquestionsoutlinedearlierinthischapterunderthesection“Model2:Instructionalneedsanalysis.”

DOCUMENT THE NEED. Todemonstratethatyouunderstandallrelevantneedsassess-mentissues,prepareadocumentthataddressesallofthesequestionsanddocumentstheneed.Describetheproceduresyouusedtoanswerthequestionsandwhyyou selectedthoseproceduresasmostappropriateforthesituation.Finally,giveasum-maryoftheanswersyouobtained.

WRITE INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS. Heredesignerspreparegoalstatementsfortheper-formancegaps.Ifexactperformancesarenotyetclear,designersobserveworkersorrevieworganizationaldocumentationtoclarifythem.LabeleachgoalastothetypeoflearningitrepresentsintermsofGagnécategoriesorBloomdomains.Tomakesureyouareidentifyingthecorrectkindoflearning,itishelpfultousetheappropriate“Gagnéverb”or“Bloomverbs” foreach type. If thegoal isan intel-lectualskill,itisusuallyahigher-orderskillsuchasruleusing(demonstrate)andproblem solving (generate), because lower-level intellectual skills usually arenotcomplex enough to represent unit goals.However, it is usually simpler to beginby stating the instructional goal by general domain (e.g., Cognitive) or category (e.g.,IntellectualSkills).Alaterlearninganalysiswillrevealboththesubcategoryofskillthegoalrepresentsandprerequisiteskillsthatlearnersmustacquiretoachievethegoal(seeChapter3).


Objective 4 Exercise—Needs Assessment Steps.Fromthefollowinglist,selectthosethatarestepsinneedsassessmentandputthestepsincorrectsequencebyplacingtheappropri-atenumbertotheleftofeachrequiredactivity.(Reminder:Someofthestepslistedarenotneededatall.)

_____ Iftheinstructionwilladdressaneed,writeinstructionalgoals._____Writeinstructionalobjectives._____ Selectaneedsassessmentmodel._____Writeareportthatdocumentstheneeds._____ Completeafront-endanalysis._____ Iftheproblemisunclear,collectdatainordertoclarifyit._____ IfModel3,skiptofront-endanalysis.



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Common Errors and Problems in Assessing Needs

Even though designersmay employ the needs assessment procedures de-scribedhere,theymaystillfallvictimtoseveralkindsofpitfalls.Theseincludearrivingatconclusionstooquickly,issuesingatheringand/orinterpretingdata,failuretoframetheprobleminsolution-freeterms,andpoliticalchallenges.

RUSHING TO SOLUTIONS. Itisanaturalhumantendencytojumptoconclusions;educa-torshaveatendencytoarriveatsolutionsbeforetheproblemisclearlydefined.Thus,novicedesignerssometimesignoreormisinterpretdatatheyhavecollectedortheyframeasolutionintheirminds,thentrytocollectdatatoconfirmit.IntheWilcoCountySpecEd exampleatthebeginningofthischapter,thecountyhadcollectedenoughdatatoknowthatschoolswerenotusingtheSpecEdsystem,sotheyconcludedthatlackoftrainingmustbetheproblem.TheamountoffundstheyhadalreadyspentontheSpecEdsystemblindedthemtotherealneedinthesituation:helpingschoolsprovidebetterservicetostudents.Anapproachthatrushestosolutionsinthiswaymayresultinidentifyingthewrongproblemordesigninginstructionforaproblemthatitisnotabletoaddress.

ISSUES IN IDENTIFYING NEEDS DUE TO LACK OF DATA AND/OR DATA INTERPRETATION. Inanotherexample,astateofficeagencywithamissionofservinglow-incomesingleparentsfoundthatnewimmigrantswerenotusingthelocalhealthservicesavailabletothem.Inpreliminarydatacollectiononthepopulation,itwasfoundthatmanyoftheparentsspokelittleEnglishandwerenotabletoreadflyersannouncingtheservices.Personnelintheagencydecidedtoofferbasicliteracyclassestailoredtothisgroup’shealthneeds.However,aninstructionaldesignerhiredtocreatetheinstructioncol-lectedfurtherinformationandfoundthattransportation,ratherthancommunicationskills,wastherealproblem.Theparentsdidknowaboutthecenters,butcenterswerelocatedinplacestheycouldnotgettoonfoot,andtheyhadnomoneytotakepublictransportation.Theproblemwasthenaddressedthroughanoninstructionalsolution.

ISSUES IN FRAMING THE PROBLEM. Designerscanavoididentifyingthewrongprob-lembyfocusingonSwartandKaufman’s(2009)directiontoidentifyaneedasagapbetweencurrentperformanceandthedesiredperformanceandbyframingthisgapinawaythatreflectsanopenmindaboutpossiblesolutions.Theysaythisrequiresstat-ingtheproblemin“solution-free”terms.Forexample,inthecaseofthestateagencydescribedearlier,theproblemstatedtothedesignerwas“Low-incomeparentscannotreadthenoticessenttothemabouthealthcareoptions.”Whilethiswastrue,theprob-lemwasframedtoonarrowly;asaresult,theproblemstatementitselfhadabuilt-insolution.Therealproblemwasthat“Low-incomeparentsarenotgettinghealthcarethatcouldimprovetheirhealthandthatoftheirfamilies.”Statingtheprobleminasolution-freewayallowsfordatacollectionthatwillbeabletogetattherealproblem.

POLITICAL CHALLENGES. All decision making in an organization such as a school district, university, business, or medical facility takes place in a political context.Sometimespoliticalrealitiesget inthewayofadesigner’seffortstogetattherealproblem.IntheWilcoCountySpecEdscenario,thecountyalreadyspentagoodbitof its fundson a solution thatwasnotworking.However, someof thepersonnelresponsible for thedecision topurchase thesystemmay feel theircredibility—andperhapstheirjobs—areontheline.IntheWilcoCountyscenario,thearrivalofanewsuperintendentpresentedanopportunitytorethinktheproblemandarriveatagoodsolution.Butinmanysuchsituations,designersmaybefacedwiththechallengeofdoingmeaningfulneedsassessmentinthefaceofresistancebykeymembersoftheorganization.In thesecases,designersmustworkwiththeorganization,engage in


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diplomacy,andkeepcommunicationlinesopen.Thoughtheymaynotbeabletodothejobtheywouldliketodo,theirprimarygoalsshouldbetoservetheorganizationasbesttheycan,evenwhenpoliticalrealitiestrumpassessingneeds.


Objective 5 Exercise—Needs Assessment Issues and Problems.Foreachofthescenariosontheleft,identifytheneedsassessmentissueorproblemontherightthatmaypreventgettingattherealneed.Placetheletteroftheissue/problemonthelinetotheleftofthescenario.

Scenarios: Types of Issues/Problems:

______ 1. Thepastthreeyearshaveseenanincreasein employeeaccidentsintheparts-assemblyareaofa largemanufacturingplant.Thecompanypresidenthashiredyouasaconsultanttoseeifbettertrainingisneeded,buttheareamanagerhasbeentryingfor sometimetogetnewequipmentonthefloor;hesaysthatwouldsolvetheproblem.

______ 2. TheIshkabibbleDistricthasbeentryingunsuccessfullytogethighschoolprincipalstouseitsEdmodosocialnetworkingsite.TheyaskyoutodoanEdmodowork-shopfortheprincipals.

______ 3. Acompany’ssalesdirectordidasurveyofhis salespeopleandfoundthattheydidnotknowhowtousethecompany’sinternalwebsite(intranet).Hesays theneedisintranettraining,becausethat’sawaytheycangetup-to-dateinformationoncompanyproducts.

______ 4. Virtualschoolstudents’gradesinSpanishclasses areconsistentlylowerthanthoseofotherclassesofferedbythesamecompany.Thecompanyhashiredyoutoredesignthecourse’sinstructionsothatstudentswillbebetterabletolearnfromit.Youdecidetogathermoreinformationfirstaboutthetypesofproblemsstudentsarehaving.

A. Rushingtosolutions B. Difficultiesinidentifyingneeddueto

dataavailabilityorinterpretation C. Issuesinframingtheproblem D. Politicalchallenges


Common Errors and Problems in Writing Instructional Goals

Inexperienceddesignersalsotendtomakecertaincommonerrorswhenwritinginstructionalgoals.Lookatthefollowingproblemstoavoidinwrit-inggoalstatements.Eachhasanexamplethatreflectstheproblemandawaytocorrectit.

•The goal statement is too vague to be measured. “Awareness”isaninternalcondition;itisnotobservableormeasurableexceptbyspecifyinganovertactionstudentsmustdotodemonstratetheyhavelearned.– Vague statement: In the undergraduate government course, 90 percent

ofstudentswillbeawareoftheprocessesusedbytheElectoralCollegeinaU.S.election.

– Clear statement: In the undergraduate government course, 90 percent ofstudentswilldemonstratetheproceduretheElectoralCollegeusestocalculatevotesinanelection.

•The goal focuses on the instructor rather than the student. Inthisexample,“Demonstratetoteachers”placesthefocusontheinstructor’sinstruction,rather


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than how the teachers-as-students show they have learned after instruction. (Alsonotetheadditionofarealisticcriterion.)– Instructor-focused action: Demonstrate to all teachers why the SpecEd

systemisthebestwaytotrackprogressofstudentswithspecialneeds.– Student-focused action: At least 95 percent of teacherswill demonstrate

correctproceduresforusingtheSpecEdsystemtotrackstudents’progress.•The goal focuses on students’ learning activities rather than postinstruc-

tion activities. “Practiceusingaskillsaw”placesthefocusonstudents’learn-ingactivities,ratherthantheapplicationstudentswillmakeofwhattheyhavelearnedafterinstruction.– Incorrect focus: Allstudentswillpracticeusingtheskillsawtocreateproducts.– Correct focus: Allstudentswillexecutecorrectprocedurestocreateaprod-

uctwithaskillsaw.•Incorrect performance for instructional goals. Onecommonerrorismis-

takingtheperformanceactionfortheskillitself.Inthefollowingexample,takingthetestisaphysicalact,butsolvingproblemsisthetypeofskillinvolved.– Incorrect learning category: InaGrade9algebraclass,studentswilltake

anexamonalgebraproblemswithoneunknown.– Correct learning category: In a Grade 9 algebra class, 90 percent of

studentswilldemonstratehowtosolveanalgebraproblemwithoneunknown.•Performance criterion missing or level set too low or too high. Ifthenum-

berofpeoplewhoshouldbeabletoattainthegoalissettoohigh,theinstructionmaybejudgedasineffective,when,infact,itisdoingthejobitwasintendedtodo.Insomecases,100percentachievementmaybeattainable;makesurethecriterionisrealisticforthesituation.– Performance criterion set too high: In a training class for occupational

therapists,100percentofstudentswilladoptastrategyforprioritizingworkactivitiestomeetclientandorganizationalneeds.

– Performance criterion more realistic: Inatrainingclassforoccupationaltherapists,90percentofstudentswilladoptastrategy forprioritizingworkactivitiestomeetclientandorganizationalneeds.


Objective 6 Exercise—Errors and Problems with Instructional Goals.Foreachof thegoalstatementsontheright,identifytheerror(s)orproblem(s)ontheleftthatitreflects.(Somestatementswillhavemore thanone incorrectaspect.)Thenrewrite thestatementscorrectlyatthebottom.

Types of Issues/Problems: Instructional Goals:

A. Vaguegoalstatement B. Focusoninstructor,not

student C. Focusonlearning,not

postinstructionactions D. Performanceerror E. Performancecriterion

levelmissing,toohigh, ortoolow

______ 1. Learnhowtomakeawell-structuredpresentationtoagroup.

______ 2. Studentswillgeneratethecorrect balanceforacheckbook.

______ 3. Atleast85percentofworkshop participantshaveaclearunderstandingofproceduresusedtohandlecustomercomplaints.

______ 4. Makeallstudentsawareofbasesotherthandecimalsforstatingnumbers.

______ 5. Ninetypercentofstudentswillsatis-factorilycompleteanexamonusingspreadsheetdata.


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Restatements needed:1. 2. 3. 4. 5.


Chapter 2 Summary

• In order to determine the nature of the perfor-manceproblemandconfirmthataninstructionaldesignsolutionisagood“fit”withtheproblem,designersperformaneedsassessment.

• Key characteristics of a needs assessment arethat it uses amodel (i.e., a performance analy-sismodeland/oraninstructionalneedsanalysismodel,dependingonthesituation)andthatitre-quiresdocumentationofthefindings.

• Essentialcharacteristicsofinstructionalgoalsarethatthey:arewrittenintermsoflearnedperfor-mances, are categorized according to types oflearned performances, and are specify perfor-mancecriteria.

• Procedures for completing needs assessmentsinclude: selecting a needs assessment strategy,

identifyingandcollectingdata,documentingtheneed,andwritinginstructionalgoals.

• Common sources of errors andproblems in as-sessingneedsinclude:rushingtosolutions,issuesin identifying needs due to lack of data and/ordatainterpretation,issuesinframingtheproblem,andpoliticalchallenges.

• Commonsourcesoferrorsandproblemsinwrit-inginstructionalgoalsinclude:thegoalstatementistoovaguetobemeasured;thegoalfocusesonthe instructor rather than the student; the goalfocuses on students’ learning activities ratherthan postinstruction activities; the performancecategory for instructional goals is incorrect; theperformancecriterion ismissing;or thepassingcriterionlevelissettoolowortoohigh.

References

Anderson,L.W.,Krathwhol,D.,Airasian,P.,Cruikshank,K.,Mayer,R.,Pintrich,P....Wittrock,M.(Eds.).(2001).A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objec-tives.NewYork,NY:AdditionWesley,Longman,Inc.

Bloom,B.S.(Ed.)(1984).Taxonomy of educational objec-tives, handbook 1: Cognitive domain(2nded.).WhitePlains,NY:AddisonWesley/Longman.

Choi,K.,Seltzer,M.,Herman,J.,&Yamashiro,K.(2007).Children left behind in AYP and non-AYP schools: Using student progress and the distribution of stu-dentgainstovalidateAYP.Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 26(3),21–32.

Gagné, R. (1985). The conditions of learning (4th ed.).NewYork,NY:Holt,Rinehart,andWinston.

Gagné,R.,Briggs,L.J.,&Wager,W.(1992).Principles of instructional design (4thed.).Orlando,FL:Harcourt,BraceCo.

Gilbert,T.(2007).Human competence: Engineering wor-thy performance.SanFrancisco,CA:Pfeiffer.

Hiruma,A.,Sivo,S.,&Pounds,K.(2012).Storytellingtoenhanceteachingandlearning:Thesystematicdesign,development,andtestingoftwoonlinecourses.Inter-national Journal on ELearning, 11(2),125–151.

Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1971).Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook II: Affective domain. NewYork,NY:DavidMcKay,Inc.

Koohang, A., & Harman, K. (2007). Learning objects and instructional design. Santa Rosa, CA: Informing ScienceInstitute.

Mager,R.,&Pipe,P.(1997).Analyzing performance prob-lems: Or, you really oughta wanna: How to figure out why people aren’t doing what they should be, and what to do about it(3rded.).Atlanta,GA:CenterforEffectivePerformance.

McCallum, C. (2008). A process of curriculum develop-ment:Meetingtheneedsofacommunityandaprofes-sionalphysicaltherapisteducationprogram.Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 22(2),18–28.


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Meyers,R.,&Johnson,J.(2008).Facilitatingthedesignofacampusleadershipteam.Communication Education, 57(4),472–481.

Muller,N.,&Roberts,V.(2010).Sevencuresforskippingtheneedsassessment.T + D, 63(3),32–34.

Swart,W.,&Kaufman,R.(2009).Developingperformancedataformakingusefulfacultyandleadershipdecisions:

Needsassessmentasavehicle.Performance Improve-ment Quarterly, 22(3),71–82.

Zemke, R. (1998). How to do a needs assessment when you think you don’t have the time. Training, 35(3),38–44.

Chapter 2 Exercises

Exercise 2.2: Questions for Thought and Discussion—These questions may be used for small-group or classdiscussionormaybesubjectsforindividualorgroupac-tivities.Takepart in thesediscussions inyour in-personclassmeeting,oruseyourinstructor-providedonlinedis-cussionareaorblog. a. Zemke (1998) said that one approach to doing a

faster needs assessment is sifting through “founddata”or“informationgatheredforadifferentpurposebut that may bear on your performance problem” (p.42).Thesesourcesmayinclude“salesdata,customercomplaint letters, grievances, and exit interviews” (p. 42). Name a performance problem and identifyothersourcesof“founddata”inyourfieldthatmaybe of use in confirming a performance need andidentifyinginstructionalgoals.

b. SomeeducatorsuseBloom’sTaxonomytocategorizetypesoflearningoutcomes.CompareBloom’ssystemwithGagné’s categories as away of describing in-structionalgoals.Whatadvantagesdoeseachmethodhaveforsubsequentinstructionaldesignwork?Ifyoupreferoneovertheother,explainwhy.

Exercise 2.3: Design Project Activities and Assessment Criteria—Asyoudevelop your instructionalproduct forthiscourse,use the following information toguideyourwork.Make sure your needs assessment document meets the followingcriteria:_____ 1. You specified data sources (e.g., people and

documents)thatmakesenseintermsofprovid-ing useful information about the performanceproblem(s).

_____ 2. Youframedtheobservedproblemin“solution-free” terms as a gapbetween current andde-siredperformances.

_____ 3. You have included a copy of your survey or interviewquestionsand/oradescriptionofhowyouobservedthecurrentperformance.

_____ 4. Yourdocumentpresentsaconvincingcasethat,based on the information you have gathered,there is a true performance problem that isdirectly related to addressing thegoals of theorganization.

_____ 5. Youhavemadeaconvincingcasethatinstruc-tionwillbeeffective inaddressingtheperfor-mance problem. That is, personnel currentlycannot do (rather than do notwant to do orhave forgottenhow todo) thedesiredperfor-mance, and instruction is the most efficient,cost-effectivewaytoaddresstheproblem.

_____ 6. Youhavemadeaconvincingcasethatinstruc-tional design is the best way to supply the instruction. That is, sufficient time and other resourcesareavailabletosupportdesignwork,the subject areawill not changedrastically inthe near future, and personnel have time to receivetrainingiftheinstructionisavailable.

Makesureyourinstructionalgoalstatement(s)meetsthe followingcriteria:_____ 1. Theyareclearlyrelatedtotheidentifiedperfor-

manceproblem._____ 2. Theyarestated inobservableandmeasurable

performances._____ 3. They are stated in terms of student’s perfor-

manceafterinstruction._____ 4. TheyareclassifiedcorrectlyintermsofGagné

orBloomcategoriesoflearning._____ 5. The achievement criterion for the group is

statedandisrealisticforthatgroup.

Click here to complete Exercise 2.1: New Terms and Concepts


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